U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-180. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Open-File Report 01-180...

Science PlanU.S. Geological Survey

Florida District

U.S. Geological SurveyOpen-File Report 01-180

Front Cover:

Photographs representing the five key science issues of the U.S. Geological Survey, Florida District:

Issue 1 Watershed Systems and Processes Cypress TreesIssue 2 Water Resources Assessment and Availability Public Supply Water Intake FacilityIssue 3 Hydrologic Hazards Hurricane Satellite ImageIssue 4 Occurrence, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants Pesticide Application Issue 5 Preservation and Restoration of Ecosystems, with Wood Stork

Emphasis on the Everglades

Text:

Photographs included in this report were taken by employees of the U.S. Geological Survey during various scientific investigations and studies. Some satellite images are from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Back Cover:

Photographs representing the science disciplines of the U.S. Geological Survey, Florida District:

Ecosystem Restoration Studies MultidisciplinaryCoastal Processes, Systematic Mapping, and Remote Sensing GeologyGround Water, Surface Water, Water Quality, and Water Use HydrologyManatees, Coral Reefs, Amphibians and Reptiles, Aquatic Biology

Fauna, and Nonindigenous SpeciesMaps, Satellite Imagery, GIS Products, and Land Surface Elevations Mapping

Prepared by the Florida Science Plan Team:

Kathleen M. Hammett Brian G. Katz Benjamin F. McPhersonEduardo Patino Donna M. Schiffer Leslie WedderburnDann K. Yobbi

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Open-File Report 01-180

Tallahassee, Florida

2001

Science PlanU.S. Geological SurveyFlorida District

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

The contents of this report will be periodically revised and updated. The most recent version of this report will be available on the Internet at http://fl.water.usgs.gov

The use of brand, firm, or trade names in this report is for identification purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

For additional information Copies of this report can bewrite to: purchased from:

District Chief U.S. Geological SurveyU.S. Geological Survey Branch of Information ServicesSuite 3015 Box 25286227 North Bronough Street Denver, CO 80225-0286Tallahassee, FL 32301 888-ASK-USGS

Additional information about water resources in Florida is available on the Internet at http://fl.water.usgs.gov

Contents III

CONTENTSIntroduction........................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Physical Setting........................................................................................................................................................... 1

Driving Forces............................................................................................................................................................. 4

U.S. Geological Survey Role and Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 7

Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................................... 8

Key Science Issues................................................................................................................................................................ 9

Issue 1: Watershed Systems and Processes ................................................................................................................ 9

Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

Program Objectives........................................................................................................................................... 10

Current Program................................................................................................................................................ 10

Issue 2: Water Resources Assessment and Availability ............................................................................................. 12

Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 12


Current Program................................................................................................................................................ 13

Issue 3: Hydrologic Hazards ...................................................................................................................................... 14

Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 14


Current Program................................................................................................................................................ 15

Issue 4: Occurrence, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants ....................................................................................... 16

Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 16


Current Program................................................................................................................................................ 18

Issue 5: Preservation and Restoration of Ecosystems, with Emphasis on the Everglades......................................... 18

Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 18


Current Program................................................................................................................................................ 19

Program Opportunities and Plan of Action........................................................................................................................... 20

Expanding and Improving Monitoring Networks ....................................................................................................... 20

Watershed-Based Programs ........................................................................................................................................ 21

Ecosystem Programs ................................................................................................................................................... 23

Hydrogeologic Framework and Modeling.................................................................................................................. 24

Occurrence, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants...................................................................................................... 25

Hydrologic Hazards .................................................................................................................................................... 26

New Instrumentation, Equipment, Technology, and Methodology ............................................................................ 27

Information Transfer ................................................................................................................................................... 28

IV Contents

FIGURES

1. Map showing location of U.S. Geological Survey offices in Florida............................................................................... 1

2. Satellite image of central and south Florida illustrating the distribution of lakes in the ridge

area and Lake Okeechobee ............................................................................................................................................... 2

3. Photograph of a spring run in northern Florida ................................................................................................................ 2

4. Photograph of an underwater view of spring biota........................................................................................................... 2

5. Map showing principal aquifers in Florida and areas where aquifers are vulnerable to contamination .......................... 3

6. Photograph of St. Johns River at Jacksonville, Florida, showing the Main Street Bridge............................................... 3

7. Map showing population distribution in Florida .............................................................................................................. 4

8. Photograph of agricultural water use................................................................................................................................ 5

9. Conceptual hydrogeologic cross-section illustrating aquifer storage and recovery in south Florida............................... 5

10. Satellite image of the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern coastline of the United States during a particularly

active period of hurricane activity in 1998....................................................................................................................... 6

11. Aerial photograph showing the meandering course of a natural stream channel of the Kissimmee River...................... 7

12. Aerial photograph showing a drainage canal in south Florida ......................................................................................... 7

13. Photograph of a U.S. Geological Survey employee servicing equipment on a tower in Volusia County,

Florida, used to measure evapotranspiration from an area of pine forest......................................................................... 8

14. Map of major watersheds in Florida as delineated by hydrologic unit subregions .......................................................... 9

15. Photograph of a U.S. Geological Survey employee making a discharge measurement in a stream with

tannic water.................................................................................................................................................................... 10

16. Map showing Georgia-Florida and South Florida National Water Quality Assessment study units ............................ 11

17. Photograph of data collection and storage equipment for an evapotranspiration site ................................................... 11

18. Photograph of public supply water intake in Bay County, Florida ............................................................................... 13

19. Conceptual diagram of saltwater-freshwater interface in an unconfined coastal aquifer.............................................. 13

20. Satellite image of a major hurricane threatening the southeastern coastline of the United States ................................ 14

21. Image showing coastal flooding during a hurricane...................................................................................................... 15

22. Photograph of pesticide application in a vegetable farming area.................................................................................. 16

23. Photographs of fish affected by high levels of mercury ................................................................................................ 17

24. Photograph of pharmaceutical compounds.................................................................................................................... 18

25. Photograph of Northern Big Cypress Swamp ............................................................................................................... 18

Contents V

26. Photograph of marshlands in south Florida................................................................................................................... 19

27. Satellite view of Florida ................................................................................................................................................ 21

28. Photograph of cypress trees in Apalachicola River flood plain .................................................................................... 22

29. Photograph of an alligator in Big Cypress Swamp........................................................................................................ 23

30. Conceptual illustration of a generalized cross-section through the Florida peninsula, showing karstic

features and the hydrologic cycle .................................................................................................................................. 24

31. Photograph of aerial application of pesticides in an agricultural area........................................................................... 25

32. Aerial photograph of a large sinkhole which formed in Winter Park, Florida, May 1981............................................ 26

33. Satellite image of a hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico .................................................................................................... 26

34. Photograph of U.S. Geological Survey employees measuring discharge at a Florida Bay tributary

station............................................................................................................................................................................. 27

35. Photograph of sensors used for estimation of evapotranspiration using the Bowen-ratio technique

in Everglades National Park .......................................................................................................................................... 27

36. Photograph of annual Florida water data reports published by the U.S. Geological Survey ........................................ 28

Conversion Factors and Datums

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:°C=(°F-32)/1.8.

Sea level: In this report, sea level refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVDof 1929)--a geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of boththe United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927(NAD of 1927).

Multiply By To obtain

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

acre 4,047 square meter

acre 0.4047 hectare

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second

inch per month (in/mo) 2.54 centimeter per month

inch per year (in/yr) 2.54 centimeter per year

Florida District Science Plan 1

This Science Plan has been prepared by theFlorida District of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)as a tool to provide direction for the scientific work tobe accomplished in the District during the next5-10 years. A Science Plan can serve as a guide todetermine the optimum use of the limited financialresources of the USGS in Florida to address waterresource issues. The Florida District has four primaryoperational centers geographically distributed acrossthe State, in Tallahassee, Orlando, Tampa, and Miami,with a laboratory in Ocala and field offices inJacksonville and Fort Myers. Other USGS disciplineoffices in Florida are located in Gainesville (biology),St. Petersburg (geology), and Miami (restorationecology) (fig.1). Although some differences exist inprograms among the four water-resource officesbecause of differing physiographic settings and infor-mation needs, many common elements are present andthese common elements are the focus of this DistrictScience Plan. Science Plan development was based onother planning documents including individual SciencePlans prepared by personnel in each of the four primaryFlorida water resource offices, and strategic planningdocuments of the Southeastern Region, WaterResources Discipline (WRD), and the USGS.

A broad cross-section of District staff,representing all primary offices, a number of differentscientific disciplines, and different programs of theDistrict (data collection, investigations, and research)collaborated on the development of this Science Plan.As part of the development process, input was solicitedfrom staff in every office and considered for inclusionin the plan. The Science Plan will be evaluated on an

INTRODUCTION

ongoing basis to ensure its continued relevancy torecognized water resources needs in Florida, and toguide future program development and collaborationwith our existing and potential partners and customers,both within and outside the USGS.

