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Copyright UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office, 2009

Any part of this Gender Equality in Education Snapshot may be freely reproduced with theappropriate acknowledgment.

Design and layout: Keen Media (Thailand) Co., Ltd.

Printed in Thailand

ISBN: 978-974-685-110-7

UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office19 Phra Atit RoadBangkok 10200Tel: (66 2) 356 9499Fax: (66 2) 280 7056E-mail: [email protected]

Contents

Introduction 5

• Gender parity in gross enrolment ratio in primary education, East Asia 6

• Gender parity in gross enrolment ratio in secondary education, East Asia 7

• Combined gross enrolment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary education, selected countries 8

Pre-primary and primary education 9

• Gender Parity Index for gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education, selected countries, 1999 and 2005 10

• Gender Parity Index for net enrolment rate in primary education, selected countries, 1999 and 2005 11

• Sub-national disparities in Gender Parity Index for net enrolment ratio in primary education, selected countries 12

• Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in primary education, Indonesia, 2005 13

• Out-of-primary-school children by sex, 2005 14• Gender disparities in survival rates to the last grade of primary

education, 1999 and 2004 15• Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5

(survival rate), Philippines by province, 2005-2006 16

Secondary education 17

• Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in secondary education, Mekong Sub-Region 18

• Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in secondary education, Mekong Sub-Region, by province 19

• Gender parity in net attendance ratio in secondary or higher education, Viet Nam 20

• Secondary school net attendance ratio by wealth quintile 21MongoliaThailandViet Nam

Contents (continued)

Literacy 23

• Adult literacy rate, selected countries 24• Literacy rate of women aged 15-24 years, Thailand 25• Tested functional literacy by ethnicity, Lao PDR, 2001 26• Adult illiteracy 27

Higher education and educational outcomes 28

• Gender disparities in reading scores 29• Gender differences in student performance on the mathematics scale 30• Enrolment in technical and vocational education, 2005 31• Percent of female enrolment in tertiary fields of study 32• Percentage share of women in non-agricultural wage employment,

1990 and 2005 33• Employed persons by major occupation group and sex, Philippines, 2007 34• Employed persons by highest grade completed and sex,

Philippines, 2007 (in thousands) 35• Disparities in the presence of male and female teachers 36• Seats held by women in national parliament, East Asia, 2007 37• Estimated earned income 38

The Six EFA Goals 39

Introduction

The Education for All movement, launched at the World Conference on Education for All inJomtien, Thailand in 1990, is a global commitment to provide quality basic education for all children, youth and adults. Representatives of the international community met again in Dakar,Senegal, a decade later and affirmed their commitment to achieving Education for All (EFA) bythe year 2015 with six key education goals outlined in the Dakar Framework for Action.

These goals and targets are regularly monitored through the EFA Global Monitoring Report. Inaddition, countries in the Asia-Pacific region recently undertook a mid-decade assessment(MDA) to assess national progress towards achieving the Education for All goals. The aim wasto allow countries to collect data on and analyse what has been achieved at the national and sub-national levels, identify and address challenges, reset targets, and make plans for achievement of their goals by 2015. In particular, countries focused their MDA reports on theirefforts to reach those children who remain ‘unreached’ by national education systems.

As a contribution to the EFA MDA, a Progress Note is being prepared reviewing progress inachieving the EFA goals in the East Asia and Pacific region from a gender perspective. The noteis based on the EFA MDA country and sub-regional reports, as well as other data sources, andwill provide in-depth analysis on the status of achievement of EFA goals using a gender lens,identify key gaps, and make recommendations for accelerating progress towards achieving EFAgoals in 2015.

This Snapshot presents some of the key regional and national trends and findings to be highlighted and elaborated on in the forthcoming Progress Note on gender.

