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UNIT TWO - UNITY OF LIFE
CBSE XI - BIOLOGY
CHAPTER - 4 THE CELL AS A UNIT OF LIFE
Important points
1) According to the cell Theory, all living organisms are made of one or
more cells.
Cells are the basic units of living organisms. All cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
2) Cells of all organisms have close similarities in structure, molecular
organisation and biological activities. These emphasise unity of life.
3) Each cell functions as a Self-contained unit with considerable
autonomy. It can independently carry out nutrition, respiration,
growth, reproduction and self-regulation.
4) In a multicellular organism, cells are not totally independent on
one another. Some of their functions may not be operative. However,
isolated living cells of multicellular organisms can be cultured for
many generations in nutrient media. Thus the ability for independent
existence is not lost by a cell even if it forms part of a specialised
tissues in a multicellular body.
5) In a unicellular organism the single cell has to perform all its life
processes. The presence of specialised structures called organelles
helps the cell to carry out and regulate specific activities. In
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multicellular organisms distinct types of cells differentiate and
perform different activities. The cells co-operate among themselves
and participate in common functions.
6) Cells obtain a constant flow of energy through the process of
photosynthesis from the chemical bond energy of food.
7) Cells regulate their life processes with the help of continual flow of
information.
This may be genetic information carried by DNA or information
coming from outside.
8) Compartmentalisation is essential for cellular life. The cell with its
plasma membrane acts as a compartment. In plant cells the plasma
membrane is surrounded by a cellulose wall. Eukaryotic cells
possess many compartments, the membrane-bound organelles.
Each organelle has a specific structure and function. Procaryotic
cells do not show any intracellular compartments.
Definitions
1. Basal body-Centriole like structures near the cell membrane from
which cilia or flagella originate.
2. Cell-The basic unit of a plant or animal. It is an individual, usually
microscopic mass of living protoplasm.
3. Cell theory - The concept which states that all living things/organisms
are made up of cells and that it is by their division that process
such as growth and reproduction takes place.
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4. Cell-wall-The non-living external layer of a cell in plants. It is made
up of cellulose.
5. Cytoplasm - A part of protoplasm within the cell bounded by cell
wall and containing nucleus and cell organelles.
6. Cellular totipotency - The ability of somatic cell of a plant to produce
a complete plant.
7. Centriole - A minute granular self-replicating body from which astral
rays and spindle fibres arise forming a spindle during cell division.
8. Centrosome - A small clear cytoplasmic body containing centriole,
situated just outside the nuclear membrane in animal cell and helps
in spindle formation.
9. Chromosome - Deeply staining thread-like structure within the
nucleus of a cell which carries hereditary information.
10. Chromoplast - coloured plastid containing pigments other than
chlorophyll.
11. Chlorophyll - Green pigment of plants which is meant for capturing
solar energy of sun for photosynthesis.
12. Cellulose - A complex Carbohydrate which consists of a chain of
glucose molecules, present in the cell wall of all plants except fungi.
13. Cilia - Minute, hair like protoplasmic processes arising from the
cell surface.
14. Cell Sap - The liquid content present in the vacuole of plant cell.
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15. Dictyosome - A plant cell organelle consisting of stacks of
membranous sacs and vesicles that enclose and store cell products.
16. Endoplasmic Recticulum - A system of Channels and tubes in the
cytoplasm which functions as site of protein Synthesis and transport.
17. Entropy - The phenomenon in which all physical and chemical
changes tend to proceed in such a direction that useful energy
undergoes irreversible degradation into random form called entropy.
18. Lamella - A thin ribbon like structure present in Chloroplast of plant
cells.
19. Lysosome - Single membranous bag - like organelle containing
digestive enzymes, often referred to as suicidal bags.
20. Micro-filament - A very thin, thread - like structure made of protein
which occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells.
21. Nucleoplasm-The fluid part of nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
22. Organelle - Any part of the cell that has a specilised function.
23. Plastid - A membrane bounded body in the cytoplasm which
contains DNA, pigments and food reserved. They are found only in
plant cells.
24. Tonoplast - The inner plasma membrane of a cell in plants which
separates the vacuoles from the cytoplasm.
25. Vesicle - A thin walled drop like structure or a cavity containing
fluid.
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Very Short Answers
Q.1. Define cell.
A. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
Q.2. Name the following.
a) Scientist who discovered the cell.
A. Robert Hooke.
b) Scientist who discovered Nucleus and cytoplasm.
A. Nucleus - Robert Brown ,cytoplasm - Dijardin.
c) Who proposed the cell Theory.
A. M.J. Schleiden and T. Schwann.
d) Who introduced the idea of Omnis-Cellula-e-Cellula.
