Neme LITERATURA - A. Stulajterova : An introduction to the study of the English language - P. Štekauer : Essentials of English Linguistics 100-130p - O jazykovych smeroch, skolach a historii jazykovedy ^^ Skuska : 1 test v zaverecnom obdobi, 3 rozne terminy v 3 roznych tyzdnoch Katedrová knižnica K04 p. Vlčková 1 prednáška The old English period 800-1100 First inhabitants - Celts, then came romans, Britain profited from roman achievements and inventions, word strata = street comes from the romans, they built roads, left in 5th century when the Roman Empire disintegrated. CELTIC WORDS Toponyms : London, York, Thames, Avon, Dover Lexical remnants: bannock, brock, binn, ass Latin was the language of higher civilization, Celts had a lot to learn from it. Latin words were denoting practical things 1. Terms of agriculture: Lat. vinum > Mod.E wine Lat.prunus > ModE. Plum 2. Loan words connected with trade: buy, cheap, pound 3. Loans denoting domestic life: table, carpet, kitchen, cup dish 4. toponyms : - Chester, - caster ( endings )
Transcript
Neme
LITERATURA
- A. Stulajterova : An introduction to the study of the English language- P. Štekauer : Essentials of English Linguistics 100-130p- O jazykovych smeroch, skolach a historii jazykovedy ^^
Skuska : 1 test v zaverecnom obdobi, 3 rozne terminy v 3 roznych tyzdnoch
Katedrová knižnica K04 p. Vlčková
1 prednáška
The old English period 800-1100
First inhabitants - Celts, then came romans, Britain profited from roman achievements and inventions, word strata = street comes from the romans, they built roads, left in 5th century when the Roman Empire disintegrated.
CELTIC WORDS
Toponyms : London, York, Thames, Avon, Dover
Lexical remnants: bannock, brock, binn, ass
Latin was the language of higher civilization, Celts had a lot to learn from it. Latin words were denoting practical things
1. Terms of agriculture:
Lat. vinum > Mod.E wine
Lat.prunus > ModE. Plum
2. Loan words connected with trade: buy, cheap, pound
3. Loans denoting domestic life: table, carpet, kitchen, cup dish
4. toponyms : - Chester, - caster ( endings )
Christianity – 597 A.D. = greatest event that caused Latin to have a lot of influence
Romans did not interfere with Celtic traditions and they were faithful to romans when they were leaving. After Romans, Britain was attacked by Germanic tribes - Anglo-Saxons. They were Angles, Saxons and Jutes who came from Germany and Denmark. They pushed the Celts north. Their words are very short and most common.
5. Parts of human body: Heart, foot, eye, ear, tooth
6. Meteorological: Star, sun, moon, water
7. Common verbs: Come, sit, keep, make, and see
OLD ENGLISH – SYNTHETIC TYPE OF LANGUAGE
MODERN ENGLISH - ANALYTICAL
Scandinavian period
They came from Norway and Denmark and attacked Britain. They occupied the coastal territory and Britain was divided into 2 parts - Wessex under Alfred the Great and Scandinavian territory.
SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE
Phonological changes
1. Latin > Scandinavian. SK-words
School. Scheme X skill, skull, and sky
Words with SCH are Latin in origin, words with SK are Scandinavian origin
2. Initial [g] – un-palatalized before [e],[i]
Lat. giant. Genius X sc. Get give
In Scandinavian origins words that start with g and are followed be E, I... UNPALATALIZED
In Latin origin words... PALATALIZED
Personal pronouns like THEM, THEY are taken from Scandinavian.
LEXICAL REMNANTS
1. Toponyms – by Derby, Rugby, Whitby (by used to mean town in old Scandinavian)
-thorp Althorp, Astonthorp
-ness Lochness
2. Surnames
Sc. Johnson (the son of John) x A-S Jones (John’s)
3. Gap, leg knife, window, husband, fellow, sister
4. Die, take, give, get, cut, and call
5. Happy, sick, wrong, ugly, angry, low
6. Steak, cake
7. Law, loan,
GRAMMATICAL CHANGES
AS=Anglo Saxon, SC = Scandinavian
Indicators of simplification of English grammar:
1. Personal pronounsAS hie > Sc. They, AS him > Sc. Them
2. Nouns – word final „-n“ disappeared(Weak declensional paradigm)
3. Verbs – infinite word final „-an“ disappearedAS jévan > Sc. Give níman > TakeAS jétan > Sc. GetTo BE : AS sindon > Sc. are
Next week: Norman and central French influences
The Norman and central French influence on the development of English
MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1100-1500)
Norman influence affected English much more extensively. It didn’t penetrate into the core of English language just as Scandinavian influence. Norman influence enriched the
vocabulary of English. Normans came from the north of France. Settled on the coast of Normandy. Skillful organizers, had strong military power. As the Normans occupied all important posts of the administration of state, church, government etc... Words from these spheres come from the Norman language.