Physical Setting

Florida has unique hydrologic features thatdistinguish it from other southeastern states. TheFlorida peninsula has very little topographic relief (thehighest elevation is no more than 350 feet above sea

Florida Districtand North Florida ProgramsOffices, Tallahassee

Florida CaribbeanScience Center, Gainesville

Ocala Water Quality andResearch Laboratory

Tampa Subdistrict Office

Center for Coastal andRegional Geology,

St. Petersburg

Fort Myers Field Office

Restoration Ecology Branch

Miami Subdistrict Office

OrlandoSubdistrict

Office,Altamonte

Springs

Figure 1. Location of U.S. Geological Survey offices inFlorida.

Science PlanU.S. Geological SurveyFlorida District

2 Florida District Science Plan

level), has a lack of surface storage (contributing to

flooding and drought problems in many areas), has

hundreds of miles of coastline, and is underlain by one

of the most productive aquifer systems in the UnitedStates, the Floridan aquifer system. The karst geology

of the peninsula is the reason for the well-developed

aquifer system, the many internally drained surface-

water basins, the numerous depression features (sink-

holes being the most notable), and other karst-related

features. The natural resources of the state that attract

new residents and tourists alike include numerous

Figure 3. A spring run in northern Florida.

Figure 2. Satellite image of central and south Floridaillustrating the distribution of lakes in the ridge area andLake Okeechobee.

streams, lakes, springs, wetlands, estuaries, and theextensive coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and theGulf of Mexico.

The climate of Florida varies slightly from thenorthern panhandle area to southern Florida, but ingeneral is characterized by a relatively high meanannual temperature and rainfall, and is humid andsubtropical. Average annual rainfall in Florida canrange from about 40 inches in the western Keys tomore than 60 inches in the panhandle. Severe weathergenerally comes in the form of intensive thunderstormactivity in the summer months, tornadoes, tropicalstorms, and hurricanes. In recent years, weatherextremes appear to be intensifying, from drought-likeconditions during spring months to more active hurri-cane seasons.

Water resources are one of Florida’s most valuedassets. The State has more than 1,700 streams andrivers, 7,800 freshwater lakes, including LakeOkeechobee (one of the largest lakes in the UnitedStates after the Great Lakes), and is underlain virtuallyeverywhere by aquifers capable of yieldingsignificant quantities of freshwater to wells (fig. 2).The State has about 320 springs, whose combined dis-charge is estimated at over 8 billion gallons per day,and has 27 of the 78 first-magnitude springs (dischargegreater than 100 cubic feet per second) in the UnitedStates (figs. 3 and 4).

Although Florida’s water resources are exten-sive, they are finite, and growth in population, tourism,industry, and agriculture is placing an increasingdemand on them. Satisfying the demands of all waterusers is perhaps Florida’s greatest resource challenge.

Figure 4. An underwater view of spring biota.


North Florida has some of the largest rivers inthe State as well as a number of important streams,lakes, springs, and estuaries. In terms of annualdischarge, the area has three of the five largest rivers inthe State: the Apalachicola, Choctawatchee, andEscambia. Many of the rivers in northwest Floridaoriginate in Alabama and Georgia, and interstate watermanagement relating to these rivers is an increasinglyimportant issue.

Ground water is the primary source of watersupply for northwest Florida. The four major groundwater systems in northwest Florida include the surficialaquifer system (which includes the sand and gravelaquifer), the intermediate aquifer system, the Floridanaquifer system, and the Sub-Floridan system. Wellheadprotection is particularly important in the westernmostparts of northwest Florida, where much of the popula-tion relies on the sand and gravel aquifer for watersupply. This aquifer is close to the surface and issusceptible to contamination from surface activities. Inthe big bend area of the State (Suwannee River basin),most of the Floridan aquifer system is unconfined andalso vulnerable to contamination from the surface(fig 5).

In central Florida, the St. Johns River is thedominant surface-water feature (fig. 6). The river wasselected as one of the first of the American HeritageRivers, because of its unique character and value to theresidents of Florida. Other than the several tributaries tothe St. Johns River, major river systems in central Flor-ida include the Kissimmee River (the subject of currentrestoration efforts), and the Withlacoochee, Hillsbor-ough, Manatee, and Peace Rivers. The central Florida

Figure 5. Map showing principal aquifers in Florida and areaswhere aquifers are vulnerable to contamination.

landscape is noted for its many seepage lakes andsprings. However, increasing urbanization has resultedin concerns over declining lake levels and spring dis-charge. Central and west-central Florida are underlainby the surficial aquifer system, the intermediate con-fining unit, and the Floridan aquifer system (includingthe Upper and Lower Floridan aquifers). The primarysource of drinking water for central and west-centralFlorida is the Floridan aquifer system. Contaminationof ground water is of great concern in central Floridabecause of the proximity of the surficial aquifer to landsurface, land uses in the area (including phosphatemining), the lack of a confining layer in many areas,and the presence of breaches through the confininglayer that provide direct conduits to underlyingaquifers.

Water supply in west-central Florida is a criticalissue, requiring the consideration of development of avariety of alternative sources including brackish waterand submarine springs in the Gulf of Mexico. North-east Florida is particularly vulnerable to saltwaterintrusion because of a large population and consequentdemands on ground-water resources. Water managersin northeast Florida and in west-central Florida areactively monitoring public supplies for increasingchloride content, and are developing alternative plansfor water supplies for the future.

The southern part of the Florida peninsulacontains a unique ecological landscape. One of themajor hydrologic features of south Florida is LakeOkeechobee, which is the second largest freshwaterbody wholly contained within the continental UnitedStates. The entire natural system in south Florida lieson top of a limestone platform containing a complex

Figure 6. St. Johns River at Jacksonville, Florida, showingthe Main Street Bridge.


sequence of aquifers (the Biscayne and Floridanaquifer systems). The Everglades is an irreplaceablewilderness that is bounded to the east by a highlydeveloped urban corridor and to the west by a rapidlygrowing urban area. Along the periphery of theFlorida peninsula in south Florida are beautifulbeaches, highly productive bays, estuaries, mangroveforests, and extensive coral reefs. The hydrology ofsouth Florida is unique in the State because of itshighly manipulated character. About half of the origi-nal Everglades has been lost to urban, suburban, andagricultural uses through “reclamation” of the landusing a complex series of drainage canals, levees,control structures, and pumps that have beenconstructed since the 1940’s. The result is a hydro-logic system that is directly controlled and managed todistribute freshwater in support of urban and agricul-tural activities. Reduced water availability to theEverglades and disruption of normal high and lowwater conditions have excessively stressed naturalecosystems with resulting large-scale reductions ofterrestrial and aquatic wildlife communities.

A L A B A M A

G E O R G I A

100 MILES25 50 750

25 100 KILOMETERS50 750

31

30

29

28

27

26

25

87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80

ES

CA

MB

IA

LAKEOKEECHOBEE

HILLSBOROUGH

BR

EV

AR

D

JEFF

ERSO

NOK

ALO

OS

A

SU

WA

NN

EE C

OLU

MB

IA

UNION

FLAGLER

SU

MTE

R

HIGHLANDSSARASOTA

OKEECHO

BEE

MO

NR

OE

PIN

ELL

AS

INDIANRIVER

LEE

ORANGE

PASCO

OSCEOLA

LAKE

BAKER

MARION

CLAY

DUVAL

NASSAU

PUTNAMALACHUA

SANTAROSA

WALTON

HOLMES

BAY

JACKSON

GADSDEN

GULF FRANKLIN

LIBERTYWAKULLA

LEONMADISON

HAMILTON

TAYLOR

DIXIE

LEVY

VOLUSIA

CITRUS

HERNANDO

SEMINOLE

POLK

HARDEE

DE SOTO

ST.LUCIE

MARTIN

MANATEE

GLADES

HENDRY PALM BEACH

BROWARDCOLLIER

DADE

CHARLOTTE

WASHIN

GTO

N

CALHOUN

LAFAYETTE GILC

HR

IST

BRADFORD S

T. JOH

NS

ATLA

NTIC

OC

EA

N

GULF

OFM

EXICO

EXPLANATION

ONE DOT PER 1,000 PEOPLE

Figure 7. Population distribution in Florida. (From Marella, 1998, Water use andtrends and demand projections in the Northwest Florida Water ManagementDistrict: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 98-269, 35 p.)

Additionally, nutrient-laden water from agriculturalareas flowing through the greater Everglades hasinexorably shifted the dominant vegetation fromsawgrass to cattails in many areas with resultingdisappearance of many species of natural fauna.

Driving Forces

Florida’s unique character, warm climate,abundant natural resources, and economicopportunities continue to attract many new residents,which increasingly stresses hydrologic systems(fig. 7). With development in the State comesincreased demand for water and increased potential fordegradation of natural systems. Fundamental to thewise stewardship of water resources in Florida is anunderstanding of watershed systems and processes.The definition of a watershed has been broadened toinclude not only the surface water drainage basin butthe ground-water basin as well. The understanding ofprocesses and interactions between ground water andsurface water on a watershed-based scale forms the


framework for answering complex questions and forallocation and protection of resources. To evaluate theentire watershed, cross-disciplinary integrated scienceis required to effectively evaluate physical, chemical,and biological processes.

