URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS oN COASTAL …

URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN COASTAL AREAS 31

Oriental Geographer

Vol. 60, No. 1&2, 2016

Printed in March 2019

URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS oN

COASTAL AREAS OF BANGLADESH: A CASE OF

KALAPARA TOWN, PATUAKHALI

JOHNI MIAH

1*

SYEDA ISHRAT NAJIA2 †

Abstract: The coastal area of Bangladesh is considered as a zone of multiple exposures. However, urbanization opportunities, potentialities and problems of the coastal zone have not received much attention in recent researches of Bangladesh. The effects of unplanned urbanization are adverse within the natural environment and human life. Moreover, human activities add layers of complexity to the natural processes of coastal lands and resources. These activities have both direct and indirect effects on natural environment. This study is an attempt to analyze the urban characteristics town and to focus the impacts of urbanization on the physical environment of Kalapara. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were followed in this research. Secondary data sources covered a detail review of both published and unpublished documents and primary sources were mainly field survey and interview. The study revealed that urbanization is taking place in Kalapara without considering the topographic conditions of the area which has several environmental impacts in the coastal region especially in Kalapara town. The findings of the research indicated that, urban areas increased by 111.2 hectares during 1990–2000, 102.2 hectares from 2000 to 2015. The net increase of urban areas over the study period (from 1990 to 2015) was 213.4 hectares (15.9% to 40.0%) which resulted in an extensive reduction in agrarian lands and waterbodies. On the other hand, urban people, land and infrastructures are vulnerable to coastal disasters. Therefore, proper policy and planning interventions can ensure environmentally sustainable urbanization in Kalapara town.

Keywords: Environmental impacts, Urbanization, Coastal areas, Kalapara town

INTRODUCTION Urbanization has proved to be a certain feature of the development of civilization and an

essential part of national modernization, which enormously connected to economic

development (Jedwad and Vollrath, 2015; Zhang and Deng, 2017). According to the

different levels of urbanization in Asia, Zhang and Deng (2017) explained that, Japan,

South Korea, and Israel are representatives of developed Asian countries with high

population densities, and have experienced rapid urbanization, leading to urbanization

rates (the percentage of people living in urban areas) more than 90 percent.

1 Johni Miah is Reserarch Student, Applied Earth Observation and Geoanalysis of the Living Environment (EAGLE),

University of Würzburg, Germany

2 Syeda Ishrat Najia is Associate Professor, Department of Geography and Environment, Jagannath University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

32 ORIENTAL GEOGRAPHER

Urbanization is a major socio demographic process which is taking place very rapidly

with a larger extent in the developing nations (Karim, 2012). In many cases, specifically

in poorer economies, urbanization is a demand driven unplanned and bottom up method,

which changes the existing landscape without considering the possible consequences of

environmental sustainability (Sultana et al., 2009). In the last 30 years, globally,

population densities in coastal areas increased by 49 percent (Plan, 2005). Rego and Roy

(2008) argued that, Asia is one of the most vulnerable natural hazard prone areas for both

urban and rural people. In terms of urbanization, among the world’s largest cities, 14 out

of 17 are located near the seashores including Bangkok, Jakarta, and Shanghai of Asia

(Creel, 2003). Experts indicated that, 1.5 meters Sea Level Rise (SLR) will affect about

17 million (15%) of the world’s people. It has been predicted that 16 percent coastal

lands will drive under water by 2050 (Islam, 2010). According to Brauch (2004),

throughout the 21st century, urban vulnerability will increase due to regional climate

change and hydro meteorological hazards will be more frequent and intensive. Islam

(2010) mentioned that about 50 coastal towns are under threat in the Ganges delta.

Recent scientific assessments indicate that sea-level rises of up to 1 meter can submerge

many coastal regions like Bangladesh, Indonesia and so on (Smith, 2009). Thus, Cohen

(2006) emphasized that sustainable development is a big challenge in coastal areas.

