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Chapter 1
General Introduction to Organization Development
Learning Objectives
1. To provide a definition of Organization Development (OD)
2. To distinguish OD and planned change from other forms of organization change
3. To describe the historical development of OD
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
Note: This chapter consists of fairly straightforward descriptions and discussion of key issues in
the history of OD. Depending on the professor’s perspectives, this material can be covered indepth (i.e., if you really want to understand OD today, you have to understand where it came
from) or just discussed briefly (i.e., if you really want to understand OD, you have to practice it).
1. Organization Development Defined
Note: Be sure that students recognize the key words in the definition of OD. That is, be sure to
emphasize systemwide, behavioral science, and organization effectiveness. OD applies to changes inthe strategy, structure, and/or processes of an entire system. It is based on the application and transfer of
behavioral science knowledge and practice. And OD aims to improve organization effectiveness by
managing planned change which involves both the creation and the subsequent reinforcement of that
change. Although OD has grown and matured by adding content issues, it is still known mostly for its
attention to the process of change.
Note: An important opportunity for discussion is to compare the definitions of OD provided bydifferent authors. What differences and similarities do students see in the definitions presented in
Table 1.1?
2. The Growth and Relevance of Organization Development
Note: Change is a fact of life in people, groups, organizations, and society. People at all
organizational levels need to be prepared to recognize the need to initiate, implement, and control
change.
3. A Short History of Organization Development
Note: Each of the stems is an important set of interventions in their own right. For example,there are many consulting firms that specialize in personal growth workshops (Laboratory Stem)
or in survey feedback. But each stem also represents an important part of OD’s past and informs
its practice today.
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Laboratory Training Stem
A. Action Research/Survey Feedback Background
B. Normative Background
a. Likert’s Participative Management Program
b. Blake and Mouton’s Grid®C. Productivity and Quality-of-Life-Background
D. Strategic Change Background
Note: Ask students to apply normative assessments to their own experiences using Likert’s and
Blake and Mouton’s frameworks. Discuss the value and limitations of this approach.
4. Evolution in Organization Development
5. Overview of the Book
Note: This book presents the process and practice of organization development in a logical
flow. It is organized into 7 parts that present the field of organization development and its
applications to organizations. Part 1 provides an overview of OD that describes the process of
planned change and those who perform the work. Part 2 describes the process of organizationdevelopment. Parts 3 through 6 present the major interventions used in OD today. Part 4 reviews
technostructural interventions and Part 5 presents human resource management interventions.
Part 6 concerns strategic interventions and Part 7 is concerned with special topics in OD such as
OD in international settings, OD in different kinds of organizations, including educational,
government, family-owned, and health-care agencies and it also examines the future of
organization development.
6. Summary
Note: This chapter introduced OD as a planned change discipline concerned with applying
behavioral science knowledge and practice to help organizations achieve greater effectiveness.
Organizations are faced with rapidly accelerating change, and OD can help them cope with theconsequences of change. The history of OD reveals its five roots: laboratory training, action research
and survey feedback, normative approaches, productivity and quality of work life, and strategic change.
The continued growth in the number and diversity of OD approaches, practitioners, and involved
organizations attests to the health of the discipline and offers a favorable prospect for the future.
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Chapter 2
The Nature of Planned Change
Learning Objectives
1. To describe and compare three major perspectives on changing organizations
2. To introduce a General Model of Planned Change that will be used to organize the
material presented in the book
3. To describe how planned change can be adopted to fit different kinds of conditions
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Theories of Planned Change
Note: The first two models are classic, traditional approaches to OD. The third perspective
represents the latest thinking about planned change and updates the classic perspectives. Thestudent should thoroughly understand the similarities and differences between them.
A. Lewin’s Change Model
B. Action Research ModelC. The Positive Model
D. Comparisons of Change Models
2. General Model of Planned Change
Note: This is an important model. It will help the student organize the upcoming material in the
book. The general model organizes and integrates the previous models into four sets of activities.
These activities have broad applicability to planned change. The general model identifies thesteps an organization moves through when implementing change and specifies the OD activities
needed to effect change. The four sets of activities are:
A. Entering and Contracting
B. Diagnosing
C. Planning and Implementing Change
D. Evaluating and Institutionalizing change
Application 2-1 describes a planned change process at Planned Change at the San Diego County
Regional Airport Authority. This case offers student the opportunity to identify and understand
how each step of planned change is manifested in the application. It also describes how the plan
evolves and adjusts during the transition.
