Unit- VII

Transportation Network

Introduction: Transportation

Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to

another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can

be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables

trade between persons, which is essential for the development of civilizations.

Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations including roads, railways, airways,

waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations,

warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and

seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for

maintenance.

Transport Networks:

Transportation systems are commonly represented using networks as an analogy for their

structure and flows. Transport networks belong to the wider category of spatial networks because

their design and evolution are physically constrained as opposed with non-spatial networks such

as social interactions, corporate organization, and biological systems, which are usually

constrained by other factors.

The term network refers to the framework of routes within a system of locations, identified as

nodes. A route is a single link between two nodes that are part of a larger network that can refer

to tangible routes such as roads and rails, or less tangible routes such as air and sea corridors.

Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network. In the past, the term routing also

meant forwarding network traffic among networks. However, that latter function is better

described as forwarding. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the

telephone network (circuit switching), electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and

transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data

networks using packet switching technology.

One of the most enduring concepts in transport geography is the hinterland:

Hinterland

The hinterland is a land space over which a transport terminal, such as a port, sells its services

and interacts with its clients. It accounts for the regional market share that a terminal has relative

to a set of other terminals servicing a region. It regroups all the customers directly bounded to the

terminal and the land areas from which it draws and distributes traffic. The terminal, depending

on its nature, serves as a place of convergence for the traffic coming by roads, railways or by

sea/fluvial feeders.

First, the fundamental hinterland refers to the market area for which a terminal is the closest. It

is assumed that the majority of the traffic will pass through the terminal, because of proximity

and the lack of competitive alternatives.

Second, the competitive hinterland (or competitive margin) is used to describe the market areas

over which the terminal has to compete with others for business.

Hierarchy (h):-

The exponent of the slope for the power-law line drawn in a bi-log plot of node frequency over

degree distribution. Networks characterized by strong hierarchical configurations, such as scale-

free networks (few large degree nodes and many small degree nodes), often have values over 1

or 2. A value lower than 1 indicates the absence of scale-free properties and a limited hierarchy

among nodes. The above graph reveals a hierarchy of 1.209, indicating a fairly strong hierarchy.

The Role of Transport in Economic Development

Efficient transport is a critical component of economic development, globally and nationally.

Transport availability affects global development patterns and can be a boost or a barrier to

economic growth within individual nations.6 Transportation investments link factors of

production together in a web of relationships between producers and consumers to create a more

efficient division of production, leverage geographical comparative advantage, and provide the

means to expand economies of scale and scope. Transport‘s contribution to economic

development includes the following:

Network effects—linking more locations exponentially increases the value and effectiveness

of transport

Performance improvements—reducing cost and time for existing passenger and freight

movements increase transport‘s contribution to economic growth

Reliability—improves time performance and reduces loss and damage, thus reducing

economic drag

Market size-access to wider markets adds to economies of scale in production, distribution,

and consumption, thereby increasing economic growth

Productivity—transport increases productivity gained from access to a larger and more diverse

base of inputs such as raw materials, parts, energy, and labor, and broader markets for more

diverse outputs.

Transport has affected economic development from the beginning of human civilization.

Economic development focused on the confluence of transport systems — early cities grew up

on natural bays and ports, and on rivers and lakes where transport was available.

The industrial revolution generated new transport demands, which required higher volumes of

coal, iron ore, and other materials; this led to canal construction that extended water transport,

and to early railway development.

Transportation and Economic Opportunities

Transportation developments that have taken place since the beginning of the industrial

revolution have been linked to growing economic opportunities. At each stage of human societal

development, a particular transport technology has been developed or adapted with an array of

impacts. Five major waves of economic development where a specific transport technology

created new economic, market and social opportunities can be suggested:

Seaports

Railways

Roads

Airways and information technologies.

Gravity Models

The gravity model is much like Newton's theory of gravity. The gravity model assumes that the

trips produced at an origin and attracted to a destination are directly proportional to the total trip

productions at the origin and the total attractions at the destination. The calibrating term or

"friction factor" (F) represents the reluctance or impedance of persons to make trips of various

duration or distances. The general friction factor indicates that as travel times increase, travelers

are increasingly less likely to make trips of such lengths. Calibration of the gravity model

involves adjusting the friction factor. The socioeconomic adjustment factor is an adjustment

factor for individual trip interchanges. An important consideration in developing the gravity

model is "balancing" productions and attractions. Balancing means that the total productions and

attractions for a study area are equal.

Introduction:

Many networks serve as conduits – either literally or figuratively – for flows, in the sense that

they facilitate the movement of something, such as materials, people, or information.

This tutorial will focus on the application of the gravity model to the transportation network

between cities with the different populations to investigate the traffic flows between them.