Coastal urban areas have been sighted ever increasing risk due to changing climate

(Shaw, 2009). Nevertheless, the coastal belt of Bangladesh occupies about one third of

national territories and supports more than 50 million people of the country (Islam et al.,

2013). Islam (2006) focused that, the coastal zone of Bangladesh is not only an Exclusive

Economic Zone (EEZ) but also it is prone to multiple threats. The Government of

Bangladesh has already placed the zone as ‘vulnerable to adverse ecological processes’

(Islam and Ahmed, 2004).

The physical settings of Bangladesh have made coastal region vulnerable to natural

hazards and disaster (Rasheed, 2008). Thus, people of coastal areas affect every year due

to cyclones, tidal surges etc. (Nahar, 2011). Moreover, human activities in coastal lands

and resources have also direct and indirect effects on the coastal environment (Rahman

and Rahman, 2015). Islam (2012) emphasized that urbanization trends are ever

increasing. However, this trend is not only found in the major cities but also identified as

a whole at the regional level (Yeung, 2011). Asia is an example as a rapidly urbanizing

continent because of its regional level small scale scatter development (Cohen, 2006) but

Africa is not the rapidly urbanizing continent (Hope, 2009). It is evident that Bangladesh

is becoming urbanized very rapidly, thus it is important to be controlled and managed this

urbanization in a planned manner, otherwise the development will be a catastrophe

(Rahman and Rahman, 2015). Several coastal districts have been experiencing water

logging and drainage problems due to such effects (Shabnam and Mondal, 2013). In such

situations, urbanization opportunities, potentialities and problems of the coastal zone

have not received much attention in recent research of Bangladesh. The present study is

an effort to contribute such gap to focus unplanned urban expansion and its impact on

Kalapara town.


OBJECTIVES

The major objectives of this research were to analyze the urban characteristics of

Kalapara town; to evaluate the impacts of urbanization on the physical environment; and

to illustrate the physiographic resistance of the study area using Geographic Information

System (GIS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were followed in this study. Data were

collected from both secondary and primary sources. Secondary sources included a detail

review of published and unpublished documents and primary sources included

observation and field survey. For land cover mapping, three cloud free multi-temporal

images of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) and TIRS

(Thermal Infrared Sensor) were acquired (downloaded from the USGS global

visualization viewer) for the years 1990, 2000 and 2015. The combination of six bands

(from Band 2 to Band 7) was used together as a layer by using Erdas Imagine software.

For land cover classification, several training samples (land cover type) (Dewan and

Yamaguchi, 2008; Ahmed, 2014 and Corner et al., 2014) were selected randomly (using

the ArcGIS Image Classification Tool) based on the spectral properties of Landsat

images. A supervised maximum likelihood classification (MLC) was applied to classify

each image.

Collected images were classified into four feature classes and error matrix method was

applied for accuracy assessment. The number of test pixels for each class was 40 and

total 160 random points were generated for the four classes respectively using the random

sampling method for accuracy assessment. Using Google Earth Pro (Parece et al., 2014)

and field survey the features of the scene were checked for verification. The area of each

class was calculated using spatial analysis tool as Zonal Geometry as Table. The overall

accuracy of the Landsat-derived land cover classifications was 86.2%, 85.6% and 89.0%

(for 1990, 2000 and 2015), where, the standard accuracy of image classification is

considered between 85% to 90% for LULC mapping as recommended by Anderson et al.

(1976).

The primary data were collected from the field through a semi-structured questionnaire

and photographs. Considering 10% of total the study area population 17,332 (BBS,

2013), a total of 181 households were surveyed randomly. Various maps from different

sources like Kalapara municipality, Local Government Engineering Department (LGED)

and Google Earth PRO were used to collect base maps of the study area. To analyze and

describe maps, ArcGIS 10.3 and Surfer 11 software were applied. Data collected from

primary sources were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and

Microsoft Office Excel.