3. Different Types of Planned Change
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Note: Although the general model of planned change suggests that OD is a straightforward
process, most OD efforts do not proceed according to a neat timetable or preset sequence of
events. The application of OD in a particular organization or situation requires adjustments in the
process of planned change. This section suggests that three dimensions are particularly important.
How these dimensions can impact the process of planned change should be noted.
A. Magnitude of changeB. Degree of Organization
C. Domestic vs. International Settings
Application 2-2 describes a process of planned change in a situation that is underorganized. That
is, the stakeholders do not regularly interact with one another, and yet each has an interest in
solving a particular problem. Ask students how this situation differs from traditional, formal
organizations and if these kinds of situations are increasing or decreasing in frequency. In fact,
more and more OD is being practiced in underorganized settings. The formation of strategic
alliances is but one topical example.
4. Critique of Planned Change
A. Conceptualization of Planned Change
B. Practice of Planned Change
Note: Critics suggest that current theories and models of planned change are 1) deficient in
knowledge about how the stages of planned change differ across situations, 2) unable to capture
the disorderly and dynamic qualities of change, and 3) searching for better understanding of the
relationship between planned change and organizational performance and effectiveness. Still
others express concern not with the planned change model, but with the qualifications and
activities of OD practitioners.
5. Summary
Theories of planned change describe the activities necessary to modify strategies, structures, and
processes to increase an organization’s effectiveness. The action research model focuses onplanned change as a cyclical process involving joint activities between organization members and
OD practitioners. Planned change theories can be integrated into a general model. Four sets of
activities—entering and contracting, diagnosing, planning and implementing, and evaluating and
institutionalizing—can be used to describe how change is accomplished in organizations. The
general model has broad applicability to planned change. It identifies the steps an organizationtypically moves through to implement change and specifies the OD activities needed to effect
change.
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Chapter 3
The Organization Development Practitioner
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the essential character of OD practitioners
2. To understand the necessary competencies required of an effective OD practitioner
3. To understand the roles and ethical conflicts that face OD practitioners
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Who is the Organization Development Practioner?
Note: It is important, even at this early stage of the course, for students to recognize that OD
practitioners are not just external consultants. Emphasize that most students have already filled achange agent role with their friends, family, co-workers, and so on. An OD practioner is anyone
who is helping a system change using the principles of OD.
2. Competencies of an Effective OD Practitioner
A. Intrapersonal skills
B. Interpersonal skills
C. General consultation skills
D. Organization development theory
3. The Professional OD Practioner
A. Role of OD Professionals
1. Position2. Marginality
3. Emotional demands
4. Use of knowledge and experience
Application 3-1: This application provides students with accounts of the personal views of the
internal and external consulting positions. Students can compare and contrast the two viewpoints
of the OD practitioners to identify how the differences in these two types of settings affect the
OD professional.
B. Careers of OD Professionals
4. Professional Values
Note: The values traditionally underlying OD interventions have been associated with humanistic
psychology. Students should be pressed to determine whether or not their own values are aligned
with these traditional values. If not, where do their values stray from the traditional humanistic
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ones and what do they see as the change? Do they believe that they can be an instrument of
change if their own values are more materialistic or achievement oriented? Why do they want to
become agents of change?
5. Professional Ethics
A. Ethical GuidelinesB. Ethical Dilemmas
1. Misrepresentation
2. Misuse of data3. Coercion
4. Value and goal conflict
5. Technical ineptness
Note: An effective teaching tool is to place students in ambiguous situations and see how they
respond. For example, have they ever “stolen” pens or other office supplies from an employer,
padded an expense account, and so on? How far do they have to be pushed before they feel they
are crossing some “ethical boundary?” What’s the difference between ethical and illegal?
Application 3-2: The case of Kindred Todd and the Ethics of OD describes one such situationwhere a group of consultants get caught up in an ethical situation. How would the students have
handled the situation differently?
6. Summary
This chapter has examined the role of the organization development practitioner. That term applies to
three sets of people: individuals specializing in OD as a profession, people from related fields who have
gained some competence in OD, and managers having the OD skills necessary to change and develop
their organizations or departments. The professional OD role can apply to internal consultants who
belong to the organization undergoing change, to external consultants who are members of universities
and consulting firms or are self-employed, and to members of internal–external consulting teams.