A. Rudolf Virchow.
e) Who introduced the Crude microscope.
A. Antony - Von - Leewenhoek.
f) Name the smallest cell.
A. PPLO (Pleuro - Pneumonia like organism).
g) Name the book published by Robert Hooke.
A. Micrographia.
h) What is the size of smallest virus ?
A. It is 7.0 x 10-7.
i) What is the size of a unicellular eucaryote ?
1-2mm to 1mm
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Q.3. A group of cells with similar structures and performing same
functions constitute a tissue.
Q.4. Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in cells of Roots of orchids.
Q.5. A large cell has proportionately Smaller surface area.
Q.6. The cell derives energy from its surroundings continually to reduce
entropy.
Q.7. Animals and heterotrophic plants derive energy in the form of bond
energy from Food.
Q.8. Extrinsic flow of information takes place in the form of informational
molecules.
Q.9. A human erythrocyte is 7 - 8 um in diameter.
Q.10. A striated muscle cell is 15 - 20mm long and 30 to 40um in diameter.
Q.11.The membrane around the vacuole is called tonoplast.
Q.12.Who concluded, Cells are the ultimate units forming structure of
all plant tissues ?
A. M.J. Schleiden.
Q.13.Define cell culture ?
A. Cell culture is the technique of growing isolated cells in a sterile
nutrient medium under controlled conditions.
Q.14.hat is meant by cell differentiation ?
A. Cell differentiation is the process of specialisation in a structure to
assume a specific function.
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Q.15.What is totipotency ?
A. Capacity of every living plant cell to regenerate a whole plant is
called totipotency.
Q.16.What are the 2 forms in which energy is derived by living beings ?
A. Light energy & chemical energy.
Q.17.In what form is the information transferred within the cell ?
A. The information is transferred in the form of informational molecules
of nucleic acids within the cells.
Q.18.What are informational molecules ?
A. Informational molecules are macromolecules having a specific
sequence.
Q.19.What are receptor molecules.
A. Receptor molecules are specific proteins in the cell membrane that
enter into the cells like hormones.
Q.20.Name 2 cell organalle which are bounded by a single membrane.
A. Vacuole & Lysosome.
Q.21.Which cell organelle maintains the internal envt.
of the cell ?
A. Vacuoles.
Q.22.Name any 2 double membraned cell organelle.
A. Mitochondria and nucleus.
Q.23.Which mature body cells are incapable of reproduction ?
A. Nerve cells.
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Q.24.Who gave the term Protoplasm ?
A. Purkinjie.
Q.25.Who proposed Omnis cellula-e-cellula ?
A. Rudolf Virchow (all cells arise from pre existing cells).
Q.26,Define (a) cellus (b) Heterokaryon.
A. (a) Mass of unorganized cells developed from single isolated cells
in nutrient medium is called Callus.
(b) The fusion product of protoplasm of 2 -somatic cells is called
heterokeryon.
Short-Answers Questions
Q.1. How did Robert Hooke describe the cell when he saw it for the first
time ?
A. Robert Hooke described the cell as box like compartments in the
body of a plant, which acted as passages for conduting fluids. He
considered them as cell walls enclosing an empty space.
Q.2. What are the fundamental similarities in all cells ?
A. Fundamental similarities in all cells are -
i) Hereditary characters are transmitted in the form of nucleic acids.
ii) Basic structure of membranes and their properties.
iii) Mechanism of aerobic respiration.
iv) Mechanism of synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins.
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Q.3. Why do you say cell is a Self contained Unit ?
A. Every cell acts as a self contained unit or autonomous unit. All
fundamental biological processes are performed by a cell
independently. Food is oxidised to produce energy in the cell.
It synthesizes complex molecules and uses these molecules to
make new structure and replace worn out ones. The cell reproduces,
regulates all activities and maintains the necessary internal physico
- chemical conditions. They multiply and produce a large population
of cells or a tissue to perform all vital activities.
Q.4. What are the main steps of plant tissue culture technique ?
The main steps are -
i) Isolation of cells from multicellular organism in aspetic conditions.
ii) Transfer of the cells to a sterile nutrient medium under aseptic
conditions.
iii) Maintenance of suitable PH, nutrients, vitamins and hormone etc.
Q.5. What are the major applications of the tissue culture technique ?
A. i) To develop disease free plants.
ii) Rapid multiplication of desirable characters of plants.
iii) To produce large number of haploid plants.
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iv) To get somatiz hybrids (heterokaryon).
v) to produce homozygons diploids.
vi) To control fert il ization, parthenocarpy, genetical plant
hybridization etc.
Q.6. What are the advantages of multicellularity.