STUDY AREA

Kalapara Upazila of Patuakhali district is located in between 21°48´ and 22°05´ North

latitudes and in between 90°05´ and 90°20´ East longitudes (Figure 1). Kalapara

Pourashava was established in 2010 (BBS, 2014). It has an area of 3.75 square


kilometers. According to BBS Census 2011, the total population is 17,332. Among them

8887 are males and 8445 are females. The pourashava consists of with 9 wards and 24

mahallas.

Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area

Source: Reconstructed by the authors based on LGED, 2014


COASTAL TOWNS OF BANGLADESH

The coastal zone of Bangladesh is a part of the delta of the extended Himalayan drainage

ecosystem (Rasheed, 2008) where approximately 62 percentage of land has an elevation

of up to 3 meters (Islam, 2010). There are 101 coastal towns in Bangladesh, which are

shown in Figure 2. However, most of those towns have grown in an unplanned manner in

terms of landuse, natural environment and urban planning which demands proper

planning and management for environmentally sustainable development of the coastal

towns of Bangladesh (Islam, 2012).

Figure 2: Location of Coastal Towns in Bangladesh

Source: (Miah and Najia, 2016 )

According to the Figure 3, major coastal towns of southern Bangladesh are facing rapid

urbanization. For instance, the trend of urbanization found similar in most of the coastal

towns and the urbanization rate varies around 9 % to 15%. However, the rate is now

increasing and some exceptions were also found where the level of urbanization is very

high e.g. Pirojpur (35.74%), Jhalokati (25.38%) paurashavas. The level of urbanization in

Kalapara town is 14.87% and it indicates a rapid growth due to urbanization will be

observed in near future.


Figure 3: Level of Urbanization in Major Coastal Towns of Southern

Coast of Bangladesh in 2011 Source: BBS, 2014

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Urban Characteristics of Kalapara Town

There were 505 urban centres in Bangladesh (BBS 2014). Of these, Capital Dhaka is a

megacity while Chattogram, Khulna, Rajshahi and Sylhet are metropolitan cities. There

are 25 cities with population of over 100,000 each and the rest are smaller towns (Islam,

2017). Kalapara is a ‘B’ category small municipality town of coastal areas of Bangladesh

(BBS, 2014). The town has the population density of 4,622 per km2 with average

household size of 4.01 within an area of only 3.75 km2 (Table 1).

Table 1. Urban Characteristics of Kalapara Town

Indicators Units

Area (km2) 3.75

Total Population 17,332

Population density/km2 4,622

Sex Ratio (male/100 female) 105

Total Households 4,347

Average Size of Household 3.9

Annual Population Growth Rate (%) 1.62

Literacy Rate (7+ years) (%) 75.1

Urbanization Rate (%) 14.87

Source: BBS, 2013

There is a remarkable variation in the degree or level of urbanization by districts. Most of

the districts, 44 out of 64 have recorded low levels of urbanization, with only 11% to

20% of population living in urban areas (Islam, 2017). Figure 4 indicates the urbanization


trend of Kalapara town (a) and total urban area of Patuakhali district (b). In 2001, the rate

of urbanization in Kalapara town and total urban area of Patuakhali district were 11.66

and 12.0 respectively. However, in 2011, the rate of urbanization was higher in both

cases as 14.87% in Kalapara town and 13.14% in Patuakhali district (BBS, 2013). This

trend indicates that rapid urbanization is taking place in Kalapara town than total urban

area of Patuakhali District (Figure 4).

12.0013.14

0

5

10

15

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

%

Year

(b) Patuakhali District (Total Urban

Areas)

11.66

14.87

0

5

10

15

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

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11

%

Year

(a) Kalapara Town

Figure 4: Urbanization Trend in Kalapara Town and Total Urban Areas of Patuakhali District

Source: BBS, 2014 and BBS, 2015

Land Cover and Landuse

The overlaying GIS technique has been used to find the land cover changes that occurred

between different time periods (1990, 2000, and 2015 presented in Figure 5). As shown

in Table 2 and Figure 5, there has been a remarkable change in land cover over the 25

years (1990 to 2015) in the study area. Table 2 shows a summary of the major land cover

conversions occurred during the study period.