Florida has experienced dramatic populationgrowth since the middle of this century. It is the fourthmost populated State in the United States and isexpected to grow at a rate of three percent annually,with most of the growth concentrated in coastal areaswhere less freshwater is available. In 1950, the State’spopulation of 2.77 million used about 2.9 billiongallons per day and by 1995, the State’s 14 millionpeople used 7.2 billion gallons of freshwater daily. Inaddition to the resident population in Florida, anestimated 41 million people visited the State in 1995.In 1995, Florida ranked fifth nationally in terms of totalwater use, eighth in water used for public supplies, andsecond to California in use of ground water for publicsupplies. Irrigation in Florida has expanded at such arate that in 1995 Florida agricultural production rankedamong the top ten states in the Nation, 13th in totalwater used for irrigation, and 10th in ground water usedfor irrigation (fig. 8).

Historically, ground water has supplied most ofFlorida’s water needs, but increased demands havestressed this resource to its limit in many areas. Aswater needs increase, alternative sources of water and

Figure 9. Conceptual hydrogeologic cross-section illustrating aquifer storage and recovery(ASR) in south Florida.

ways to store water are sought. Some alternativesources include surface water and desalination ofbrackish water. More recently, storage in and recoveryof freshwater from aquifers has been successfully usedin local areas of Florida and elsewhere, and is underfurther investigation as a viable alternative to above-ground surface water storage. This process is known asaquifer storage and recovery (ASR) (fig. 9). Floridaalso has large agricultural and industrial users of waterresources competing for the finite water resources ofFlorida. The development and allocation of waterresources is anticipated to continue to be of majorconcern in the immediate and long-term planning forthe State.

Figure 8. Agricultural water use.


Florida’s natural resources and climate thatattract new residents and visitors also contribute to itssusceptibility to hydrologic hazards, including floods,droughts, hurricanes, thunderstorms, hailstorms, andlightning strikes (fig. 10). The USGS provides hydro-logic data and studies that can improve the under-standing of effects resulting from some of thehydrologic hazards common to the state. Activitiesassociated with the hazards mission of the USGSinclude long-term monitoring and forecasting, real-time monitoring, and evaluation of effects after flood-ing events to provide valuable data that can be used tomitigate the impact of future events and aid in prepara-tion of risk assessments.

The karstic terrain of the State makes theground-water resources particularly vulnerable tocontamination from surface activities. Changing landuse, as a result of development, changes the character-istics of the quality of water recharging the aquifer orentering surface-water systems. Contaminants fromindustrial, commercial, agricultural, and residentialland uses have the potential to enter surface andground waters. Some constituents, such as nutrients,pesticides, and selected organic compounds, havebeen studied; others, including pharmaceuticals and

Figure 10. Satellite image of the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern coastline of the United Statesduring a particularly active period of hurricane activity in 1998.

endocrine disruptors, are beginning to receiveincreased attention as contaminants of concern tohuman and environmental health (even at very lowconcentrations). The potential for the presence ofthese contaminants in ground water and surface waterrepresent a new area of data collection and investiga-tion for the USGS in Florida.

Rather than evaluating point and nonpointcontaminant sources separately, the concept ofintegrated or total loading to receiving water bodiesfrom both sources is being used in the State to realisti-cally evaluate contaminant impacts and serve as abasis for regulation of these sources. Total MaximumDaily Loads (TMDLs) are being determined based onwater-quality data and discharge data for rivers andstreams and lakes in the State. These water bodies havebeen prioritized according to the degree of degradationof water quality, based on existing data.

The Florida of 150 years ago was a vastlydifferent place from what it is today because ofentrepreneurs who saw opportunity in the state andmodified the landscape to accommodate their visions


of the future. Through the 20th century large tracts ofland were “reclaimed” through industrious civilengineering projects that created vastly differentecosystems than what was originally in place. Theprimary tool for overhauling the landscape was the dig-ging of canals to connect lakes for navigation and toconvert wetlands to land suitable for agriculture or otheruses. Late in the 20th century, the value of the naturalsystems was recognized and plans were made to restoreas many areas as possible to their natural conditions.The effort to restore ecosystem functions has nowbecome a defined societal goal that has broad publicsupport. The Everglades, the Kissimmee River Basin,and Lake Apopka are examples of current efforts in theState (figs. 11 and 12). Preservation and restoration ofecological systems are important driving forces becauseof the close connection between ecological functions,hydrologic system characteristics, and human health.

U.S. Geological Survey Role and Capabilities

To provide the Nation with reliable, impartialinformation to describe and understand the Earth, theUSGS mission supports water-related, geologic,biologic, land use, and mapping studies that contributeto the safety, health, and well-being of Florida’scitizens. The work conducted to meet the goals of thescience issues identified in this Science Plan is divided

Figure 11. Aerial photograph showing the meanderingcourse of a natural stream channel of the Kissimmee River.

Figure 12. Aerial photograph showing a drainage canal insouth Florida.

into three general categories: basic data collection,hydrologic investigations, and research. The USGS inFlorida has the capability to conduct multidisciplinarywork to address these science issues because of theavailability of expertise in geologic, biologic, andwater resources. In addition to the available personnelin the State, expertise is available nationally and can becalled upon as needed for interdisciplinary investiga-tions, training of local personnel, and development ofnew approaches and technology to address thecomplex science issues of the State.

The USGS is the Department of the Interior’sscience agency; it is a multidisciplinary, non-regulatory, and non-advocacy agency, and it has anestablished, long-term presence throughout Florida.The Florida District has programs underway thatinclude surface- and ground-water monitoringnetworks, investigative and research studies with localagencies, and parts of nationwide initiatives such asPlace-Based Studies and National Water QualityAssessment (NAWQA) programs. In addition, thepresence of large areas of public land administered bythe National Park Service (NPS), Fish and WildlifeService (FWS), State agencies, and Florida WaterManagement Districts offers opportunities forcooperative work between the Florida District and


these agencies. Opportunities also exist to cooperatewith Tribes and other agencies such as the Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA), National Oceano-graphic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), FloridaDepartment of Environmental Protection (FDEP),Florida Department of Agriculture and ConsumerServices (FDACS), other State agencies, and universi-ties that are conducting research on or near publiclands. Through the Federal-State Cooperative WaterProgram, the Florida District plays an active role inwater-related geologic, biologic, land use andmapping issues in many parts of the State by providingreliable, timely and impartial information needed tounderstand and wisely manage water resources (fig.13).

The need to understand systems and processeson a watershed scale is most closely linked to theUSGS mission goal “to provide science for a changingworld in response to present and anticipated needs toexpand our understanding of environmental andnatural resource issues on regional, national, andglobal scales and enhance predictive/forecastmodeling capabilities.” The multidisciplinaryapproach to watershed science that is necessary toevaluate natural systems introduces opportunities forcollaborative efforts within the USGS and withpartners in the State.

The USGS is uniquely qualified to evaluate theeffects of development, both past and present, onecosystems, because of the breadth of experienceavailable from all the programs of the USGS. Theongoing ecosystem restoration work in the FloridaEverglades (a “Place-Based Study”) has involvedindividuals from all the USGS programs (water,geology, biology, and mapping) and is a model forfuture collaborative studies. Other natural systems,where restoration is planned or is already underway(such as the Kissimmee River), offer additionalopportunities for collaborative work.

Acknowledgments

The Florida Science Plan Team extendsappreciation to Teresa Embry, Ron Spencer, and JimTomberlin of the Florida Scientific Reports ProductionUnit for their work on this report and visualpresentation.

Figure 13. U.S. Geological Survey employee servicingequipment on a tower in Volusia County, Florida, used tomeasure evapotranspiration (ET) from an area of pineforest.


Background

Florida’s landscape has been subdivided into53 hydrologic units that correspond to distinct surface-water drainage basins or “watersheds” (fig. 14). Theterm “watershed” specifically refers to an area thatgathers water originating as precipitation and contrib-utes it to a particular stream channel, lake, or otherbody of water. However, interactions between groundwater and surface water typically result in a singledynamic flow system in many watersheds in Florida.Ground water and surface water are hydraulicallyconnected through numerous karst features (such assinkholes, conduit systems in the underlying limestone,and springs) that facilitate the exchange of waterbetween the surface and subsurface, particularly wherethe Upper Floridan aquifer is semiconfined or uncon-fined. As a result, ground-water basin boundaries maynot coincide with boundaries for surface-water basins,which means that there can be substantial flow ofground water across surface-water basin divides. Also,ground-water basin boundaries are not static; they canchange with varying hydrologic conditions. Uniqueproblems can arise in protecting both ground-water andsurface-water quality in karst areas because of thedirect and rapid transport of recharge through conduitsto the subsurface and through resurgence by springs.In some watersheds, recharge from unknown drainagepathways to areas of discharge may contribute tocontamination of water supplies.