THE NORMAN AND CENTRAL FRENCH INFLUENCE1. The state administration terms : government, minister, state, nation2. Military terminology : war, peace, enemy, officer, army3. Legal terms : justice, crime, penalty, prison4. Religious terminology: service, religion, pray, virgin, saint...5. Words denoting past time activities & art : architecture, palace, poet, paint, volume,
chapter, beauty, sport, costume, dress6. Cookery terms : roast, toast, sausage, sauce, boil, dinner, supper7. Terms denoting kinds of meat : veal ,beef, pork, mutton, venison X names of domestic
animals remained A-S : calf, cow, pig, lamb, ram, deer
Norman by origin are those vocabulary items which give evidence of a higher standard of living of the Norman population. These are words which relate to art, fashion, music, theatre, literature...
Meals were prepared by the French that’s why they became Norman and
The process of penetrating Norman words into English was gradual and slow and the consequence of the coexistence of the two nationalities in England (AS and Normans) caused that towards the end of the 13th century we can talk about Anglo-Norman language which was different from French spoken in France, this French was called Parisian(central) French. Central French excelled over the Anglo Norman language as it was the language of the powerful royal court and enriched literature.
Central French influence
Norman – captain, catch, ward
Central French – chieftain, chase, guard
Some words penetrated into English twice that’s why they are similar.
Had it not be for the French influence, modern English would have been much more different. From grammatical point of view in the Middle English period the shaping of the grammatical system from the original synthetic to the present day analytical pattern was completed. The victory of the analytical principal in morphology is connected with far reaching simplification and the decay of inflections. The inflectional endings disappeared
Norman French brought many suffixes to Middle English:
- Ful (forgetful)- Ship (cleanship)
- With (withdraw)- Un (uncover)
STYLISTIC CONSEQUENCES
SYNONYMOUS WORD PAIRS
Anglo-Saxon – hearty, child, freedom, might wish
Norman – cordy, infant, liberty, power, desire
AS words were more dynamic, straight-forward and shorter while the Norman ones are more artificial.
AS words were used more in spoken language and Norman words were used more in literature.
The Norman and central influence was far reaching and it enriched its lexical and stylistic possibilities enormously...
GREECO-LATIN INFLUENCE IN THE AGE OF NEW LEARNING 13.10.14
The influence of Latin and lesser asd of Greek which affected England towards the end of the 15th century has left lasting traces in modern English. The difference between this influence and earlier influences that we discussed in previous weeks that it was not enforced upon English as a consequence of some military action or political conquest but in a peaceful and bloodless way. This influence is a result of a powerful cultural movement known as NEW LEARNING or THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING (humanizmus a renesancia) originated in Italy in the 13th century it spread to other countries in the 14th century. The goal of this was to enrich the European culture with deep study of ancient literature. We can observe the remnants mainly on the lexical level as we can find a lot of Latin or GrekoLatin words in terminology of all humanities (literature, historiology, sociology,)
All these words carry bookishness. Words like temporal, summary are usually found in academic writings. They are easily recognized in writing rather than in speaking
ARTIFICIAL ADAPTATION
Majority of the Latin words were taken as whole words but some words were taken by adaptation.
LATIN VIA FRENCH (midE = Middle English; modE = modern English)
1. PerfectionMidE parfit> Lat. perfectus > ModE perfect
2. AdventureMidE aventure > Lat. Adventura > ModE adventure
STYLISTIC CONSEQUENCES
- Bookishness- Higher degree of abstractness and depersonalization
A-S NORMAN LATIN
Rise mount ascend
Time age epoch
Holy sacred consecrated
End finish complete
We also have synonymous word pairs for example: A-S lips LATIN labialA-S walk LATIN to perambulateA-S put off LATIN postpone
THE DUTCH LOANS
- Dutch influence is the result of lively political and commercial contacts
Koniec prvej casti semestra, prejdeme na synchronny pohlad na anglicky jazyk.