The study found that urban built-up area is gradually increasing while agricultural land

and water body are decreasing (Table 2 and Figure 5). At the same time, field survey

confirmed that homestead forest is increasing due to afforestation activities in the study

Source: Census, 2011


area. In 1990, the built-up area was about 141.5 hectares (15.9%) followed by 252.6

hectares (28.4%) in 2000 and about 354.9 hectares (40.0%) in 2015 (Table 2). During

1990-2000, the total built up areas increased by 111.2 hectares of land while during 2000-

2015, total 102.2 hectares built up areas were increased. On the other hand, the agrarian

lands and waterbodies of the study area reduced drastically and over a period of 25 years

by 164.3 hectares and 57.2 hectares respectively (Table 2). The net increase of urban

areas over the study period (from 1990 to 2015) was 213.4 hectares (15.9% to 40.0%)

which resulted in an extensive reduction in agrarian lands and waterbodies.

Figure 5: Land Cover Changes of Kalapara Town from 1990 to 2015

Source: Developed from Landsat images by the authors


Table 2: Land Cover Changes in Kalapara Town, 1990-2015

Categories 1990 2000 2015 Area Changed

from 1990 to

2000 (ha)*

Area

Changed

from 2000 to

2015 (ha)*

Net Area

Changed

from 1990 to

2015 (ha)*

Area

(ha)

% Area

(ha)

% Area

(ha)

%

Waterbodies 242.0 27.3% 234.5 26.4% 184.8 20.8% -7.5 -49.8 -57.2

Agricultural Lands 307.4 34.6% 230.9 26.0% 143.2 16.1% -76.5 -87.8 -164.3

Urban Built-up Areas 141.5 15.9% 252.6 28.4% 354.9 40.0% +111.2 +102.2 +213.4

Homestead Forest 197.1 22.2% 169.9 19.1% 205.2 23.1% -27.2 +35.3 +8.1

Total 888.0 100.0% 888.0 100.0% 888.0 100.0% Source: Field Survey, 2015 (Area is calculated by using ArcGIS 10.3)

(*Note: ‘+ Sign’ indicates an increase where ‘– sign’ denotes a decrease of a land type over time)

According to the Figure 6, the study area has experienced a huge environmental changes

from 1990 to 2015. The findings of the study revealed that, natural environment and

ecological balance of the study area is intensely disturbed due to excessive population

growth and uneven urban expansion. For instance, over two decades (25 years) urban area

has increased exponentially by 24.1% and agricultural land has decreased by 18.5% (Figure

6). Besides, due to infrastructural development, waterbodies are reducing rapidly. Therefore,

urbanization creates direct impacts on agricultural land and ecological stability.

Figure 6: Impacts of Land Cover Changes on Natural Environment from 1990 to 2015

Source: Calculated from Landsat images by the authors


Table 3 shows the landuse changes of two different observations; one is found from

satellite images (I) and another is based on the field survey (II). The land cover found in

satellite images was verified in the field to compare the existing landuse of the study area.

From the satellite images six different categories were identified where various types of

activities (Table 3) are taking place to contribute landuse changes.

Table 3: Landuse Changes: Satellite Images and Field Survey in 2015

Landuses Found from Satellite

Images (I) Landuse Changes Found from Field Survey (II)

Mangrove forests along river Mangrove forests to small industries and shops

Wetlands (ponds) Wetlands to settlements

Homestead vegetations Homestead vegetations to roads

Agricultural lands Agricultural lands to industry and residential setting

Natural Vegetations Natural Vegetations to vacant land

Coastal river site River site to build-up areas

Source: Field Survey, 2015

The major landuses are categorized as residential, commercial, administrative and non-

urbanized areas. The residential landuse consists about 36% of total land followed by

14% commercial and about 7% administrative while a major proportion of land about

43% found non-urbanized (Table 4). Based on existing landuse (2015) collected from

field survey a proposed land zones is shown in Figure 7 (the detail landuse (a) and

landuse zone (b) of Kalapara Town).