Values have played a key role in OD, and traditional values promoting trust, collaboration, andopenness have been supplemented recently with concerns for improving organizational effectiveness
and productivity. As a profession, OD always has shown a concern for the ethical conduct of itspractitioners, and several ethical codes for OD practice have been developed by various professional
associations.
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Chapter 4
Entering and Contracting
Learning Objectives
1. To describe the steps associated with staring a planned change process
2. To reinforce the definition of an OD practitioner as anyone who is helping a system to
make planned changes
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Entering into an OD Relationship
Note: Entering an organization system, especially as an external consultant, is one of the more
difficult aspects of OD. Although this is a relatively short chapter, the issues discussed her arevital. The norms and expectations that get established in this stage can influence dramatically thechances for success. Thus, the instructor should thoroughly explore the implications of each step
of the entering process.
A. Clarifying the Organizational Issue
Note: As one experienced OD consultant put it, “The problem is never the problem. The
problem is with the problem.” That is, the presenting problem is very often a symptom
and the OD practitioner’s job is to determine what the “real” problem is.
B. Determining the Relevant Client
Note: It is important to point out to students that one reason OD efforts fail is the general
reluctance and ability to address political/power issues. The instructor should point out
how these issues arise during the process of identifying the relevant client.
C. Selecting an OD Practitioner
Application 4-1: This application describes the entering process at American Healthways andhighlights the importance of collecting preliminary data and identifying the relevant client. This is the
first in a series of applications used throughout the text to provide a more detailed picture of a large-
scale OD intervention. In this part, the consultant enters an organization with a clear presenting
problem. Ask the students what they think is the most important issue and whether they agree with the
consultant’s approach.
2. Developing a Contract
Note: Contracting is an important part of the OD process. Until Peter Block made the concept
popular in the early 1980s, Weisbord and perhaps Hackman were the only researchers to talk
about its importance and dynamics. The truth is that OD practitioners engage in contracting all
the time. Any time the practitioner agrees to perform work, a contract has been made. The pu0ose
of this section is to point out the value in making certain aspects of the contra ting process
explicit.
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A. Mutual expectations
B. Time and resources
C. Ground rules
Application 4.2 describes the contracting meeting for the structural change project at American
Healthways. It finishes the entry and contracting process started in Application 4-1. Again, ask the students to comment on the consultant’s approach.
3. Personal Process Issues in Entering and Contracting
4. Summary
The entering and contracting activities constitute the initial activities of the OD process. They set the
parameters for the phases of planned change that follow: diagnosing, planning and implementing
change, and evaluating and institutionalizing it. Organizational entry involves clarifying the
organizational issue or presenting problem, determining the relevant client, and selecting an OD
practitioner. Developing an OD contract focuses on making a good decision about whether to proceed
and allows both the client and the OD practitioner to clarify expectations about how the change processwill unfold. Contracting involves setting mutual expectations, negotiating time and resources, and
developing ground rules for working together.
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Chapter 5
Diagnosing Organizations
Learning Objectives
1. To equip students with a general framework of OD diagnostic tools from a systematic
perspective
2. To define diagnosis and to explain how the diagnostic process provides practical
understanding of problems at the organizational level of analysis
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. What is diagnosis?
Note: One of the defining and distinguishing characteristics of OD is its emphasis on diagnosis prior to intervention. Several points need to be stressed. First, align diagnosis with the
predominant values underlying OD by emphasizing the joint and collaborative nature of the
diagnostic process. Second, be clear that the purpose of diagnosis is to uncover the true causes of
the problem. It is a central tenet of OD that organizations often waste time solving symptoms of a
deeper issue. In this sense, diagnosis is often associated with the “medical model” of consulting.This is risky in OD, because there is no extant assumption that something is wrong with the
“patient.”
2. The Need for Diagnostic Models
Note: The central role of diagnosis in OD must be appreciated by students. Diagnosis follows
entering and contracting activities and is designed to uncover the root causes of issues that theorganization wants to address. To do that, some sort of framework is needed in order to ensure
that all important areas of concerns are addressed. To work without a model causes two problems.
First, the client cannot work with the OD practitioner or agree that the model makes sense.
Second, the practitioner takes the risk that some important category of data is not collected that
may be an important cause of the problem or issue.