Federal and State agencies have moved to awatershed approach for managing and protecting thequality of ground water and surface water andpreserving the health of ecosystems. The holisticwatershed approach now includes many differentcomponents (biota, ecosystem, air and water quality,land and water use) within the boundaries of a surface-water drainage area and focuses on interactions amongthese components. Watersheds provide a convenient

KEY SCIENCE ISSUES

Issue 1:Watershed Systems and Processes

natural accounting unit for calculating water budgets,chemical loading to surface water and ground water,and assessing ecological health that is not constrainedby political boundaries. However, to adequatelyaddress ecosystem protection and other water-resources issues, several components of the hydrologiccycle need better quantification. For example, higherresolution of the spatial distribution of rainfall isneeded because many watershed models are driven byrainfall data that presently introduce considerableuncertainty in simulation efforts. Better estimates ofevapotranspiration are needed for improving theaccuracy of water budgets and for quantifying rechargeused in ground-water flow models. Better time resolu-tion of loading of nutrients and other contaminants isnecessary to determine the TMDLs for streams receiv-ing contaminants from nonpoint sources. Basic hydro-logic and water-quality data also are needed to providebaseline information for increased understanding ofwatershed processes, for evaluating causes ofproblems, for assessing the status of watershedresources, and for detecting and predicting trends.Various simulation models linking watershed compo-nents are needed to provide more effective decision-making support systems.

Figure 14. Map of major watersheds in Florida asdelineated by hydrologic unit subregions.

09

08

10

07

111214

13

14 SUBREGION

HYDROLOGIC UNITSUBREGIONS

(The state of Florida is in region 03)

EXPLANATION

A L A B A M A

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31°

30°

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87° 86° 85° 84° 83° 82° 81° 80°

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LF OF M

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100 MILES25 50 750

25 100 KILOMETERS50 750


Program Objectives

The USGS is in a position to take a leading rolein watershed systems studies in Florida, with theability to quantify hydrochemical interactions betweenthe surface and subsurface, describe the hydrogeologicframework and ecosystem functions, and identify themyriad of processes that affect the movement of waterwithin and through a watershed. To intensify and honeour efforts in watershed system studies, we shouldconcentrate on the following activities:

• Improve methods for quantifying watershedwater-budget components, such as rainfall,recharge, and evapotranspiration.

• Optimize the design of surface-water, ground-water, and water-quality monitoring networks toaddress key watershed issues.

• Link hydrologic, ecologic, land-use, and water-quality databases for watersheds using GIStechniques.

• Enhance existing watershed models and developwatershed models (where needed) to addressinteractions between ground water and surfacewater and contaminant loading (TMDLs).

• Collect and evaluate data on ground-water andsurface-water resources to minimize the effectsof state line issues on watershed assessment.

Current Program

Various components of watersheds are beinginvestigated in numerous USGS projects acrossFlorida. These studies include routine monitoring ofthe quantity and quality of surface water, groundwater, and atmospheric deposition; simulation of thehydrologic flow system; and quantifying rainfall,evapotranspiration, recharge processes, and nutrientcycling. Surface-water data from flow-monitoringstations provide discharge information that is criticalfor understanding watershed systems. The data is usedin calculating loading of contaminants, operatingreservoirs, forecasting, determining status and trendsin streamflow, calibrating watershed models, andplanning for the disposal of wastes. Long-term dataon ground-water levels provide information for evalu-ating effects of development, calibrating ground-waterflow models, predicting future supplies, evaluating theresponse of hydrologic systems to induced stresses,

and defining potential problems early enough to allowfor proper planning and management. Examples ofsome current studies are listed below:

• The USGS; in cooperation with State, county, andother local government agencies; maintains anextensive network of surface-water and ground-water stations. In water year 1999, the USGSoperated 354 continuous-record streamflowgaging stations distributed throughout the Statein most of the 53 hydrologic units (fig. 15).Continuous ground-water levels were measuredat 408 sites during water year 1999.

• The USGS National Water Quality Assessment(NAWQA) Program is studying watershedprocesses that affect ecological systems and thequality of ground water and surface water in twostudy units (fig. 16). The Georgia-FloridaCoastal Plain Study Unit, which began in 1991,has been studying the occurrence of nutrients,and pesticides in watersheds with predominantlyurban and agricultural land uses, as well asinteractions between ground water and surfacewater in the Suwannee River basin. TheSouthern Florida Study Unit, which began in1994, has been focusing on the degradation ofwater resources in south Florida due to humanactivities. Some particularly severe impacts to

Figure 15. U.S. Geological Survey employee making adischarge measurement in a stream with tannic water.


surface and ground waters being investigatedinclude nutrient enrichment, widespread occur-rence of pesticides, mercury contamination, andreduction in abundance and diversity of nativeaquatic biota. The Southern Florida study also isestimating nutrient loading from point andnonpoint sources for nine watersheds as well asfor canal and river outflows to estimate nutrientloading to coastal waters.

.

• Two large hydrologic budget components ofwatersheds, evapotranspiration (ET) and rainfall,are being studied in detail. Major efforts usingseveral innovative methods are underway toestimate ET throughout the Evergladesecosystem and in the Tiger Bay wetland inVolusia County (fig. 17). A study is comparingdigital information on rainfall amounts usingDoppler radar data from the National WeatherService and measured data from rainfall gagesthroughout a watershed.

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EXPLANATION

SOUTH FLORIDA NAWQA

Figure 16. Map showing Georgia-Florida and South FloridaNational Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) study units.

• Understanding the relation between ground waterand lakes is critical for managing water levelsand protecting lake water quality. Several studiesin central and west-central Florida are usingsteady- and transient-state ground-water flowmodels to evaluate the susceptibility ofindividual lakes to rapid changes in stage due toexcessive pumpage and low rainfall. Anotherstudy is using an isotope mass balance approachto quantify ground-water inflow to lakes and tobetter understand the factors controlling ground-water exchange with lakes.

• Rainfall, aerosols, and dry fallout can contributesubstantial quantities of substances of ecologicalconcern that are dispersed in the atmosphere towatersheds throughout the State. Detailedmeasurements of these substances are essentialfor effective management of agricultural, forest,and aquatic ecosystems in Florida. Currently, aspart of the National Atmospheric DepositionProgram (NADP) and National Trends Network(NTN), the chemistry of wetfall is beingmonitored weekly at seven sites in Florida(Bradford Forest, Chassahowitzka NationalWildlife Refuge, Everglades National Park,Quincy, Sumatra, Verna Well Field, and KennedySpace Center.)

Figure 17. Data collection and storage equipment for anevapotranspiration site. (Sensors are located at the top of thetower to which this shelter is attached.)


• The salinity of estuarine systems is critical formaintaining ecosystem integrity. The relationbetween ground-water head and spring flow isbeing studied in the coastal river basin of west-central Florida to determine the effects ofincreasing demands for freshwater on flow ofthree first-magnitude springs and 23 smallersprings in the basin. In south Florida, a variable-density ground-water flow model has beendeveloped to quantify ground-water dischargerates to Biscayne Bay. Also, flow and transportof surface water and ground water are beingsimulated using the Tides and Inflows in theMangroves of the Everglades (TIME) model forthe Everglades and southwestern portions ofFlorida. Output from the TIME model will beused by the Across Trophic Level SystemSimulation (ATLSS) biological model, whichsimulates population dynamics for selectedspecies.

• Several studies are investigating interactionsbetween watershed components in the SuwanneeRiver basin in Florida. Interactions betweenground water and surface water are beingsimulated in the Lower Suwannee River basinusing a coupled ground- and surface-watermodel. This model also is being used to testvarious scenarios of water withdrawals from theSuwannee River, the Upper Floridan aquifer, orboth. A study of flood-plain habitats also isbeing conducted in the Lower Suwannee Riverbasin to better understand water needs formaintaining healthy wetland ecosystems.

Background

Water availability will continue to be a majorhydrologic issue in Florida. Currently the fourth mostpopulated state in the United States, Florida is rapidlygrowing and pressures of population growth anddevelopment have adversely affected Florida’s waterresources. Ground-water pumpage has caused thelowering of lake and ground-water levels, reduction instreamflows, and saltwater encroachment. The quality

Issue 2:Water Resources Assessment and Availability

of water supplies has been degraded by point and

nonpoint sources of pollution and Florida’s wetland,

riverine, and estuarine habitats have been compro-

mised by the reduction of freshwater flow and

introduction of contaminants.

Although Florida has extensive water resources,most people live in coastal areas where less freshwateris available and population continues to increase. Theneed for additional water supply for coastal Floridapresents a significant problem. Ground water thattraditionally has been pumped from inland well fieldsto coastal areas will no longer be sufficient to supplythe increasing water demands. To supply the projectedwater demands, water managers must either developnew, more expensive supplies, or develop alternativesources that in the past were considered to be ofmarginal quality. Water reuse and aquifer storage andrecovery (ASR) practices will become criticallyimportant alternative sources of water for Florida incoming years. Surface water will be tapped to meetfuture water-supply demands. Saltwater desalination,well-field rehydration, and development of Florida’soffshore springs are expected to see increased attentionin the near future. These practices are viable alterna-tives to help maximize and maintain existing waterresources.

Florida’s challenge is to satisfy escalatingdemands for the finite quantities of water whilepreserving Florida’s environment. In an attempt topreserve Florida’s water resources, the State directedthe five Water Management Districts in 1996 to estab-lish minimum flows for streams and minimum levelsfor aquifers and surface water. The purpose is toidentify a limit at which further water withdrawalswould be significantly harmful to the water resourcesor ecology of the area. In response to this direction,methodologies are being established by each WaterManagement District for development of the proposedMinimum Flows and Levels (MFLs). However, nocommon approach is being taken by the WaterManagement Districts and the methodologies and datain developing the MFLs have been questioned. Watermanagers need up-to-date, sound scientific data tomake informed decisions on the optimum allocationthat would minimize impacts on the natural systemscaused by water withdrawals.