The transportation network is represented as a graph G = (V, E). The nodes are cities; the edges

are roads connecting the cities. Traffic passes through links moving

between origin and destination vertices. Additional information about the nodes and the edges is

the population of the cities and the distances between them.

Characteristics of the network flows:

1. Routing matrix

Captures the manner in which traffic moves throughout the network.It is defined to have the

same number of rows and columns as links and origin-destination pairs in G, respectively. In

the case that each origin- destination pair (i, j) has only a single route, from i to j, B is a

binary matrix, with the entry in the row corresponding to link e and the column

corresponding to pair (i, j). If multiple routes are possible, the entries of B are instead

fractions representing, for example, the proportion of traffic from i to j that is expected to use

the link e.

2. Traffic matrix

Traffic matrix defines the volume of flow for each corresponding pair of vertices.

Unit- III

Growth and problems of urban transport

Growth of urban transportation in developing countries:

Transportation planners in developing countries face a number of problems "that require

innovative solutions." Large increases in urban population and pollution have seriously

compromised existing transportation systems and significantly increased the challenge of

creating future transportation systems. And "despite extensive spending on urban transportation

systems," the problems "seem to only get worse."

Razat Gaurav, Ernst & Young LLP, and C. Jotin Khisty examined these problems and their

potential solutions in "Urban Transportation in Developing Countries: Trends, Impacts, and

Potential Systemic Strategies," a paper prepared for the Transportation Research Board's 77th

Annual Meeting (January 1998). They concluded that "a more holistic approach . . . would be

very essential" in tackling the problems. The authors suggested three policy strands involving

practices, innovations, and sustainable development and emphasized that "together they [the

three strands] could substantially reduce the economic, environmental, and social costs of some

of the negative trends and impacts" of urban transportation systems in developing countries. In

addition, the authors cautioned that developing countries would be wise to learn from the

mistakes made in developed countries such as the United States and to develop solutions specific

to their own needs, as opposed to simply copying approaches used by developed countries.

Urban Transportation Trends

The authors noted that the complex urban transportation problems in developing countries "are

triggered by certain trends," all of them interrelated. Urban population growth is one such trend.

For example, "in 1995, approximately 45 percent of the world population lived in urban areas; by

the year 2025, this figure is projected to go up to 60 percent." And "a staggering 90 percent" of

this growth will occur in the world's developing countries, primarily in Africa and Asia.

Growth in population naturally causes growth in car ownership, and while "car ownership levels

[in the developing countries] are far lower than the developed countries at present, . . . it is in

these developing countries that the greatest growth rate[s] in motor vehicles have been seen in

the past few years and are expected in the future," primarily in urban areas. In Asia, most of this

growth stems from the increase in vehicles with two or three wheels. Rapid growth rates of these

vehicles are also expected in China and India. The mobility and affordability advantages of these

vehicles are diminished by their pollution disadvantages, notably high levels of "carbon

monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbon emissions."

Transport and environmental degradation

Environmental degradation is also due to transport development in the different parts of the

world. The automobiles release huge quantities of poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide,

nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. The development of ports and harbours have led to oil spills

from ships adversely affecting fisheries, coral reefs, mangroves and landscapes.

5 Major Environmental Impact of Transport Development:

Some of the major environmental impact of transport development are:

The growth of speedy transportation is man‘s greatest achievement in minimising distances but

at the same time it has also become a cause of environmental degradation. Concern over the

environmental consequences of transport development is long-standing. The environmental

implications of transport development have become very widely recognised with a plethora of

local, national and international, governmental and non-governmental organisations contributing

to the debate by producing their own policy prescriptions and agendas for action.

In considering the relationship between transport and the environment we are immediately

confronted with a potential paradox: on the one hand, modern industrial societies pursue

economic growth through the open exchange of people, raw materials, energy, goods and

services in an increasingly global marketplace, yet, on the other, the transport systems required

to allow such exchange may be exerting pressures on the environment that degrade the functional

integrity and quality of natural ecosystems to the extent that the prospect of maintaining or

achieving a high quality of life in many human societies is threatened. In short, we cannot live

without transport development, but neither may we be able to cope with its side-effects over the

long term.

The European Union‘s Fifth Environmental Action Programme states that transport is ―vital to

the distribution of goods and services, and to trade and to regional development‖, but argues that

current trends towards increasing transport demand are likely to result in ―greater inefficiency,

congestion, pollution, wastage of time and value, danger to life and general economic loss‖

(Commission of the European Communities, 1992:6). This article examinessome of the major

environmental impacts of transport development.

1. Energy Consumption in Transport and Environmental Pollution:

Transport requires energy mainly for vehicle operation and to some extent also for

manufacturing of the vehicle. Figure 7.1 depicts the transport energy system and pollution.