Note: For more sophisticated students who have several years of business experience, the
professor might find the Emergent-Pragmatic exercise useful. It can be found in N. Tichy,
Managing Strategic Change (New York: John Wiley, 1983, pp. 50-68). It involves reading a case
and then going through a step-by-step process of building an organizational model. In turn, this
model can be used to diagnose the student’s own organization, an organization they are familiar
with, or the cases found at the end of the major sections of text.
3. The Open Systems Model
A. Organizations as Open Systems
Note: The open systems model is adopted by this text as the most appropriate way to
view organizations. It is not the only model (i.e., contingency model). The class should
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have a thorough understanding of the organization as an open system with key properties
of inputs, transformations, outputs, boundaries, feedback, equifinality, and alignment.
B. Inputs, transformations, and outputs
C. BoundariesD. Feedback
E. EquifinalityF. Alignment
4. Diagnosing Organizational Systems
A. Overall Organization
B. Groups and Departments
C. Individual Positions and Jobs
Note: The key to effective diagnosis is to know what to look for at each organizational
level and to recognize how the levels affect each other.
5. Organization Level Diagnosis
Note: The relationship between inputs, strategic orientation, and outputs is critical to
organization level diagnosis. In addition, students must consider that an organization’s general
environment and industry structure change over time and can be characterized along a dynamic-
static continuum. OD practitioners must design diagnostic and intervention activities that fit
these contexts.
A. Inputs
1. General Environment
2. Industry Structure
3. Dynamic-Static Continuum
B. Design Components1. Strategy
2. Technology
3. Structural Systems
4. Measurement Systems
5. Human Resource Systems6. Organization Culture
C. Outputs
D. Alignment
Note: Depending on the sophistication of the class, the design components and the issue
of alignment between them should be familiar to students who have completed an
organization design or organization theory course.
E. Analysis
Note: Application 5-1 allows the student to apply the organization level diagnostic
model to the Steinway organization. Ask students to make assessments of the inputs and
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strategic orientation and then proceed to an evaluation of the alignments among the
different parts.
6. Summary
This chapter presented background information for diagnosing organizations, groups, and individual
jobs. Diagnosis is a collaborative process, involving both managers and consultants in collectingpertinent data, analyzing them, and drawing conclusions for action planning and intervention. The
comprehensive model presented here views organizations as open systems. An organization-level
diagnostic model was described and applied. It consists of environmental inputs; a set of designcomponents called a strategic orientation; and a variety of outputs, such as performance, productivity,
and stakeholder satisfaction. Diagnosis involves understanding each of the parts in the model and then
assessing how the elements of the strategic orientation align with each other and with the inputs.
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Chapter 6
Diagnosing Groups and Jobs
Learning Objectives
1. To clarify the concepts of group and job level diagnosis
2. To define diagnosis and to explain how the diagnostic process discovers the underlying
causes of problems at the group and job levels of analysis
3. To present an open systems diagnostic model for the group and job levels
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Group Level Diagnosis
Note: As seen in Chapter Five, diagnosis is the second major phase of planned change. However,
the next two levels of diagnosis are group and job. Different issues surface at the group and job
levels, therefore, diagnostic models developed specifically for these levels, are necessary.
A. Inputs
B. Design Component
C. Outputs
D. Fits
E. Analysis
Note: Thorough understanding of each concept of the group model is crucial to successfuldiagnosis. Also, appropriate diagnoses can be the difference between assisting the client in achieving
organizational effectiveness or furthering dysfunction of the group. It will be critical that the student
conceptualizes open systems theory at the group and job levels.
Note: Use the Ortiv Glass Corporation, Application 6-1, to explore the use of the group level model.
2. Individual-Level Diagnosis
Note: The lowest level of organizational diagnosis is the individual job or position. The
organization is made up of various groups; the groups are composed of individuals’ jobs.
A. InputsB. Design Components
C. Fits
D. Analysis
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Application 6-2 describes a job at Pepperdine University. It explores the use of individual-level
diagnosis to determine a job design. Students should examine and analyze the proposed job design
changes with an individual-level diagnosis. The application offers data regarding the salient inputsof the job level, organization design, group design, and characteristics of each job. Task variety,
task significance, task identity, autonomy, and feedback are also described. Predictions can be
made by students to support or reject the job design change and whether or not it will produce
outputs of work satisfaction and work quality.