A. The Advantages of multicellularity are as follows -
a) Divison of Labour is the main aspect of multicellularity.
b) Tissue formation takes place due to division of labour.
c) Organs and organ systems are formed by tissue which work in
co-ordination among themselves for the benefit of the organism.
d) Multicellularity provides differentiation in structure and
function.
Q.7. Explain why the cells of unicellular organism are generally spherical,
whereas those of multicellular may be of many shapes.
A. The shape of the cell depends upon -
1) Age of cell 2) Viscosity of cell sap
3) External pressure 4) Internal skeleton
5) Function of cell 6) Surface tension (it shapes the cell
to be spherical).
Free floating cells having thin membrane may be spherical. When
the cells multiply (because of multicellular) the shape of the cells
changes in accordance to the available space.
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Q.8. What is cell theory ? who proposed it ?
A. Modern concept of cell theory.
1) Origin, nature and continuity of life is bounded in the cell.
2) The growth of the organism is due to growth of cell or cells
products.
3) Life is passed from one generation to another through a single
cell.
4) The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome of the
activities and interactions of the constituent cells.
5) All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and
interactions of constituent cells.
6) Omnis cellula-e-cellula i.e. all cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
The cell theory was put forward by M.J. Schleiden and T.
Schwann.
Q.9. No cell can have a volume whose metabolic requirement exceed
the exchange capabilities of its surface. Comment.
A. Normally a cell which is metabolically very active cannot have a
very large volume. Cell volume depends on the exchange capabilities
of its surface. Small bodies have more surface per unit volume than
large bodies. Hence, no cell can have a very large volume whose
metabolic requirement exceed the exchange capabilities of its
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2 cm2 cm
1 cm 3 cm 3 cm
Surface Volume ratio
Q.10. Plant cells are totipotent - Comment.
Steward and his co-workers stated the above statement. They
conducted their experitent on mature Carrot roots cells. They grew
these cells in a suitable culture medium supplemented with
coconut milk.
They showed that the isolated cells formed an undifferentiated mass
of cells called Callus which differentiated into plantlets. Thus the
ability of mature excised cells to give rise to full individual in a
nutrient medium is known as Cellular totipotency .
DIAGRAM GIVEN BELOW
STEWARDS EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATING CELLULAR
TOTIPOTENCY IN CARROT.
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Storage
root
T.S. of the
root
2 mgphloem
plants
Plants cultured in
medium + coconut milk
Portion of culture
Embryoid
from culture
free cells
Cells from
Embryo
Plantlet
Flowering
plant
Flow
er
Seeds
Phloe
m
explan
ts
Cellfrom
Phloem
Free cells in
suspension
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Q.11. Do the dead cells play any role in a living organism ?
A. These dead cells are of immense value for the plants as well as for
animals. The xylem vessels and phloem fibres provide strength to
the plant and help to increase the bulk of plant. The dead cells act
as protective covering.
Q.12.How can you say that multicellular organism has greater capacity
for survival than unicellular organism?
A. In a multicellular organism, a number of cells are constantly lost
from the outer surface of skin and these are replaced by the new
cells formed by the division of cells in the lower layers. The red
blood cells have a span of 100-120 days. These are regularly replaced
by the new cells formed in the bone narrow of long bones. On the
other, any damage to a single-celled organism may easily cause its
death.
Q.13.Distinguish between the following
a) Extrinsic flow of information
i) Flow of genetic information
within the cell.
ii) Regulates all activities of the
cell.
iii) Information flows in the form
of nucleic acids.
Intrinsic flow of information
i) Flow of functional information
from outside the cell.
ii) Regulates some activities of
the cell.
iii) Information flows in the form
of protein or other types of
moleculs.
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b) Procaryotic cell
i) Cell wall present non
cellulosic, composed of
amino sugars and muramic
acids.
ii) Plasma membrane simple.
iii) Chlorophyll, whenever
present is not in Chloroplast.
iv] Membrane bound
organelles like endo plasmic
reticulum golgi complex,
mitochoridria, lysosomes.
etc. absent.
v] Nuclear membrane and
necleolus absent.
vi] Single chromosome with
DNA as hereditary material.
vii] Mitotic apparatus abs. cell
division by amitosis.
Eucaryotic cell
i) Cell wall, when present, is of
cellulosic plant cells.
ii) Plasma membrane
complicated and
differentiated for different
functions.
iii) Chlorophyll when present is
always in chloroplast.
iv] Membrane bound organelles
(endo membranes) present.
v] These are present.
vi] More than one chromosome
DNA is hereditary material.
vii] It is pr. cell division by mitosis,
meiosis or amitosis.