5Gender Equality in EducationSnapshot

Gender Parity Index (GPI) is the ratio of female to male values of a given indicator. A GPI of 1 (orwithin the band of 0.97 to 1.03) indicates parity between the sexes. A GPI of above 1 indicates a disparity to the disadvantage of boys, while a GPI of below 1 indicates a disparity to the disadvantage of girls

Gender Parity Index

Girls significantly disadvantaged

Girls disadvantaged, but close to parity

Gender Parity Achieved

Boys disadvantaged, but close to parity

Boys significantly disadvantaged

Missing Data

Mongolia

China

MyanmarLao PDR

Viet NamPhilippines

Brunei

Hong Kong SAR

Macau SAR

Malaysia

Indonesia

Timor Leste

Singapore

Thailand

Cambodia

Korea DPR

Korea REP Japan

6 Education for All Mid-Decade AssessmentEast Asia and Pacific

Gender parity in gross enrolment ratio in primary education, East Asia

Source: UNESCO EFA GMR 2008

2005 marked the first target for achieving gender equality in education. Based on the DakarFramework for Action, Education for All and the Millennium Development Goals, countries committed to eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by this time.

At the primary education level, notable progress was made in closing gender gaps, and manycountries in the region met or were very close to meeting this target of ensuring that equal proportions of girls and boys enroll in school at the national level. However, significant gapsremain in some countries such as Cambodia, Lao PDR, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam, which needto continue efforts to raise the enrolment of girls to match that of boys. Even greater numbersof countries still face disparities at the sub-national level.


Gender Parity Index






Missing Data

Mongolia

China

MyanmarLao PDR

Viet Nam

Philippines

Brunei

Hong Kong SAR

Macau SAR

Malaysia

Indonesia

Timor Leste

Singapore

Thailand

Cambodia

Korea DPR

Korea REP Japan

Gender parity in gross enrolment ratio in secondary education, East Asia


In the East Asia sub-region, the gender parity target for secondary education was also met by anumber of countries. In countries where gender disparities remain, these are not only to the disadvantage of girls but also of boys in some cases as well. For example, in Mongolia, thePhilippines, and Malaysia, the proportion of boys enrolled in secondary school is lower than thatof girls. On the other hand, enrolment in secondary education is significantly lower for girls inCambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, as it is at the primary education level in these countries.

Papua N

ew G

uinea

Solom

on Islan

ds

Mya

nmar

Lao P

DR

Cambodia

Vanuat

u

Viet N

am

Indones

iaChin

a

Timor-L

este

Thailan

d

Hong Kong, C

hina (

SAR)

Samoa Fiji

Mala

ysia

Brunei

Daruss

alam

Philippin

es

Mongolia

Japan

Republic

of K

orea

Australi

a

New Z

ealan

d

120

Female Male

100

80

60

40

20

10

30

50

70

90

110

0

Combined gross enrolment ratio for primary,secondary and tertiary education, selected countries

Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008

The gross enrolment ratio for all levels of education from primary to tertiary education reveals amixed picture across countries in the region. In 13 out of the 22 countries with data shown here,male enrolment ratios are higher than those of females, while in 9 countries, a higher proportionof females are enrolled. The situation in the region underlines the fact that promoting genderequality has to do with men and women, boys and girls, with disparities affecting both sexes.

While these aggregate figures provide an overview, further disaggregation by level of educationand also sub-nationally would allow for a better understanding of the nature of disparities andwhere to target efforts to address them. For example, in Thailand, although the graph here indicates that lower proportions of girls are enrolled than boys overall, disaggregation by levelof education shows that higher proportions of boys are enrolled than girls at the primary education level, while higher proportions of girls are enrolled than boys at the secondary andtertiary levels. At these higher levels of education, the disparities are, in fact, to the disadvantageof boys.