Program Objectives

The Florida District remains committed to activeparticipation in the water-resource activities of Florida.Program objectives for the District are to:

• Continue our role as a key participant with theState and other stakeholders in providing basichydrologic data and information needed tomanage the water resources in Florida.

• Optimize data collection networks and datadissemination.

• Develop and apply new and improved modelingand statistical techniques for analyzing complexground- and surface-water flow systems, stream-aquifer relations, and solute transport.

• Improve our understanding of the processesinvolved in water resources assessment andavailability.

• Expand studies and capabilities in fractured-rocksystems.

Current Program

In 1999, the Florida District conducted about 80hydrologic studies categorized as hydrologic data col-lection, hydrologic investigations, and appliedresearch. Projects that deal directly with water-resources assessment and availability include, by broadcategories:

Data-Collection Activities

• Collection of basic data for surface water, groundwater, and quality of water.

• Assistance to the five Water ManagementDistricts, Florida Department of EnvironmentalProtection, and other State agencies in thecollection, interpretation, publication anddissemination of water-use data.

• Collection of continuous water-velocity, water-level, and water-salinity data in Florida’s rivers,and coastal and estuarine waters for monitoringeffects of changes in freshwater flow.

Hydrologic Investigations

• Application of a wide assortment of regional,subregional, and local numerical simulationmodels to aid in the understanding of hydrologicsystem behavior for planning, evaluation, anddesign purposes.

• Investigations to determine the availability andsustainability of regional water resources forpopulation growth management planning(fig. 18).

• Hydrogeologic characterization and mapping ofthe subsurface to provide sufficient detail to buildreliable numerical models for making water-resource management decisions.

• Application of surface and borehole geophysicaltechniques for evaluating hydrogeologic hetero-geneity and structure.

• Mapping of the current position of the saltwaterinterface and design of networks to monitormovement and the future location of the saltwaterinterface (fig. 19).

• Assessments of water-quality degradation.

Figure 19. Conceptual diagram of saltwater-freshwaterinterface in an unconfined coastal aquifer.

Figure 18. Public supply water intake in Bay County,Florida.


Research studies on such topics as

• Evapotranspiration and natural ground-waterrecharge relations.

• Development of brackish ground-waterresources.

• Interactions of lakes and wetlands with groundwater.

• Chemical modeling of ground- and surface-waterflow.

• Wetland processes.

• Feasibility of aquifer storage and recovery.

• Lake augmentation, raising lake water levels bypumping from ground water.

Background

Extreme hydrologic events, such as hurricanes,tropical storms, and droughts, are commonplace inFlorida and severely impact the citizens and resourcesof the State. Hurricanes and extreme tropical stormsbring dangerous force winds and heavy rainfall intoflood-prone areas and cause elevated sea level nearshorelines, leading to loss of property and life. Contin-ued urbanization in the State of Florida, specificallyalong the coastline, can further alter watershed charac-teristics and increase the probability of flooding.Drought conditions deplete the State’s waterresources. Water level fluctuations in the surficial andFloridan aquifer systems, whether through naturalfluctuations or triggered by increased water pumping,can result in the formation of sinkholes, which pose arisk to property and life. Long-term hydrologicimpacts are caused by global warming. The lowtopography, specifically in south Florida, and theextensive coastline make Florida extremely vulnerableto the consequences of sea-level rise. A gradual rise ofonly a few inches can flood thousands of miles ofcoastline and destroy shoreline property.

Issue 3:Hydrologic Hazards

Program Objectives

The USGS plans to continue monitoring anddocumenting the occurrence and magnitude of extremehydrologic events, and studying the basic processesunderlying these events. The information gleaned fromthese activities will improve the ability to forecastprobability of occurrence and likely magnitudes offuture events. USGS program objectives in Floridainclude:

• Providing comprehensive information on theelevation and extent of storm surges in cooper-ation with Federal Emergency ManagementAgency (FEMA), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers(USACE), and other local and State emergencyagencies.

• Processing and disseminating relevant hydrologicinformation to customer agencies in a timelymanner for emergency management and evalu-ation of remedial measures needed in theaftermath of a storm or any other hydrologicevent (fig. 20). These agencies depend on ourdata to make decisions that affect life andproperty; therefore, data collection programsmust be responsive to changing expectations andneeds for USGS water resources data.

Figure 20. Satellite image showing a major hurricanethreatening the southeastern coastline of the United States.


• Improving the coordination and understanding ofthe roles that various agencies have for thecollection and distribution of information relatedto hydrologic events.

• Identifying hydrologic problems in urban areasand providing the necessary information to assistwater managers in selecting appropriatedevelopment strategies to remediate currentproblems and avoid future flooding.

Current Program

Current USGS efforts dealing with the collectionand analysis of data related to hydrologic hazards in theState of Florida include the following:

• The USGS, in cooperation with many State andlocal agencies as well as the USACE and FEMA,measures water levels and flood flows, andsurveys storm surges after landfall of extremetropical storms and hurricanes (fig. 21).

Figure 21. Coastal flooding during a hurricane.

• Flood frequency studies are being conducted forsections of southwest Florida.

• The USGS water resources staff, in cooperationwith numerous state, county, and other federalagencies, has established extensive monitoringnetworks to determine long- and short-termground-water level fluctuations and changes insurface-water flows throughout the State.

• Satellite telemetry and other technologies havebeen applied to monitoring networks at key sitesaround the State to provide real-time informationon ground-water level and surface-waterdischarges to local, state, and other federalagencies engaged in resource management andprotection. Most of this information is currentlymade available on the Internet.

• Ground-water network analyses are part ofongoing efforts in south Florida to maximize theefficiency of the information generated and toavoid redundancy.


• Potentiometric-surface maps are produced todescribe annual and seasonal ground-water levelfluctuations of specific aquifers.

• Drought-alert networks are currently beingestablished, or expanded, to provide real-timeinformation on the Internet to local, State, andother Federal agencies involved in themanagement, regulation, and preservation ofFlorida’s water resources.

• Water-quality sampling following stormsdocuments possible increases in pollutanttransport within the ground-water and/orsurface-water systems.

Background

Because of Florida’s karstic terrain, groundwater and surface water are linked in an interactivesystem and contaminants entering one part of thesystem can, and do, move to other parts of the system.The term contaminant is used to describe any constitu-ent or substance that is undesirable at a given point intime or location. For example, saltwater is not acontaminant in the Gulf of Mexico, but if it moves intoan aquifer or river reach that has always been fresh, itbecomes a contaminant. Conversely, freshwater maybecome a contaminant to an estuary when largevolumes are discharged for flood-control purposes. Or,clean sediment may be termed a contaminant when itcauses unnaturally high levels of turbidity forextended periods of time.

The occurrence of contaminants is directlyrelated to stresses associated with agricultural,industrial, and urban development and populationgrowth (fig. 22). The occurrence, transport, and even-tual fate of contaminants are of concern to the humanpopulation, but contaminants have an equal or moreprofound effect on the numerous plant and animalcommunities found in the State. Contaminants origi-nate from both point sources, such as sewage treat-ment plant effluent and industrial discharges, andnonpoint sources, such as atmospheric deposition and

Issue 4:Occurrence, Transport, andFate of Contaminants

stormwater runoff. As defined in the preceding para-graph, contamination also may result from natural phe-nomena such as sediment transport and tidal exchange.

Excessive nutrient loads contribute to eutrophi-cation in receiving waters. In the Everglades, theavailability of phosphorus generally limits the degreeof eutrophication. However, phosphorous is naturallyabundant in areas of central and northern Florida and,unlike much of the rest of the country, the availabilityof nitrogen generally limits eutrophication in thoseareas.

Nitrate concentrations higher than 10 micro-grams per liter (mg/L) are found in ground water inmany areas of the State as a result of fertilizer applica-tions and confined animal feeding operations. Many ofFlorida’s springs discharge high-nitrate ground waterinto streams and coastal waters. Stormwater runofffrom fertilized land areas, discharge from sewagetreatment plants, and leachate from septic tank drainfields can also increase nitrogen loads.

Organochlorine pesticides have been detected infish that are part of the Everglades food chain since thelate 1960’s. Even though DDT was banned for use inthe United States in 1972, DDT or its degradationproducts were detected in 25 of 27 fish samples from15 sites in south Florida in 1995. In 1997,agricultural areas around Lake Apopka werereflooded as part of a restoration effort for the lake,

Figure 22. Pesticide application in a vegetable farmingarea.


but within a year more than 1,000 waterfowl died.Investigators believe that, when the former farmingareas were flooded, pesticides in the soils were releasedinto the water column resulting in the bird deaths.