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viii] Flagella lack 9+2 pattern.
ix] Respiratory enzymes are
located in the plasma
membrane.
viii] Flagella, whenever, pr, possess
9+2 pattern.
ix] These are present in pattern
mitochondria.
Q.14. What is the chemical nature of the plasma membrane ? Also mention
the function of plasma membrane ?
A. The plasma membrane is trilaminar structure. The outer two
membrane are formed of proteins. The protein layers cover the bimolecular
phospholipid layer in the centre. It is living and semi-permeable in nature.
Function:-
1] Forms the outer covering of the cell. Thus it protects the internal
cell organelles.
2] It controls the entry and exit of substances in the cell and thus it
maintains the chemical nature of the cell.
Q.15. Diagrammatically represent the flow of energy in a cell ?
Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis
Nutrient molecules
Oxidation
ATP synthesis
Light Photos
Food
Molecules
Flow of energy
into cell
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Q.16. Diagrammatically represent the flow of information into a cell ?
Long answers.( 80 to 150 words )
1] On what basis can we consider cell as an autonomous unit ?
A. The cell be considered as an autonomous unit because.
i] Each cell carries out all fundamental biological processes
independently.
ii] Each cell oxidises food material and utilises that energy and some
nutrient molecules to synthesize complex molecule.
iii] The cell uses these moleules to build new structures and to replace
worn out tissue.
iv] The cell respires and exchanges gases with the envt.
v] It reproduces to form new cells with similar hereditary characters.
vi] It also maintains internal physico-chemical conditions.
Informational
molecules
Cellulareffects
Cellularreceptor
ProteinRNA
DNA
Membranereceptor
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Q.2. Discuses how the method of science is reflected in the formulation
of the cell theory.
A. The following steps of scientific method are reflected in formation of
cell theory.
1] Observation. 2] Making a hypothesis
3] Testing or experimentation and theory.
1] Robert hooke in 1667 discovered cell Thus the fact that cork was
made of cells observed by him.
2] The fact was confirmed by Dutrochet that plants were made up of
cells.
3] Robert Brown in 1831 discovered nucleus.
4] M.J. Schleiden in 1838 after examining a variety of plant tissues
concluded that the cells were ultimate units forming structure of all plant
tissues.
5] T.Schwann in 1939 after observing many types of animal cell defined
the cell as a membrane bound. nucleus containing structure. He
proposed the cell hypothesis.
6] From the obervations of schwann and schleiden and others, a new
theory was born. Thus, a hypothesis was confirmed by years of verification
forming a theory.
7] The theory was modified by virchow in 1855. He gave the hypothesis
that all cells come from pre-existing cells. This illustrates that the theories
can change when new discoveries are made.
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Q.3. If, as the second law of thermodynamies states, The free energy in
any system tends to decrease, how is it that the earth maintains so many
living organisums, each in a highly organised, high free energy state ?
A.3. The earth maintains its organisation in the following way.
a] To maintain the organisation, any system requires a continous in
flow of energy to reduce entropy.
b] Earth receives a continous supply of energy from the sun in the
from of photons of ligth.
c] 0.2 to 1% of the solar energy received by the earth enters the
biosphere in the form of chemical energy through the process of
photosynthesis.
d] Flow of energy takes place from photosynthesisers to heterotrophs
forming food chains.
e] Approximately 10% of the energy is conserved at each trophic level.
Thus, all living organisms at each level derive energy to maintian its
organisation and high free energy state.
Q.4. What is meant by Flow of information? What is the difference
between extrinsic and intrinsic flow of information?
DIAGRAM
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All the living cells depend on the flow of information.
The latter adopts two different types of routes.
i] The flow of genetic information:- The genetic information is given by
DNA. DNA directs the synthesis of RNA to control the various metabolic
activities of the cell and ultimately of the organism as a whole. The
messenger RNA convey the message of DNA to the cytoplasm. The
m-RNA molecules carry complete information for the synthesis fo more
than one protein molecules. The kinds of proteins formed are determined
by the molecular structure of DNA. These proteins are enzyme regulators
which activates all the vital activities of the cell.
ii] The flow of extrinsic information. Molecules like hormones pass
information, coming from outside to the cell. Some of these enter the cell
to influence its activities. Others bind on to the cell surface with certain
molecules that serve as receptors such binding leads to significant charges
in cellular activities.
Q.5. Justify the statement Cell is the basic unit of life ?
A. Each cell is an autonomous unit. It perform all fundamental vital
activities of life. It has mitochondria for the oxidation of food and to produce
energy. It utilises nutrient molecules to synthesise complex moleules. It
has the power of division to increase its number for growth and heal up
the wounds. The cell respires and exchange gases with its surroundings.
It reproduces cells with similar genetic traits. It can regulate its activities
to maintian its phyico-chemical environment.
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