Pre-primaryand primary

Education

0.90

Niue

Tonga

Samoa

Palau

Mongolia

Mala

ysia

Cook Isla

nds

Cambodia Fij

i

Lao P

DR

Philippin

es

Indones

ia

New Z

ealan

d

Mar

shall

Islan

ds

BruneiD

aruss

alam

Pacifi

c

Mac

ao, C

hina

Solom

on Islan

ds

Republic

of K

orea

Thailan

d

East A

sia

Papua N

ew G

uinea

Viet N

amChin

a

0.95

1.00

1.05

1.10

1.15

1.20

1.25

1.30

1.35

1.40

1999 2005

Gender Parity Index for gross enrolment ratioin pre-primary education, selected countries,1999 and 2005


In pre-primary education, gender disparities tend to be to the disadvantage of boys, with higherproportions of girls enrolled. Several countries, such as Niue, Tonga, Malaysia, Cambodia andFiji, saw disparities against boys worsen from 1999 to 2005. In the Cook Islands, the enrolmentratio of girls to boys was within the gender parity band, but there has been a shift over time, andfar lower proportions of boys are enrolling than girls. In a few countries, such as Papua NewGuinea, Viet Nam and China, the trend has been in the opposite direction, with lower proportionsof girls enrolling than boys and gaps widening since 1999. For the East Asia sub-region overall,this has also been the trend.

Some countries have made strides towards closing the gender gap in pre-primary enrolment,including Lao PDR, the Philippines, Marshall Islands and Brunei Darussalam. Lao PDR and thePhilippines are close to achieving gender parity, and the latter two countries are now within thegender parity band.

One consideration in looking at GPI at the pre-primary education level is that overall enrolmentratios for girls and boys may be quite low for many of the countries. Therefore, the trend in onedirection or another may be in relation to a relatively small segment of the population, and disparities may reverse – from the advantage of girls to the disadvantage of girls – at the primaryeducation level.



0.90

0.92

0.94

0.96

0.98

1.00

1.02

1.04

1999 2005

Philippin

es

East Asia

Cambodia

Maca

o, Chin

a

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Myanm

ar

Malaysia

Republic of K

orea

Gender Parity Index for net enrolment ratio inprimary education, selected countries, 1999 and 2005


Most countries in the region achieved gender parity in primary education enrolment even priorto the target date of 2005, as per the Dakar Framework for Action, EFA Goal 5, and MillenniumDevelopment Goal 3. Some countries made remarkable progress from 1999 to 2005 towardsgender parity, including Mongolia, in which disparities to the disadvantage of boys decreased tonear-parity, and Cambodia, where gender parity was achieved by 2005, closing a wide gendergap to the disadvantage of girls that existed in 1999. In some cases, however, achievements inattaining gender parity are in danger of being undone with the proportion of boys enrolling incomparison to girls dropping, such as in Myanmar and the Philippines.


0.50

Indonesia

Gen

der

Par

ity

Ind

ex

Cambodia Lao PDR Myanmar

Maximum National Minimum

Mongolia

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

Sub-national disparities in Gender Parity Indexfor net enrolment ratio in primary education,selected countries

Source: National EFA MDA Reports

Further disaggregation of data reveals the range in the levels of disparity that exists within countries which may not fully be reflected in national, aggregate figures. In Cambodia, Myanmarand Mongolia, for example, national level data indicate that gender parity has been achieved inprimary education enrolment. However, a closer look at the sub-national level shows that thereare significant disparities in parts of these countries – to the disadvantage of girls in Cambodia,and to the disadvantage of boys in Myanmar and Mongolia. The case of Indonesia illustrateshow wide the range in disparity levels can be, from a very low enrolment ratio for girls comparedwith boys in one part of the country (GPI 0.56) to parity (1.01) in another.


Gender Parity Index






Missing Data

Kalimantan

Java

Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in primary education, Indonesia, 2005

Source: National EFA MDA Dataset

This map of gender parity levels in Indonesia further pinpoints the regions of the country withthe widest gaps and can be useful in identifying areas which may need targeted interventions.As can be seen for example in parts of Java and Kalimantan, the situation in neighbouringprovinces may differ considerably based on the local context.