PREFOTIT ZOZADU CVICENIA Z KNIHY na teste budu teorteticke cvicenia s praktickymi.
SAMOSTUDIUM
1. origins of English (chapter 5)2. properties of language (chapter 6)3. phonology (chapter 7)
30.10.14 = minula hodina odpadla
LINGUISTICS
- study of human language
The primary function of language is the transactional function – to impart factual information and to convey messages.
Language can be used to communicate feelings and emotions as well, so the secondary function of human language is its interactional function.
Displacement – we can talk about things that are present or even absent
Productivity – we can create new sentences or words whenever we want to
Arbitrariness – the fact that there is no connection between linguistic form and meaning
Cultural transmission – we inherit many things from our parents but not language
Discreteness – when each sound is treated as discrete
Duality – human language is organized in two levels
Patterning – how phonemes can be arranged (pat, tap, etc.)
PHONETICS
1. articulatory – studies how speech sounds are made2. acoustic -3. auditory – from hearers point
Phonetics is a study of speech sounds.
PHONOLOGY
Phonology studies the relation between sound and meaning.
Studies sound patterns of human language and the relationships between sounds and meanings as well as the relation between sound and meaning
Phoneme
- Phoneme is a meaning distinguishing sound which functions contrastively- Units of sound which distinguish one word from another
e.g. pin X bin p X B
- Phonemes P/B are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the form of PIN and BIN
PHONOLOGY
1. Segmental phonologyWays of creating meanings through the sound system by changing the individual sounds within words, e.g. hit – heat /i/ - /í/ = segmental features
Minimal pairs = ship – sheep, pin – pen, which differ only in a single phoneme; = CHANGE OF ONE SOUND WITHIN THE WORD
Minimal sets = words differentiated each one from the others by changing one phoneme in the same position: fit – fat – foot, big – pig – dig
2. Suprasegmental phonologyStudies ways in which languages create meanings through changing the way that we “sing” the words; through the stress, the rhythm and the intonation = suprasegmental features;
PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES
- Phoneme distinguish meaning :Ship X sheep
- Allophones are phonetic variants which do not distinguish meaning of the word :Peter X P(h)eter
SOUND PATTERNING
The phonemes cannot be string together in a random order to form words:
E.g. three consonant type phonemes = three strict rules
1st phoneme must be /s/;
2nd phoneme /p/ or /t/ or /k/;
3rd phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/
(Spring, string, splendid, scream, squeal, stew)
Assimilation
- Assimilation = process where one sound becomes more like another sound, or two sounds become more like each other : Voiced: town’s [z] vs voiceless have to [f]
Compare: He’s too lazy. X He’s my friend.
[s] Before [t] =voiceless [z] before [m] = voiced
Elision
- The deletion of a sound or sounds in speech, particularly in a rapid informal speech;- Frequently elided consonants : /t/ and /d/
West Cliff = [wesklif], windmill [winmil]
MORPHOLOGY (3.11.14)
The study of word structure
Is at the intersection of the study of words (lexicology) and the study of grammar
We can divide words into meaningful segments, they have either semantic or grammatical function
Re-open-ed = open-word stand (slovotvorny zaklad + affixes (prefix and suffix) = 3 MORPHEMES (2 BOUND 1 FREE)
Morpheme = smallest unit of meaning and grammatical function = re meaning, open meaning, ed grammatical function
Bound morphemes
They cannot stand by themselves – must be attached to a word.
1. Derivational morphemes – used to make new words of different grammatical category : teach (v.) – teach-er (n.), slow (adj.) – slow-ly (adv.); meaningful (+) meaningless (+)
Have to be attached to the word stand and if they have meaning they are called derivation morphemes
Free morphemes
They can stand by themselves as single words.
1. Lexical morphemes = content words like newspaper, lovely, sit etc.2. Functional morphemes = grammatical or function words like they, above, one, the, etc.
Allomorphs
- Sometimes a morpheme has a number of variants known as allomorphs;- For instance /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are allomorphs of plural morpheme – s;- Allomorphs : phonologically conditioned
Lexically conditioned (their form is linked to a particular vocabulary item: geese, criteria, oxen, theses
Word classes (parts of speech)
1. Major word classes = content words which include : nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs (open system)
2. Minor word classes = grammatical or function words : determiners, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, praticles, interjections (closed system)
1. Animate personal female nouns have feminine gender2. Animate personal male nouns have masculine gender3. Inanimate non-personal objects, things, phenomena are neuter in gender
Number
- Based on binary opposition singular vs plural;- Indicated by the absence or presence of the plural morpheme –s (dog – dogs), and its
allomorphs –en (ox – oxen), -es (analysis – analyses), -a (datum –data)- Nouns are divided into : countable & uncountable
Concord (agreement) [najdolezitejsie podla nej]
- Grammatical categories and their role in describing language structure become clearer when we consider them in terms of CONCORD od AGREEMENT.