The energy consumption in transport sector is the main cause of pollution. There are significant

differences in fuel efficiencies between various modes of transport, for example, consumption of

energy in cars is more among urban transport modes. Although there has been a significant

improvement in the fuel efficiency in cars and other automobiles. It is estimated that in

developed countries like UK. The traffic increases up to 142 per cent predicted for the year 2025,

the energy consumption will continue to increase substantially, in spite of fuel efficiency

measures.

2. Air Pollution:

Transport is a major source of air pollution not only in developed but in developing countries

also. Ecologists believe that the rapid increase in the number of vehicles on our roads, which has

taken place without any real restriction, is fast developing into an environmental crisis. Exhaust

fumes are the major source of atmospheric pollution by the motor vehicle.

The main pollutants are outlined below:

(i) Carbon monoxide (CO):

This is a poisonous gas caused as a result of incomplete combustion;

(ii) Un-burnt hydrocarbons (HC):

This is caused by the evaporation of petrol and the discharge of only partially burnt

hydrocarbons;

(iii) Other gases and deposits:

Nitrogen oxides, tetraethyl lead and carbon dust particles;

(iv) Aldehydes:

Organic compounds containing the group CHO in their structures. The average quantity of

pollutants emitted by petrol and diesel driven vehicles is depicted in Table 7.1.

It is clear that very large amount of pollutants are being emitted from various forms of transport

into the air that we breathe. These emissions are also responsible for the increase in ‗global

warming‘. The most obvious way of achieving a reduction in pollution by motor vehicles is to

reduce the emission of fumes at source. A short-term solution is likely to be made by medica-

tions to the present type of engine and to improve combustion within the exhaust system, as

Japanese manufactures have done in many cases.

3. Noise Pollution:

Another side‘ effect of transport systems is the noise pollution. It is estimated that some 135

million people in OECD countries suffer transport noise levels in excess of 65 db. Figure 7.2

shows the noise levels from different sources including transportation.

4. Land Consumption and Landscape Damage:

The provision of land-based transport requires the direct utilisation of land. Long strips of land

are consumed, and large areas effectively divided into smaller ones (severance). Previous land

uses, such as forestry, agriculture, housing and nature reserves, may be displaced, and zones

adjacent to the new development rendered unsuitable for wide range of activities.

Major impact of transport-related land loss and land use change may be a decline in the visual

amenity or aesthetic attraction of the landscape. Visual impact may be essentially linear in nature

for road, rail and inland waterway developments, or nodal in character as with the large terminal

installations of sea and airports. Information on the scale of transport related landscape damage

and loss of visual amenity is not widely available, partly due to the difficulties of assessing

existing landscape quality. Obviously, however, the impact of adverse landscape change is likely

to be much more significant in areas of high scenic value, such as national parks and mountain

passes, or where a flat topography allows visual intrusion over a wide area.

5. Ecological Degradation:

The degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as measured by indicators such as reduced

habitat/species diversity, primary productivity or the areal extent of ecologically valuable plant

and animal communities, provides one of the most emotive aspects of the tension between

transport development and environmental quality.

However, the indirect or secondary effects of transport development may also be responsible for

many adverse impacts on wildlife, including those associated with air, water and noise pollution

(described below). With reference to water pollution, for example, one could point to the

ecological destruction associated with catastrophic, and internationally reported, oil leaks from

stricken tanks or the contamination of coastal ecosystems. In brief, transport systems have had

environmental effects. The effects of the various transport modes have been discussed. Table 7.2

indicates main environmental effects of transport.

Pollution and congestion issues in Urban Transport: Case of Delhi

India is urbanizing. Its urban population is growing at an average rate of around 3% per year.

Assuming decadal increase of around 32%, India‘s urban population is expected to increase from

377 million in 2011 to 500 million in 2021 however, there is lower pace of infrastructure growth

such as roads, transportation and poor planning of urbanization with respect to roads, public

transport, residential and industrial area.

This mismatch in urbanization & infrastructure development along with poor urban planning has

created several challenges which are:

Vehicular congestion and road safety issues: India accounts for 1% vehicles globally but 10%

road accidents thus; it is plagued by careless driving and congestion issues. Factors involved in it

are:

• Growth in number of vehicles, in the six major metropolises of India which has outpaced

population growth.

• Limitation to road expansion; Resource (land & investment) constraints have come in the way

of adequate investments in increasing road capacity and even in undertaking timely repair.

Inefficient systems of construction coupled with poor maintenance have resulted in poor road

infrastructure.

• Poor Traffic Management.

• Absence of Lane Segregation: Mixed traffic (speed differences) hard to handle.

• Road infrastructure is poor: narrow roads, lack of medians, pedestrian crossings, and few traffic

signals.

• Poor enforcement of traffic rules.

• Corruption in issuing licenses and permits.

• Inadequate number of trained traffic police.