Brunei Darussalam

Philippines

Mongolia

Australia

Myanmar

Marshall Islands

Solomon Islands

Malaysia

East Asia

Pacific

Vanuatu

Lao PDR

New Zealand

Macao, China

Fiji

Thailand

Republic of Korea

Cambodia

0 25% 50% 75% 100%

Female

Male

Per Cent

Out-of-primary-school children by sex, 2005


Regional figures show that the percentage of girls out-of-primary-school is slightly higher thanthat of boys at 52 per cent and 55 per cent in East Asia and the Pacific, respectively. But nationaldata suggests that percentages of out-of-school children also vary widely by sex by country, withgirls accounting for over 80 per cent of all out-of-primary-school children in the Republic of Korea(82 per cent) and Cambodia (85 per cent). Brunei Darussalam reported the largest disparity againstboys, where 63 per cent of the total out-of-primary-school population was male.


Higher survival for boys(1 country)

Gender Parity achieved inSurvival Rate to Grade 5

by 2004 (8 countries)

Higher survival for girls(5 country)

GPI GPI GPI

1999 2004 1999 2004 1999 2004

Indonesia … 0.94 Brunei Darussalam 1.00 1.01 Cambodia 0.93 1.05

Fiji 0.97 0.97 Kiribati … 1.16

Lao PDR 0.98 0.98 Myanmar … 1.06

Macao, China … 1.01 Philippines … 1.13

Malaysia … 0.99 Tonga … 1.07

Papua New Guinea 0.91 0.99

Republic of Korea 1.00 1.00

Viet Nam 1.08 0.99

Gender disparities in survival rates to the lastgrade of primary education, 1999 and 2004


National data highlight disparities in the completion of the primary education cycle, but perhapswith unexpected outcomes. Disparities in favour of boys were only evident in Indonesia with aGPI for survival rate to grade 5 of 0.94. In a majority of countries for which data were available,gender parity was achieved in survival rate to grade 5. However, data reveals that when girls areenrolled in school, they tend to survive at rates equal to or higher than boys. In Lao PDR forexample, girls remain slightly disadvantaged in terms of enrolment, but those who enter primaryeducation survive at rates equal to their male counterparts. In five countries, there were cleardisparities resulting in higher survival rates for girls, with Kiribati (1.16 GPI) and the Philippines(1.13 GPI) reporting the greatest disparities between the sexes.


0

Centra

l Min

danao

Easte

rn V

isaya

s

Souther

n Min

danao

Norther

n Min

danao

Wes

tern

Min

danao

Cordille

ra R

egio

n

Wes

tern

Visa

yas

Mim

aropa

Centra

l Visa

yas

Centra

l Luzo

n

Met

ro M

anila

Iloco

s Reg

ion

Bicol R

egio

n

Carag

a

Calabar

zon

Cagay

an V

alley

20

10

30

40

50

Per

Cen

t

60

70

80

90

100 Female Male

Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 whoreach grade 5 (survival rate), Philippines byprovince, 2005-2006

Source: National EFA MDA Dataset

Sub-national data from the Philippines highlights the extent of the problem with boys’ participation, even in the early years of primary education. In every province, girls survive tograde 5 in higher proportions than male classmates. In absolute terms, this has led to a substantially larger percentage of under-educated males employed in the formal workforce.

SecondaryEducation


Gender Parity Index






Missing Data

Myanmar

Thailand

Lao PDR

Viet Nam

Cambodia

Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in secondary education, Mekong Sub-Region


The status of countries in terms of achieving gender parity at the national level varies widelyacross the region, but this is even the case when considering the Mekong sub-region, with countries that share many similarities in history, culture and traditions. Of the five countries, onlyMyanmar has achieved gender parity in secondary education enrolment. Thailand is faced witha situation in which the proportion of boys enrolled in secondary education is far lower than that of girls, while in Lao PDR and Cambodia, the opposite is the case, with the gap to the disadvantage of girls. Viet Nam is close to achieving gender parity, but efforts are still needed toraise the enrolment of girls to be on par with that of boys.