Florida is one of 28 states that has issued healthadvisories to restrict fish consumption because of highlevels of mercury (fig. 23). In south Florida high levelsof mercury have been found in various species of fishand in alligators, raccoons, and panthers. The sourcesof mercury and processes controlling its transport andaccumulation are not well understood, but atmosphericdeposition patterns may play a significant role.Methylmercury is the more toxic bioaccumulativespecies. Because of the existing burden of mercury inthe environment, recycling of mercury betweendemethylated and methylated forms can provide asource of methylmercury even if atmosphericdeposition ceases. There also is concern that nutrientremoval may promote the release of sediment-boundmercury or an increase in the methylation of mercury.

Microbes such as giardia and cryptosporidiumhave been found in surface water sources in the State.Proposals to develop ASR systems for water supplyraise the possibility that these microbes could beintroduced into the ground-water system. Ground-water systems also could be affected by disinfection

Figure 23. Fish affected by high levels of mercury.

Lesion

Deformation

byproducts resulting from the treatment of surfacewaters prior to storage using ASR systems.

Ground water, surface water, reclaimed water,and desalinated water will be blended in variousproportions throughout the year to provide water inwest-central Florida. One major proposal calls forstoring this blended water in a reclaimed phosphatearea, which characteristically has high levels of radio-chemicals. Blending various source waters may induceunforeseen chemical, geochemical, and biochemicalreactions in the blending, storage, treatment, and/ordistribution systems. Recently, a lake in west-centralFlorida that was being augmented with potable-qualityground water was found to have a build up of radiumin the sediments.

The proposed use of reclaimed water to augmentpotable supplies raises questions regarding theoccurrence, transport, and fate of microbes and viruses,as well as pharmaceuticals and various disinfectionbyproducts. Even if reclaimed water was not beingconsidered for use in potable supplies, the potentialimpacts of microbes, viruses, pharmaceuticals anddisinfection byproducts on the plant and animalcommunities of receiving waters must be considered.Endocrine disruption and development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria may be linked to thepresence of pharmaceutical agents in water bodies.


Program Objectives

To address the concerns associated with theoccurrence, transport, and fate of contaminants, theUSGS program must include a mix of process-oriented research, long-term monitoring, method-ological development, and synoptic studies. Specificobjectives of this program are to:

• Optimize data collection networks tocomplement national programs, maximizetransferability, and minimize redundancy withother programs and agencies.

• Investigate radiochemical substances in groundwater and surface water.

• Develop and improve field sampling andlaboratory detection methods for emergingcontaminants such as pharmaceuticals,pesticides, disinfection byproducts, and otherorganic compounds (fig. 24).

• Develop, test, and apply new methods forevaluating, interpreting, and reporting onwater-quality data.

• Develop process-oriented research projects toevaluate hydrogeochemical and biogeochemicalreactions associated with occurrence, transportand fate of contaminants in fresh and brackishsurface-water and ground-water systems.

Current Program

Several Florida programs focus on thecollection and analysis of data that can be used toevaluate the occurrence, transport, and eventual fate ofcontaminants in surface-water and ground-watersystems. These include:

• Assessment of water and sediment quality inthe Georgia-Florida Coastal Plain and in SouthFlorida, including the Everglades, as part ofUSGS NAWQA studies.

Figure 24. Pharmaceutical compounds.

• Research centered on the biological and chemicalprocesses that affect and control the cycling ofnutrients, mercury, and other contaminants aspart of south Florida ecosystem restorationstudies.

• Use of isotope tracers to determine the sourcesand chronology of contamination in lakes,streams, and springs.

• Use of acoustic and optic techniques to measuresuspension of sediments in streams and estuaries.

• Long-term continuous salinity monitoring andmonthly water-quality sampling in the tidalPeace River to determine the consequences ofincreased freshwater withdrawals and changes inthe salinity regime over the next 20 years.

• Monitoring and evaluation of the effects ofexcess freshwater discharges into estuaries onboth the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

• Evaluation of the effects of septic tank removalon water quality in areas of the St. Johns Riverbasin.

Background

Florida encompasses a diverse group of naturalecosystems including unique ones, such as large fresh-water springs in the central and northern regions, theEverglades and Big Cypress Swamp in the south(fig. 25), and coral reefs along the southeastern coast.

Issue 5:Preservation and Restoration of Ecosystems, with Emphasison the Everglades

Figure 25. Northern Big Cypress Swamp.


All of Florida’s ecosystems are threatened by humangrowth and development. Bottomland hardwood andpine forests in the north have been cut and replanted ordeveloped as farms or residential lands. Pine flat-woods, prairies, and upland scrub throughout thepeninsula have been converted to citrus groves,pastures, or urban land. Massive drainage projects, par-ticularly in the south, have significantly impacted wet-lands, rivers, lakes, and estuaries; many of the State’swetlands have been lost. Along the coast, intensiveurban development has replaced natural ecosystemsand has degraded beaches, marshes, mangrove forests,estuaries, and bays (fig. 26). Ecosystems that areprotected in parks, refuges, preserves, and other publiclands have been impacted by development beyond theirboundaries. Intense competition for water and land,input of nutrients and contaminants, suppression ofnatural fires, introduction of exotic species, and poten-tial climate change are all threats. Even the largestprotected areas, such as the Everglades, are degradedand face continuing environmental assaults.

About half the Everglades has been lost todrainage and development since the early 1900’s, yet itremains the largest subtropical wetland wilderness inthe United States. Most of the remaining Everglades isincluded in Everglades National Park (ENP), WaterConservation Areas, and Loxahatchee NationalWildlife Refuge, where, though protected from physi-cal destruction, it is degraded by nutrient enrichment,contaminants, exotic species, and altered freshwaterinflows. The Everglades requires seasonal inflows ofuncontaminated freshwater to maintain its ecologicalintegrity, yet freshwater is limited and there is intensecompetition for this resource between the remainingnatural ecosystem, agriculture, and the rapidly growingurban system.

A consensus has recently emerged amongTribes, Federal and State agencies, as well as environ-mental groups, that the south Florida ecosystem, andthe Everglades in particular, should be protected andrestored to the extent possible to its predevelopmentcondition. A first and primary step in this undertakingwould be the restoration of predevelopment hydrologicconditions to the remaining natural system. Plans arebeing made, under the USACE Comprehensive Ever-

glades Restoration Plan (CERP), to change the man-made water-conveyance system to restore the naturalhydrologic cycle of the predevelopment Everglades;scientists expect this will lead to overall ecosystemrestoration.

Program Objectives

Ecological restoration is a primary activity andconcern in Florida today. Billions of dollars will bespent to protect and restore Florida’s remaining naturalecosystems. The USGS should remain committed toactive participation in this endeavor by:

• Increasing the role of USGS in providing thescience needed for restoration.

• Working cooperatively with others to developmultidisciplinary investigations in support ofecosystem protection and restoration.

• Supporting development of models that link andintegrate hydrologic and ecological processes.

• Continuing active participation and leadership inscientific committees and symposia that relate toecosystem restoration.

Current Program

Two major USGS Federal programs that addressissues of preservation and restoration are underway inFlorida. These programs are the:

• Place-Based Studies Program.

• National Water-Quality Assessment Program.

Figure 26. Marshlands in south Florida.


The Place-Based Studies Program wasestablished to provide sound science for resourcemanagers in critical ecosystems throughout thecountry. The program, which began in south Floridain 1995, provides relevant information, high-qualitydata, and models to support decisions for ecosystemrestoration and management. The program appliesmulti- and inter-disciplinary approaches includingtopographic mapping; hydrologic and geochemicalevaluations; paleoecological studies to reconstruct thepredevelopment environment; and hydrologic,chemical, and biological modeling to address regionalenvironmental issues such as mercury contamination,nutrient enrichment, estuarine health, past and presentwater distribution and flow, and the dynamics of ani-mal populations.

The National Water-Quality AssessmentProgram (NAWQA) was established to provide aconsistent description of current water-qualityconditions of the Nation’s water resources; to definelong-term trends (or lack of trends) in water quality;and to identify, describe, and explain the major factorsthat affect water-quality conditions and trends.NAWQA began in north Florida in 1991 and in southFlorida in 1994, and covers most of the peninsula.Information generated by NAWQA is needed foraquatic ecosystem management and restoration. TheUSGS, in cooperation with Tribes as well as State,county, and other local government agencies, also car-

ries out studies that contribute to ecosystem manage-ment and restoration, including:

• A study in the Suwannee River basin to evaluateeffects of ground-water withdrawal andminimum river flows on the ecosystem,including downstream salinity, water quality,ground-water/surface-water interactions, andwetland habitats.

• A study of the relation between sources of nitratein spring waters and changes in land-use patternsin the Suwannee River and other basins.

• Studies of lakes and wetlands in central Florida,including the effects of water level augmentationto restore the health of impacted wetlands bymaintaining water levels that prevent harm tothese ecosystems.

• A study of the source-water-quality character-istics of surface and ground waters near LakeOkeechobee is planned for use in ASR, a majorcomponent of the USACE CERP for Evergladesrestoration.

• Monitoring of streamflow and water quality inbasins north of Lake Okeechobee is planned aspart of the Lake Okeechobee Watershed Project,another component in the CERP.

• Studies of the effects of freshwater runoff onestuaries, including the Suwannee and St. LucieRivers.