E.g.
- He writes his written assignments. - Concord in number (he (sg.) – writes)- Concord in gender (he – his)- Concord in person (he – his – writes)
Find bound morphemes in following fords
- Misleads = 2 bound morphemes- Shortened = 1 bound- Fearlessly - Gentlemanliness = li a ness su bound- Decompression = press zaklad, de, com, ion bound- Antidisestablishmentarianism
Which of the following examples is „a“ treated as a bound morpheme
Apple – no
A boy – no
Aids – no
Apolitical – yes „a“
Find inflectional morphemes in the following phrases
- The teachers book = „’s“ books plural- Its snowing = ing- The newest model = est- The boy jumped over the fence = ed- Later arrivals = r, s
Do the morphological description of the following sentences:
= Part of grammar that concerns the structure of phrases or sentences
Word order
- An important aspect of grammatical correctness and meaning- E.g. = Mike saw the teacher in the pub - The teacher saw Mike in the pub.- Pub the saw mike in teacher the – no ling. Meaning
Traditional word order patterns
1. S – V – O (subject – verb – object)She called him.
2. S – V – O – O (subject-verb-2objects)She called him steward.
3. S – V – O – C (subject – verb – object – complement)She called him Steward. = this sentence is ambiguous, has 2 possible meanings if you hear it spoken
4. S – V – O – A (subject - verb – object – adverb)She called him yesterday.
Sentence = unity of form and meaning
Ambiguity = double meaning of a sentence
Phrase
- Phrase = basic building block of the sentence in English
- E.g. = The teacher saw mike in the pub- The teacher = noun phrase- Saw mike = verb phrase- In the pub = prepositional phrase
A simple sentence
- Must contain : Noun phrase (NP) acting as a SUBJECTVerb phrase (VP) = PREDICATE indicating some action or state of affairs
Noun phrase
- NP = noun (boy)- NP = article + noun (the boy / a boy)- NP = article + adjective + noun (a little boy)- NP = pronoun (he)- NP = proper noun (Peter)
Verb phrase
- VP = verb (find/found)- VP = verb + NP (found the ball)- VP = verb + NP + PP (found the ball in the street)
[PP = prepositional phrase]
SNP VP
Art N V NP PP
Prep NP
AR N
The teacher saw Mike in the bar
(pospajat si to ciarami ako strom (the bar patri k NP=art+)
(pp sa deli na prep a NP)
Phrase structure rules
- State possible combinations of constituents of the L. e.g. S = NP + VP- Transformation rules – specify which constituents can be moved from where and to where- E.g. Peter visited his parents yesterday. Yesterday Peter visited his parents
Na teste moze byt zadanie draw constituent structure trees = znamena to ze veta je dvojzmyselna a ak to prehliadneme tak mozeme prist o 10 bodov lebo to v nejakom teste je za 10 bodov. Pretoze sa ta veta da inak rozobrat ak ma 2 vyznamy tak to dostudovat
Ambiguity
- The sentence is structurally ambiguous when it has two underlying interpretationsExamples:
- Parents of the bride and groom were waiting.- They can fish
In what ways are the following clauses and sentences ambiguous?
- An American history teacher- Flying planes can be dangerous- Old men and women are hard to live with- Terry loves his wife and so do I.