Gender Parity Index






Missing Data

Gender parity in net enrolment ratio in secondary education, Mekong Sub-Region, by province

Source: National EFA MDA Reports

Looking at the same sub-region, but with data disaggregated by province (sub-national data wasnot available for Thailand and Viet Nam) reveals the considerable variations within the countriesas well. Interestingly, in Myanmar, national level figures indicate gender parity has beenachieved, but in actuality, there are gender gaps in all of the provinces. These gaps are lost inthe process of aggregation and underline the importance of disaggregating data not only by sexbut also by administrative area, income levels, ethnicity, etc. to identify more accurately disparities and strategies to address them.


Viet NamGender Parity Index






Missing Data

North West

Red River Delta

North Central Coast

South Central Coast

Central Highlands

South East

North East

Gender parity in net attendance ratio in secondary or higher education, Viet Nam

Source: Viet Nam MICS Report 2006

The case of Viet Nam also highlights the importance of digging deeper and looking at sub-national level data to gain a better understanding of where the gender disparities are. At thenational level, the GPI for the net attendance ratio at the secondary and higher levels of education is 1.02 (UNICEF estimate calculated with results from the Viet Nam Multiple IndicatorCluster Survey), indicating that gender parity has been achieved (within the gender parity bandof 0.97 and 1.03). However, a closer look at the sub-national level reveals a more varied picture,with significant disparities to the disadvantage of girls in the North East and to the disadvantageof boys in the South East and Central Highlands region, calling for targeted action to address thegender disparities in these areas.


40

Per

Cen

t

60

80

100

Poorest Second Middle Fourth

Male Female

Richest

Wealth Quintile

40

60

80

Wealth Quintile

100


Male Female

Richest

Per

Cen

t

Secondary school net attendance ratio bywealth quintile

Mongolia

Thailand


Source: National MICS reports 2006

Poverty is often a key factor in girls’ and boys’ school attendance. Consideration of the opportunity costs of lost income or the need for help with household work and childcare mayaffect parents’ decisions in sending their sons or daughters to school. In Mongolia, for example,boys often drop out of school to contribute to household incomes by working with livestock. Thisis reflected in the gaps in boys’ school attendance compared with that of girls, particularly at thelower income quintiles. Boys’ enrolment and attendance in secondary education is also an issueof concern in Thailand. Of note are the wider gaps in the attendance of boys compared with girlsfrom middle income families, which raises questions regarding the circumstances that create this condition. Are boys disenchanted with school and dropping out in search of jobopportunities, or are they perhaps involved in technical and vocational education or pursuingservice-learning opportunities? Further research may shed light on the reasons behind thistrend.

In Viet Nam, where girls’ enrolment and attendance is lower proportionally than that of boys,poverty does seem to be a factor given the gap at the lowest income quintile. It seems that at themiddle to higher income levels, however, however as poverty becomes less of an issue, familiesplace relatively equal importance on both girls’ and boys’ education.

40

60

80

100


Male Female

Richest

Wealth Quintile

Per

Cen

t

Viet Nam

Literacy


Female Male

20

30

50

Per

Cen

t

70

90

10

0

Papua N

ew G

uinea

Lao P

DR

Cambodia

Mala

ysia

Mya

nmar

China

Indones

ia

Viet N

am

Singap

ore

Brunei

Daruss

alam

Thailan

d

Philippin

es Fiji

Hong Kong, C

hina (

SAR)

Mongolia

Samoa

40

60

80

100

Adult literacy rate, selected countries


In East Asia and the Pacific, as in most regions of the world, women’s literacy rates tend to belower than those of men, with particularly wide gaps in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Papua NewGuinea. The exception is the Philippines, where women have higher literacy rates. Fiji and HongKong (China) have achieved gender parity, and Samoa and Mongolia are close to levelling the literacy rates of men and women.