The USGS, Florida District, is well suited tocarry out the necessary data collection, investigationsand research needed to address the issues previouslydiscussed. The Florida District can improve the under-standing of processes that lead to or result from meteo-rological and hydrological events affecting the safety,health, and well-being of citizens of Florida. Togetherwith water managers in the State, the Florida Districthas identified several areas of investigation that serveas future program opportunities. The opportunitiesemphasize multidisciplinary approaches that in manycases will yield results applicable to a number of theissues previously identified. The issues to which these

opportunities will contribute most are shown inparentheses after each item.

Expanding and Improving Monitoring Networks

Although the USGS currently administers anextensive hydrologic monitoring network in Florida,opportunities exist for expanding and improving thisnetwork to add parameters which have not beenpreviously measured, improve accuracy and precisionfor parameters currently measured, and achieve lowerdetection limits for some parameters. An essential

PROGRAM OPPORTUNITIESAND PLAN OF ACTION


element of this work will be the development of newinstrument technology, equipment testing, equipmentcalibration and maintenance, and real-timetelecommunications. Specific areas of opportunityinclude the following:

• Additional work is needed to adequately measurestreamflow, suspended sediments, water quality,discharge in tidal areas, and ET. In particular,techniques to estimate flows at ungaged surface-water sites are needed. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• The statewide ground-water network whichprovides statistical information on a regionalbasis should be reevaluated to ensure that it’sdesign is optimum for providing the kind ofinformation that will be required now and in thefuture. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• The real-time data network for both ground-waterand surface-water needs to be expanded withefforts directed towards the inclusion (on theInternet) of all data collected at sites with real-time capabilities. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 5)

• Saltwater encroachment in Florida’s aquifers is acontinuing problem and many opportunities willexist during the next decade for saltwatermonitoring and development of numericalmodels to simulate movement of the saltwaterinterface in sensitive coastal areas. (Issues 1, 2, 3,4, 5)

• Use of satellite imagery technology needs to beintensified to address the impact of urban sprawland climate change on water resources andecosystems (fig. 27). (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Figure 27. Satellite view of Florida.

• Additional data collection and analyses areneeded to better understand the effects ofscalping (diverting and storing high flows)surface water on rivers, wetlands, and estuaries.(Issues 1, 2, 5)

• The frequency of measuring water levels needs tobe increased for wells tapping the surficial andFloridan aquifer systems in the Kissimmee RiverBasin to adequately monitor changes resultingfrom restoration efforts. (Issues 1, 2, 5)

Plan of Action:

• Enhance delivery of data and information.

• Expand the current real-time hydrologic datanetwork that includes ground-water, surface-water, and water-quality data that is accessiblethrough the Internet.

• Expand monitoring techniques for studyingsediment transport and resuspension.

• Develop a coastal network for monitoringsurface-water and ground-water flows andloading of contaminants to estuaries.

• Increase the frequency of measuring ground-water levels in wells in the Kissimmee RiverBasin in collaboration with the South FloridaWater Management District.

• Expand data collection and data-basedevelopment in support of ground-water flowand solute-transport models of the Floridanaquifer system.

Watershed-Based Programs

Opportunities for watershed-based programsexist throughout the State at the regional, sub-regional,and local scale. A better understanding of watershedprocesses will help guide watershed restoration effortsas well as aid in developing strategies for effectivemanagement and protection of watersheds. Thefollowing activities represent program opportunitiesthat are particularly well suited for USGS:

• Watershed and water-quality models can be usedto address contaminant transport issues,particularly with respect to determining howmuch contamination from nonpoint sources ina watershed can be contributed to a stream


without exceeding its total maximum daily load(TMDL). (Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Hydrochemical methods can be used to quantifythe transport and fate of nutrients and effects onaquatic ecosystems in springwater basins incollaboration with Florida’s Water ManagementDistricts and USGS biological resourceprograms (fig. 28). (Issues 1, 4, 5)

• Data from a statewide ET network can be used toprovide ground-truthing information in con-junction with satellite-based regional estimatesof ET. Possible collaborators include NASA andthe Florida Department of Agriculture andConsumer Services. Also, ET studies can beintegrated with vadose-zone hydraulics toprovide a better understanding of recharge ratesto aquifers in various land-use and climaticsettings. (Issues 1, 2, 5)

• Hydrochemical and geophysical methods can beused to assess the importance of submarineground-water discharge in coastal areas. Thisinformation is critical in maintaining ecosystemdiversity and health of estuaries. Opportunitiesexist for collaboration with the Florida Fish andWildlife Conservation Commission, NOAA, andUSGS geologic and biologic programs to studycoastal ecosystems with respect to tributary

Figure 28. Cypress trees in Apalachicola River flood plain.

watersheds that impact these sensitive systems.(Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Advanced modeling techniques can be used tosimulate effects of ground-water withdrawals onwater levels in karstic lakes, and effects ofpumpage on springflow in central and northernFlorida. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 5)

• Cooperation between the USGS and NOAA canbe increased to use rainfall data from anextensive network of USGS stations throughoutthe State for ground-truthing Doppler radarinformation. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• The design and suitability of current ground-water, surface-water, and atmospheric depositionnetworks for watershed-based analyses can beevaluated using stochastic and deterministicmethods. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• The USGS should serve as liaison for watershedissues that are shared among Florida, Alabama,and Georgia. (Issue 1, 2, 5)

Plan of Action:

• Work with FDEP and Water ManagementDistricts to conduct nonpoint source studies aspart of the Clean Water Act (Section 319).

• Develop new skills in watershed modeling.

• Initiate studies to enhance existing models anddevelop new water-quality models on which tobase TMDLs.

• In cooperation with other Federal and Stateagencies, develop a statewide ET networkwhich would encompass a variety of soil andvegetation types for both natural anddeveloped conditions. Also, conduct site-specific studies to develop a better under-standing of ET processes, and use remotesensing in conjunction with ground truthingto develop a connection between satellite dataand ET patterns.

• Initiate a cooperative program with NOAA todevelop a rainfall network for ground-truthing Doppler radar information.

• Serve as liaison for the collection and analysisof ground-water and surface-water data forwatersheds that span Florida, Georgia, andAlabama.


• Work more closely with State agencies indeveloping new hydrologic models.

Ecosystem Programs

Opportunities for programs to monitor and studyecosystem health exist throughout the State and willincrease as growth and development accelerate.Wetland and aquatic ecosystems, though reduced anddegraded, are still widespread in Florida, whereasupland ecosystems have been largely eliminated orreduced to relict areas. The remaining wetland andaquatic ecosystems are vulnerable because of theirneed for uncontaminated freshwater--a resource that isbecoming increasingly sought after to sustaincontinued urban growth in the State. These oppor-tunities will be greatest in central and south Florida,where restoration is underway in the Kissimmee RiverBasin and the Everglades, where an $8 billion dollarrestoration program is being planned. This CERPprogram will involve large structural and operationalchanges in the Central and Southern Florida (C&SF)project. These changes will require a substantialincrease in available scientific data and understanding.Opportunities exist for the USGS to carry out data col-lection and investigations to provide this understand-ing. The opportunities include:

• Hydrologic characterization of the predevel-opment (natural) system and determination of keycharacteristics that supported the rich diversityand abundance of wildlife in the past (fig. 29).(Issue 1, 2, 5)

• Assessment of the hydrologic and ecologicalresults of Everglades restoration modifications

Figure 29. Alligator in Big Cypress Swamp.

through pre- and post-modification monitoring(Issue 1, 2, 5)

• Evaluation of historic water-quality trends inNational and State Parks and surrounding lands.(Issue 5)

• Monitoring water flows and water quality at keylocations relevant to Everglades restoration.(Issue 5)

• Developing hydrologic models, including flow,water quality, and transport models. (Issues 1, 2,3, 4, 5)

• Linking hydrologic models with biologicalmodels, such as the ATLSS model. (Issues 1, 2,5)

Plan of Action:

• Develop a cooperative project with otherFederal and State partners to evaluate long-term trends by analyzing historic water-quality data from National and State Parksand surrounding lands.

• Submit a proposal to the National ParkService’s Critical Ecosystem Studies Initiative,the USGS’s Place-Based Studies Program,and/or other potential partners, to linkhydrologic and biological models.

• Implement the proposed program forevaluating the feasibility of ASR. This includesinvestigating improved methods to determineinjection and storage capacities and betterdefining the geochemical character of source,resident, and recovered water for the CERPprogram.


Hydrogeologic Framework and Modeling

Opportunities exist to improve our knowledgeof the basic geologic, hydrologic and hydrogeologicframework throughout Florida (fig. 30). Although theUSGS and other agencies have conducted investiga-tions over several decades, new water managementchallenges require reassessment of this work andapplication of newer and more advanced techniques toimprove our understanding of hydrogeologic frame-works and processes. Specific areas of opportunityinclude:

• Enhancing our knowledge of subsurfaceconditions, particularly field determinations ofaquifer and confining unit characteristics, toeffectively evaluate the regional potential ofASR. (Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Improving our understanding of groundwater/surface water interactions and, inparticular, the effects of ground-waterwithdrawals on streamflows, wetlands, lakes,and spring flow is needed to assist in water-resources assessments. (Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

Figure 30. Conceptual illustration of a generalized cross-section through the Florida peninsula, showing karstic features andthe hydrologic cycle.