Which of the following expressions are noun phrases
- A bird- The red flag- Have a nice evening- John sleep
Which of the following expressions are verb phrases
Saw an elephant
Slept
Is smart
Smart
Found the chocolate
LEXICOLOGY – 24.11.14
Deals with the vocabulary of language and the properties of words
8.12 by mal byt predtermin!! O tej istej dobe
WORD
- Word = basic minimum free unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment
- Except for the meaning of a word we can find other linguistic nvm co
WORDS are studied from the following aspects
- Phonological – every word consists of sounds- Morphological every w consists of morphemes- Syntactical – every w and its position & function within a sentence- Semantic – is W monsem. Or polysem., are its meanings related or not?- Stylistic – W and its stylistic coloring
WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
1. DERIVATION = sticking an affix to an existing word (root) in order to create a new wordE.g.: qualify – disqualify
2. CONVERSION
- Zero derivation, coverted words can be created:N > V (water > to water)Adj.>V(dirty > to dirty)V>N (walk > a walk)
3. COMPOUNDING
- joining two or more separate lexerries to produce a new single form (e.g. basketball, mother-in-law, flower pot)
- Semantic integrity = meaning of the whole is not a sum of its elements, e.g. chatterbox is not a box it’s a person
4. BORROWING
- When a word is taken over from another language, modified in phonemic shape and according to the standards of the borrowing language
- 70 percent of the English vocabulary consists of loan words
5. COINAGE
- Invention of totally new terms (Xerox, nylon, selfie)
- Least productive word-formation processes in English
WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES BASED ON SUBTRACTION
1. Blending – two lexemes produce a new single form in a way that the initial part of the one lexeme is joined to the final part of the other lexeme: Bookaholic, enjoyneeringFruice = fruit + juiceJorts = jeans + shortsSmog = smoke + fog
2. Clipping - Reduction of a longer words into a shorter form
a) Initial – the beginning is dropped (phone)b) Final – the end is dropped (advert,exam)c) Initial and final – the middle part is kept (flu, fridge)d) Mixed – frisco(san francisco), Japs, fries(French friend potatoes)
3. Back formation- When a longer of one type(usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of different type
(usually a verb)e.g.: television > televise Baby-sitter>baby-sitEditor>edit
4. Acronymy- Formation of new words from the initial letters of a set of ther words- Capital letters are used without periods and the words are pronounced as single forms :
NATO, UEFA, UNESCO also radar, laser, scuba5. Initial abbreviation- Based on the use of individual letters for the consistent words- They are spelled and usually use periods to separate the letters C.I.A.,V.I.P.,V.A.T.
SEMANTICS (nova tema, ten isty den)
= the study of linguistic meaning of words, sentences, phrases.
SEMANTIC RELATIONS
- Occur when we feel that lexemes are somehow related in meaning
SYNONYMS
- Two or more words of the same L. belongings to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical or nearly identical meanings, but different in phonemic shape, morphemic composition, shades of meaning, stylistic coloring and idiomatic use, e.g.: freedom – liberty, heaven – skye, willowy – skiny
AS NORMAN
Freedom – Liberty
Heaven – Sky
Lips – Labial
Thin – Willowy = positive connotation
Thin – Skinny = negative connotation
NEUTRAL vs FORMAL
Begin – Commence
Child – Infant
Hearty – Cordial
Dialect difference – Underground vs. Tube
Formal and Informal – Insane vs. Potty
Colloquial difference – Rancid vs. Rotten
Emotional difference – Youth vs. Youngster
ANTONYMS
- Words opposite in meaning, e.g. beautiful – ugly
ANTONYMS
1. Absolute – created by root words (old-new)2. Derivational – negat. Aff. (moral-immoral)
Dalsie delenie cic oa) Gradable – use comparative forms(deep-deeper vs shallow – shallower)b) Non-gradable – cannot be used in comp. Forms ( dead – alive, single – married)
HOMONYMY
- When one form has two or more unrelated meanings, bank(river) – bank(institution)
- Homonyms – words identical in spelling and pronunciation but different in meaning- E.g.: bear(N)bear(V)
POLYSEMY
- Head(humans head) – head(of organization)
HOMOPHONES
- Words different in meaning & spelling that are pronounced the same- Night – knight- Where – were- Hear – here
HOMOGRAPHS
- Words identical in meaning and pronunciation but identical in spelling- E.g.: tear(N) – tear(V)- Wind(N) – wind (V)- Lead(N) – lead(V)
HYPONYMY VS HYPERONYMY
- When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another form : pizza – dish, pepper – spice;
- Hierarchical semantic relation in which the subordinate item is called hyponym and the superodinate item is hyperonym
- Used in defining lexemes : gorgonzola is a kind of cheese
STYLISTICS
- Branch of linguistics that studies situationalally-distinctive uses of language- Main object of stylistic study is TEXT
Cohesion – formal and semantic links between sentences across sentence boundaries
Coherence – the way in which the components of text are relevant
Intentionality – text have certain intention
Acceptability – the text has some use or relevance for us
Informativity – the text provides us with some kind of useful information
Situationality – text is decoded in particular situations
Intertextuality – utilization of the text based on previous text