80

85

90

95

100

60

Languag

e: Thai

Other

Languag

e

Moth

er’s

educa

tion: P

rimar

y

Moth

er’s

educa

tion: S

econdar

y

Urban

Rural

Wea

lth in

dex q

uintil

es: P

oorest

Wea

lth in

dex q

uintil

es: S

econd

Wea

lth in

dex q

uintil

es: M

iddle

Wea

lth in

dex q

uintil

es: F

ourth

Wea

lth in

dex q

uintil

es: R

iches

t

65

70

75

Literacy rate of women aged 15-24 years,Thailand

Source: Thai MICS 2006

The case of Thailand illustrates the many factors that are possibly influencing women’s literacyattainment. Language of instruction may play a key role, as the graph indicates, with far higherrates of literacy among women whose mother tongue is the national language (Thai) versusthose whose first language is not Thai. The data also show the higher a mother’s level of education, the greater the chances that her child will be literate. There is also an urban/ruraldivide, with slightly higher rates for women living in urban areas. Furthermore, as also notedearlier, poverty is often an important factor affecting girls’ and boys’ education and literacy rates.Literacy rates are lowest among the poorest women in Thailand.


0

Female 15-59 years, Tai-Kadai

Male 15-59 years, Tai-Kadai

Female 15-59 years, Austroasiatic

Male 15-59 years, Austroasiatic

Female 15-59 years, Sino-Tibetan

Male 15-59 years, Sino-Tibetan

Female 15-59 years, Hmong-Yao

Male 15-59 years, Hmong-Yao

10 20 30 40 50 60

40.1

55.9

22.7

36

16.3

26.4

11.9

38.5

Tested functional literacy by ethnicity, Lao PDR, 2001

Source: Lao National Literacy Survey 2001

While international data on literacy rates in Lao PDR show generally low results, the findingsfrom the 2001 functional literacy survey show even lower figures overall and further highlightdistinct gender disparities amongst ethnic-minority groups.

Amongst all ethnic groups reported here, female functional literacy rates are consistently lowerthan those for their male counterparts. Disparity is greatest amongst the Hmong-Yao, wherethere is a 26 percentage point difference between males and females.


0 25 50

%

75 100Female

Philippines

Tonga

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Brunei Darussalam

Thailand

Viet Nam

Indonesia

Myanmar

China

Cambodia

Macao, China

Singapore

Male

Adult illiteracy (per cent)


The Gender Parity Index for adult literacy in the region rose from 0.84 in 1985-1994 to 0.93 in1995-2004, signaling significant progress in closing the gender gap. In absolute terms, howeveradult illiterates are predominantly women in most countries in the East Asia region, with theexception of the Philippines and Tonga. The percentage of women among adult illiterates in thisregion remains among the highest in the world at 70 per cent, higher than South and West Asia(63 per cent) and Sub-Saharan Africa (62 per cent).

Higher Education and Education Outcomes


250

Fem

ale

sco

re

Male score

275

300

325

350

375

400

425

450

475

500

525

550

575

250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575

Females perform betterthan males

Males perform betterthan females

Gender disparities in reading scores

Source: OECD PISA 2006

Despite higher rates of illiteracy among the adult population, results from the PISA reveal a consistent pattern of females out-performing males on standardized reading tests. Trends are consistent across low and high scoring countries and across those countries from the East Asiaregion, which have participated in the standardized test.


Japan

Indonesia

Hong Kong (SAR), China

Australia

Chinese Taipei

Macao, Republic of China

New Zealand

Korea

20

17

16

14

13

11

11

9

-10 -5 0 5

Score Difference

*Negative values indicate females scored higher than males; positive scores indicate males scored higher than femalesStatistical significane seen in all results except Korea and Thailand.