Pedestrians, bicyclists, motorcyclists, and non-motorized vehicle occupants are often the most

vulnerable in Indian cities.

Mega cities of India

Definition of Mega cities there are numerous large and wide cities all around the world. At the

present time the urban population is estimated to around 3.5 billion of inhabitants and will

probably be more than 5 billion by 2030. The term ―mega-cities‖ was defined for metropolitan

agglomerations which concentrate more than 10 millions of inhabitants.

1. Delhi

2. Mumbai

3. Kolkata

National highway development and planning in India

The National Highways Development Project is a project to upgrade, rehabilitate and widen

major highways in India to a higher standard. The project was implemented in 1998 under the

leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee. "National Highways" account for only about 2% of the total

length of roads, but carry about 40% of the total traffic across the length and breadth of the

country. This project is managed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) under

the Ministry of Road, Transport and Highways. The NHAI has invested US$71 billion for this

project, as of 2006. The NHDP represents 49,260 km of roads and highways work and

construction in order to boost economic development of the country.

Phases

The project is composed of the following phases:

Phase I: The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ; 5,846 km) connecting the four major cities

of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. This project connecting four metro cities, would be

5,846 km (3,633 mi). Total cost of the project is Rs.300 billion (US$6.8 billion), funded

largely by the government‘s special petroleum product tax revenues and government

borrowing. In January 2012, India announced the four lane GQ highway network as

complete.[1][2]

Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors comprising national highways connecting

four extreme points of the country. The North–South and East–West Corridor (NS-EW;

7,300 km) connecting Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, including spur

from Salem to Kanyakumari (Via Coimbatore and Kochi) and Silchar in the east

toPorbandar in the west. Total length of the network is 7,300 km (4,500 mi). As of April

2012, 84.26% of the project had been completed and 15.7% of the project work is currently

at progress.[3]

It also includes Port connectivity and other projects — 1,157 km (719 mi). The

final completion date to February 28, 2009 at a cost of Rs.350 billion (US$8 billion), with

funding similar to Phase I.

Phase III: The government recently approved NHDP-III to upgrade 12,109 km (7,524 mi)of

national highways on a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis, which takes into account

high-density traffic, connectivity of state capitals via NHDP Phase I and II, and connectivity

to centres of economic importance. Contracts have been awarded for a 2,075 km (1,289 mi).

Phase IV: The government is considering widening 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of highway that

were not part of Phase I, II, or III. Phase IV will convert existing single lane highways into

two lanes with paved shoulders. The plan will soon be presented to the government for

approval.

Phase V: As road traffic increases over time, a number of four lane highways will need to be

upgraded/expanded to six lanes. The current plan calls for upgrade of about 5,000 km

(3,100 mi) of four-lane roads, although the government has not yet identified the stretches.

Phase VI: The government is working on constructing expressways that would connect

major commercial and industrial townships. It has already identified 400 km (250 mi) of

Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Mumbai section that would connect to the existing Vadodara

(earlier Baroda)-Ahmedabad section. The World Bank is studying this project. The project

will be funded on BOT basis. The 334 km (208 mi) Expressway between Chennai—

Bangalore and 277 km (172 mi) Expressway between Kolkata—Dhanbad has been identified

and feasibility study and DPR contract has been awarded by NHAI.

Phase VII: This phase calls for improvements to city road networks by adding ring roads to

enable easier connectivity with national highways to important cities. In addition,

improvements will be made to stretches of national highways that require additional flyovers

and bypasses given population and housing growth along the highways and increasing

traffic. The government has not yet identified a firm investment plan for this phase. The

19 km (12 mi) long Chennai Port—Maduravoyal Elevated Expressway is being executed

under this phase.

National Highways Development Project at a glance

NHDP

Phase

Particulars Length Indicative cost ( in cr)

NHDP-I &

II

Balance work of GQ and EW-NS

corridors

13,000 km

(8,100 mi)

42,000

NHDP-III 4-laning 10,000 km

(6,200 mi)

55,000

NHDP-IV 2-laning 20,000 km

(12,000 mi)

25,000

NHDP-V 6-laning of selected stretches 5,000 km

(3,100 mi)

17,500

NHDP-VI Development of expressways 1,000 km

(620 mi)

15,000

NHDP-VII Ring Roads, Bypasses, Grade Separators,

Service Roads etc.

700 km

(430 mi)

15,000

Total 45,000 km

(28,000 mi)

1,69,500 (Revised to

2,20,000)

Mega cities of India

Definition of Mega cities there are numerous large and wide cities all around the world. At the

present time the urban population is estimated to around 3.5 billion of inhabitants and will

probably be more than 5 billion by 2030. The term ―mega-cities‖ was defined for metropolitan

agglomerations which concentrate more than 10 millions of inhabitants.

4. Delhi

5. Mumbai

6. Kolkata

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