Table 4: Major Landuse of Kalapara Town

Categories Area (hectares) Percentage (%)

Residential Areas 317 35.7%

Commercial Areas 122 13.7%

Administrative Areas 65 7.3%

Non-Urbanized Areas 384 43.2%

Total 888 100.0%

Source: Field Survey, 2015 (Area is calculated by using ArcGIS 10.3)


Figure 7: Existing Landuse of Kalapara Town, 2015 Source: Based on field survey, 2015

Physical Resilience of Kalapara Town to Climate Induced Disasters

Most of the coastal cities in Bangladesh are located on the riverbank of low-lying tidal

zones at an average elevation of 1.0–1.5 meters from the mean sea level (Rahman and

Rahman, 2015). In the present study, the contour map illustrates that the maximum height

of the surface is 15m and the minimum is -4m (Figure 8).

The findings of the study identify that, most of the developed areas consist of buildings,

roads, power infrastructure, telecommunication transmission lines, drainage and

sewerage are located between 2 to 4 meters elevation. However, it is found that the town

is highly vulnerable to climate induced disasters, particularly to tropical cyclones and

floods due to the low altitude of topography.


Figure 8: Contour Map of Kalapara Town

Source: Developed from SRTM DEM data by the authors, 2015

A hazard map of the study area is prepared to identify the major hazards of the town and

classify risk zone of disasters. From Figure 9, it is found that, the major hazards and

disasters are cyclone, flood, river bank erosion and water logging. On the other hand,

based on the types and occurrence of disasters, four major risk zones i.e. very high, high,

moderate and low were categorized based on study findings by Miah and Najia (2016).

The south and southwestern sides of the town, along the riverside area is under high risk

of different hazards. However, spatial distributions of risks and vulnerabilities are

important for planning and management of local level hazard to mitigate the impact of

disaster. Despite this fact, the people of the town are continuing to build their dwellings

in those hazardous zones.


Figure 9: Spatial Distribution of Hazards and Vulnerable Zones in Kalapara Town

Source: Based on Field Survey, 2015

Respondent's Opinion Regarding Resilience of Kalapara Town

The citizens of Kalapara town were asked about their perceptions regarding resilience of

Kalapara town. The study found mixed perceptions of both positive and negative

opinions. Among the respondent’s perceptions, 34% believed that strong infrastructures

can reduce risk of disaster, while 24% said that rapid urbanization can increase high

disaster risk. On the other hand, about 13% respondents told that urbanization is

contributing in increasing income sources followed by about 7% mentioned it is

improving the standard of living (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Respondent's Perceptions Regarding Reliance of Kalapara Town

Source: Field Survey, 2015


CONCLUSION

It is clear from the above discussion that Kalapara town is urbanizing rapidly. Like other

large, medium and small sized cities of the country, Kalapara is also growing fast which

is putting pressure on natural and social environment by contributing various types of

development activities. However, the built-up areas of the town are increasing rapidly

and it is one of the major driving forces that accelerate the rate of coastal urbanization. It

has affected the mangrove forest, agricultural land and water bodies. Development

activities are also taking place without considering the natural environment and

ecosystem of the coastal area. Thus, coastal lands of Bangladesh (for example Kalapara

town) are vulnerable to various types of hazard and disaster due to low lying topography,

geographical settings and growing population pressure. Furthermore, people in Kalapara

town believe that the town does not have the resilience to cope with frequent climatic

disasters. In such context, urbanization in coastal areas requires careful planning and

management approaches considering the physiographic settings, location, and

topographic condition. Strong control over unplanned human interventions especially on

unplanned landuse and infrastructural development, environmental degradation,

residential distribution in the high disaster risk zone in the south and southwestern parts

of the town and along the riversides is needed. Thus, the sustainable development of the

study area requires appropriate geospatial plans and management approaches to achieve

resilience against disaster.

Acknowledgement

The present paper is an outcome of Miah’s (2015) B.Sc. (Honors) dissertation supervised by the

second author in the Department of Geography and Environment, Jagannath University, Dhaka,

Bangladesh.

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