10 15 20 25

Thailand-7*

Gender differences in student performance onthe mathematics scale

Source: OECD PISA 2006

In countries with comparable data cross the region, with the exception of Thailand, there exists a clearpattern of boys outperforming girls on standardized math tests. Regardless of size, development context and socio-cultural influence, boys scored between 9-20 points higher than girls.


0

10

20

30

40

50

Per

Cen

t

60

70

80

90

100

Female Male

Viet N

amChin

a

Republic

of K

orea

Mac

ao, C

hina

Thailan

d

Australi

a

Japan

Indones

ia

Brunei

Daruss

alam

Timor-L

este

Singap

ore

Lao P

DR

Cambodia

Tonga

Vanuat

u Fiji

Papua N

ew G

uinea

Enrolment in technical and vocational education, 2005


In most countries of the region, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is dominated by boys, with particularly low enrolment levels of girls in Cambodia, Vanuatu, Tonga,Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Viet Nam is the exception, where more girls are enrolled in TVETthan boys, and in China girls’ enrolment is on par with that of boys. This is one factor in considering the experiences in transitioning from school to work of girls and boys and possibledifferences in the technical skills with which they are prepared to face the job market.


0

Health and welfare

Education

Humanities and arts

Social sciences, business and law

Agriculture

Science

Engineering, manufacturing andconstruction

10 20 30 40 50

Regional Average

60 70 80 90 100

Percent of female enrolment in tertiary fieldsof study


While greater numbers of women are moving on to tertiary education in the region, there seemsto be a continuing divide along gender lines in subject choice. Regional averages on femaleenrolment in fields of study show that women are in the majority in certain fields, such as healthand welfare, education and humanities and arts, but are underrepresented – significantly insome cases – in others, such as engineering, manufacturing and construction, and science,which remain the realm of men. This trend holds true in both developing and developed countries of the region.


0

Southern Asia

Oceania

World

South-Eastern Asia

Eastern Asia

Developed Regions

10

13

18

1990 2005

29

38

36

39

38

39

38

41

44

47

20 30 40 50

Percentage share of women in non-agriculturalwage employment, 1990 and 2005

Source: MDG Report 2007

According to the Millennium Development Goals Report (2007), women remain at a disadvantagein securing paid jobs and positions of influence upon leaving the education system, and this is truein this region despite the remarkable progress made towards achieving gender parity. These gainsin terms of gender parity are not necessarily translating into equality in education outcomes. Whilewomen’s share in non-agricultural wage employment has increased in the 15 years from 1990 to2005, most significantly in the Pacific (or Oceania) region, it is still well below that of men.


0 2,000

Special Occupations

Labourers and Unskilled Workers

Plant, Machine Operators, Assemblers

Craft and Related Trades

Farmers, Forestry Workers, Fisherfolk

Service and Sales Workers

Clerks

Technicians and Associate Professionals

Professionals

Officials of Government and Interest groups

4,000

Men Women

6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

Employed persons by major occupation groupand sex, Philippines, 2007 (in thousands)

Source: Presentation for Amar Torres 2009

Philippine women are employed in higher numbers than their male counterparts in sectors of thelabour market which traditionally require higher levels of education, including service, technicaland professional and para-professional positions and amongst government and interest groups.

In general terms, however, employment growth in the Philippines has been insufficient to keeppace with labour force growth, and women faced greater unemployment than men and were particularly susceptible to seasonal fluctuations in employment rates.

Despite the consistent gaps in favour of girls and women throughout the education system inthe Philippines, data reveals that, with the exception of the most highly educated, in terms ofabsolute numbers, the male labor force is much larger than that of females at every level of educational achievement. This reveals gender inequalities in the labour market that have implications for the education system as well.