• Evaluating the potential for chemical reactions inaquifers as a result of storage and mixing ofground water, surface water, brackish, orreclaimed water in surface or undergroundreservoirs. (Issues 1, 2, 5)

Plan of Action:

• Develop projects to better define the directionsand gradients of ground-water flow, thehydraulic properties of the aquifer systems,and the nature of cavernous flow to Floridasprings.

• Acquire new hydrogeologic data throughdrilling and geophysical data collection insupport of future ASR projects.

• Develop proposals to study hydrogeochemicalinteractions associated with proposed ASRsites throughout Florida.

• Work more closely with the South FloridaWater Management District in developing aregional density-dependent model of theFloridan aquifer system in south Florida.


Occurrence, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants

The widespread and increasing use of chemicalsin agriculture and industry and the potential for harmwhich these pose both to human health and the naturalenvironment offers additional opportunities forincreasing our knowledge of their distribution andinteractions in the environment. There are multipleareas in which the Florida District could developprograms dealing with the occurrence, transport, andfate of contaminants, as outlined below:

• Include the use of DNA ribotyping to identifysources of bacterial contamination. (Issues 1, 2, 4,5)

• Develop an in situ monitoring program toevaluate the transport and fate of brineconcentrate in estuarine and coastal waters.(Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Develop a better understanding of the transportand fate of nutrients in reclaimed water in thesubsurface at different scales. (Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Identify sources of increased concentrations ofnitrate in ground water and spring flow. (Issues 1,2, 4, 5)

• Understand the movement of sediment andtransport of associated metals and chemicals inFlorida streams. (Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

• Study the occurrence, transport, and fate ofcontaminants associated with confined animalfeedlot operations. (Issues 1, 4, 5)

• Evaluate best management practices, includingthe use of wetlands, for the treatment of runoff.(Issues 1, 4, 5)

• Study the processes affecting the fate andtransport of pharmaceuticals and other relatedchemicals in the environment (fig. 31). (Issues 1,2, 4, 5)

• Evaluate the ecological impact of desalinationfacilities in coastal environments. (Issues 1, 2, 4,5)

• Study the occurrence and fate of contaminants indrinking water, including organic compounds,disinfection by-products, radionuclides, and traceelements. (Issues 2, 4)

• Study the occurrence and fate of contaminants innatural ecosystems, including organiccompounds, radionuclides, and trace elements.(Issues 1, 2, 4, 5)

Plan of Action:

• Develop a project to investigate variations inthe chemical characteristics of blended watersand work with State and Federal agencies tobegin developing strategies and priorities forsampling and detecting compounds associatedwith reclaimed water.

• Develop a program for the study of thesubsurface transport and fate of nutrients inreclaimed water, and how reclaimed waterapplication rates and schedules can bemodified to enhance the natural attenuationor removal of nitrogen and phosphorus.

• Promote projects that evaluate the fate ofcontaminants and transport of constituentsand develop methods to identify commonsources of contaminants in drinking water andnatural systems.

• Use the results of recent reconnaissancesampling for emergent contaminants(pharmaceuticals, pesticides, endocrinedisruptor compounds) to develop additionalprojects.

Figure 31. Aerial application of pesticides in an agriculturalarea.


Hydrologic Hazards

The Florida District can improve the

understanding of processes that lead to or result from

extreme meteorological and hydrological events

affecting the safety, health, and well-being of Florida

citizens. Specific opportunities include:

• Completing statewide flood frequency studies toassist in emergency management operations.Rapid changes in the Florida landscape requireperiodic updating of these studies to reflectcurrent conditions. (fig. 32) (Issue 3)

• Developing studies addressing the jointprobability for storm surge and floods, a problemthat can result from completely differentmeteorological events and yet pose similarthreats to life and property (fig. 33). (Issue 3)

• Developing techniques for monitoring sinkhole-prone areas for early detection of sinkholeformation and collapse. (Issue 3)

• Improving techniques for monitoring andevaluating scour resulting from the passage ofhurricanes and tropical storms. Scour alongcoastal bridges is an example of work that can bedone in cooperation with the Florida Departmentof Transportation. Coastal erosion can be studiesby the USGS (geologic and water resourcesstaff) in cooperation with the USACE. (Issue 3)

Figure 32. Aerial photograph of a large sinkhole which formedin Winter Park, Florida, May 1981.

Figure 33. Satellite image of a hurricane in the Gulfof Mexico.

Plan of Action:

• Install a network of Crest-Stage Indicators(CSI) along coastal streams to simplify stormsurge surveys. After extreme storm events, thecork lines on the CSI's will serve as estimatesof surge elevation.

• Prepare a proposal for a statewide floodfrequency study, in cooperation with Statepartners, to update existing information.

• Work with USGS geologic staff and theFlorida Geological Survey in the documen-tation of new sinkholes and development of aGIS coverage of sinkholes in Florida.

• Prepare a proposal to do stochastic modelingof the joint frequency distribution of stormsurges and riverine flooding (Statewide).

• Prepare proposals to evaluate post-hydrologicevent effects (ecological, hydrologic, ground-water, water quality) so that the USGS can beready to take action in a timely fashion.


New Instrumentation, Equipment, Technology, and Methodology

Opportunities exist for the USGS to develop newmethods and adapt existing and emerging technologiesto support the collection of hydrologic information(fig. 34). The USGS is uniquely qualified to test newequipment, evaluate its application and reliability, andfind applications for existing technologies (fig. 35).The USGS also evaluates models and analytical meth-ods for applicability to unique, complex, hydrologicapplications. Specific opportunities include:

• Development of analytical methods to study andcollect information on newly recognized,emerging contaminants such as microbes,pharmaceuticals, pathogens, and endocrinedisruptor compounds. (Issue 4)

• Evaluation of new instrumentation for specificapplications in Florida, such as determining flowin low-gradient streams and transport and fate ofcontaminants in blackwater streams. (Issue 1,2, 4)

• Development of new algorithms andmodification/adaptation of models to the uniquefeatures of Florida, which address the hydrologiccharacter of various areas of the State. (Issue 1,2, 3)

Figure 35. Sensors used for estimation of evapotranspiration using the Bowen-ratio technique in Everglades National Park.

Plan of Action:

• Expand the capability of the Ocala WaterQuality and Research Laboratory (OWQRL)to analyze pharmaceuticals, pathogens, andpesticides and their degradation products.

• Seek additional opportunities to continuetesting the use of acoustic technology for themonitoring of suspended solids.

• Identify and test available instruments forapplication in hydrologic investigations. Selectsites throughout the State for testing andverification of instruments.

• Expand application of remote dataacquisition using non-contact sensors (such asradar for sensing water level).

Figure 34. U.S. Geological Survey employeesmeasuring discharge at a Florida Bay tributarystation.


Information Transfer

In keeping with the mission of the USGS toprovide reliable, impartial, and timely informationneeded to wisely manage the Nation’s naturalresources in the public interest, the Florida District cantransfer this information to where it is most needed.Specific ways in which information transfer can beaccomplished include:

• Participating in national reconnaissance andresearch data collection efforts. Provide resultsfrom those programs to cooperators interested incomparative information (fig. 36). (Issues 1, 2, 3,4, 5)

• Enhancing Internet capabilities to release dataand interpretive reports in a user-friendly, timelymanner. (Issue 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• Encouraging the use of historical data in evalu-ating long-term trends in water quality andquantity, and in water resources management.(Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• Providing scientific information and expertise onhydrology, geochemistry, and ecology to localand regional watershed groups. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4,5)

• Providing a forum through which cooperatorscan standardize and improve water-quality datacollection across the State. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

• Emphasizing the multidisciplinary capabilities ofthe USGS to address environmental issues inFlorida. (Issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Figure 36. Annual Florida water datareports published by the U.S.Geological Survey.

• Providing water-quality sampling methods,training, and quality-assurance/quality-controlsupport to cooperating agencies. (Issues 1, 2, 3,4, 5)

Plan of Action:

• Continue to participate in nationalreconnaissance and research data collection.

• Pursue opportunities to collaborate with andsupport other Federal agencies and otherUSGS programs in Florida. Initiate andsupport periodic symposia and workshops forthe exchange of ideas and information amongUSGS programs in Florida (biological,geological, mapping, hydrologic).

• Improve the transfer of hydrologicinformation to the Internet by prioritizingfunding to support this effort.

• Identify and set aside funding for outreachactivities that will provide transfer oftechnical information to local and regionalwatershed groups.

• Expand programs by the OWQRL to trainingcooperator agencies about water-qualitysampling methods (such as ppb samplingprotocols, and flow composite sampling ofstreams) and quality assurance/quality controlof field sampling parameters (such asproviding pH and specific conductancequality-control samples to cooperators).

Multidisciplinary

Ecosystem Restoration

Studies

Mapping - Maps, Satellite

Imagery, GIS Products,

and Land Surface

Elevations

Biology - Manatees, Coral Reefs,

Amphibians and Reptiles, Aquatic

Fauna, and Nonindigenous

Species

Geology - Coastal

Processes, Systematic

Mapping, and Remote

Sensing

The USGS in

Florida

Hydrology - Ground Water,

Surface Water, Water

Quality, and Water Use

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