Men

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

No Gra

de Com

pleted

Elemen

tary

Under

graduat

e

High sc

hool Under

graduat

e

College U

ndergra

duate

High S

chool G

raduat

e

College G

raduat

e and H

igher

Elemen

tary

Gra

duate

Women

Employed persons by highest grade completedand sex, Philippines, 2007 (in thousands)

Source: Presentation for Amar Torres 2009


Female Male

Niue

Pre-Primary Education Primary Education Secondary Education

Nauru

Macao, China

Philippines

Singapore

New Zealand

Myanmar

Viet Nam

Kiribati

Republic of Korea

Samoa

Brunei Darussalam

Tokelau

Malaysia

Japan

Indonesia

Thailand

Fiji

China

Lao PDR

Cambodia

Papua New Guinea

Marshall Islands

Timor-Leste

0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100

Niue

Nauru

Macao, China

Philippines

Singapore

New Zealand

Myanmar

Viet Nam

Kiribati

Republic of Korea

Samoa

Brunei Darussalam

Tokelau

Malaysia

Japan

Indonesia

Thailand

Fiji

China

Lao PDR

Cambodia

Papua New Guinea

Marshall Islands

Timor-Leste

Niue

Nauru

Macao, China

Philippines

Singapore

New Zealand

Myanmar

Viet Nam

Kiribati

Republic of Korea

Samoa

Brunei Darussalam

Tokelau

Malaysia

Japan

Indonesia

Thailand

Fiji

China

Lao PDR

Cambodia

Papua New Guinea

Marshall Islands

Timor-Leste

Per Cent Per CentPer Cent

Disparities in the presence of male and female teachers


In many of the countries of the region, the teaching profession is highly feminized, particularlyat the lower education levels. With the exception of Papua New Guinea, where there are mostlymale teachers at all levels, all countries for which data is available have a predominantly femaleteaching force at the pre-primary education level. The majority of teachers at the primary education level are also female, apart from in Lao PDR, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, MarshallIslands and Timor-Leste. These countries also have more male teachers at the secondary education level, as do China and Indonesia.


Percent

0.0 - 0.7

7.1 - 14.0

14.1 - 21.0

21.1 - 28.0

Missing Data

Mongolia

China

MyanmarLao PDR

Viet Nam

Philippines

Brunei

Hong Kong SAR

Macau SAR

Malaysia

Indonesia

Timor Leste

Singapore

Thailand

Cambodia

Korea DPR

Korea REP Japan

Seats held by women in national parliament,East Asia, 2007

Source: GENDER Info 2007

In the political arena, women remain significantly under-represented throughout the region, withno country achieving even a 30 per cent representation of women in national parliament. InMongolia, where girls’ enrolment in secondary and tertiary education is far higher than that ofboys, women’s representation is parliament is the lowest in the East Asia region, underlining thefact that higher levels of participation of girls in education is not necessarily leading to gains interms of gender equality in other spheres once girls leave school. This also indicates the role thatsocio-cultural attitudes, policies promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment andother factors may also play towards achieving gender equality in and through education.


5,000

Solom

on Islan

ds

Lao P

DR

Mongolia

Papua N

ew G

uinea

Cambodia

Indones

ia

Viet N

am

Vanuat

u

Samoa

Philippin

es Fiji

China

Mala

ysia

Thailan

d

Korea (

Republic

of)

Brunei

Daruss

alam

Japan

Singap

ore

New Z

ealan

d

Hong Kong, C

hina (

SAR)

Australi

a

0

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

Female Male

Estimated earned income


Women’s employment opportunities in the formal sector are often marred by engendered discrimination, which is evident in the disparities in women’s estimated earned income compared with that of men. Women’s income levels are far lower than those of men in everycountry in the region, with the widest gaps, interestingly, in the more developed countries.Again, progress in gender parity in education has not translated into equality in the workplaceand income levels.


The Six EFA Goals

1 Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children

2 Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality.

3 Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes

4 Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.

5 Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.

6 Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence for all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

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