3. Summary
In this chapter, diagnostic models associated with groups and individuals were described and applied.
Diagnostic models include the input, design component (transformation processes), and output
dimensions needed to understand groups and individual jobs. Group diagnostic models take theorganization’s design as the primary input; examine goal clarity, task structure, group composition,
performance norms, and group functioning as the key design components; and list group performanceand member quality of work life as the outputs. At the individual job level, organization design, group
design, and characteristics of each job are the salient inputs. Task variety, task significance, task identity, autonomy, and feedback work together to produce outputs of work satisfaction and work
quality.
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Chapter 7
Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic Information
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the importance of the diagnostic relationship in the OD process
2. To describe the methods for diagnosing and collecting data3. To understand and utilize techniques for analyzing data
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. The Diagnostic Relationship
Note: Similar to entering and contracting, the OD practitioner needs to develop an agreement
with organizational members from the client system about collecting and using data gathered
from them. This is simply a more specific contracting process. The parallels between the general
contracting process and the diagnostic relationship should be made explicit: importance of properdata collection and joint diagnosis prior to feedback (which will be covered in Chapter 8). These
key elements need to be understood and utilized to: 1) rally energy for change, 2) obtain valid
information, and 3) develop a collaborative relationship. Successfully meeting these objectives
ensures transfer of ownership to the client. Four characteristics for adequately collecting data arenoted and defined.
2. Methods for Collecting Data
Note: Four different methods are described here. Emphasis should be placed on the need to use
several methods of collecting data to avoid potential biases. The relative emphasis you place on
this section depends on your own orientation and the background of the students.
A. Questionnaires
B. Interviews
C. Observations
D. Unobtrusive measures
3. Sampling
4. Techniques for Analyzing Data
Note: The techniques described here were chosen because 1) they are basic tools that all
students should have had in prior courses (but often need to review), 2) they are currently popular
as part of many total quality management processes, and 3) client organizations are becomingmore and more concerned with documenting and justifying expenditures. The ability to measure
processes and outcomes can be extremely valuable for OD practitioners.
Application 7-1 describes two diagnostic processes at American Healthways (AMHC)
organization. The first is informal whereas the second is a formal diagnostic survey. The
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application describes subsequent content analysis of the data collected. Ask students to critique
the process and identify its strengths and weaknesses.
A. Qualitative Tools
1. Content Analysis2. Force-field Analysis
B. Quantitative Tools
1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Frequency Distributions
2. Scattergrams and Correlation Coefficients3. Difference Tests
5. Summary
This chapter described several different methods for collecting and analyzing diagnostic data. Because
diagnosis is an important step that occurs frequently in the planned change process, a working
familiarity with these techniques is essential. Methods of data collection include questionnaires,
interviews, observation, and unobtrusive measures. Methods of analysis include qualitative techniques,
such as content and force-field analysis, and quantitative techniques, such as the determination of mean,standard deviation, correlation coefficient, as well as difference tests.
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Chapter 8
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the importance of data feedback in the OD process
2. To describe the desired characteristics of feedback content
3. To describe the desired characteristics of the feedback process
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Determining the Content of the Feedback
Note: This section is aimed at establishing that what gets fed back to the client is as important
as how the data is fed back. Nine characteristics are noted and defined. Students understand this
material when they can link the nine criteria to developing and maintaining ownership of the data.
A. Relevant
B. Understandable
C. Descriptive
D. Verifiable
E. Limited
F. Timely
G. Impactful
H. Comparative
I. Unfinalized
2. Characteristics of the Feedback Process
Note: This section emphasizes the process of feeding back data. Five criteria are listed that
facilitate ownership of the data during feedback meetings.
A. Motivation to work with the data
B. Structure for the meeting
C. Appropriate attendance
D. Appropriate power
E. Process help
Application 8-1 describes guidelines and suggestions for structuring data feedback sessions
taught to a group of internal OD practitioners at GTE of California.
3. Survey Feedback
Note: In this section, the specialized data feedback process known as Survey Feedback is
described. Our intention is to suggest that data feedback is a central issue in all OD efforts and
that survey feedback is just one special case. Survey feedback can be cited as an intervention inand of itself. This true statement should not detract from the fact that even as an intervention,
survey feedback is simply a reflection of a larger planned change process.
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A. What are the steps?
Application 8-2: Survey Feedback at the Prudential Real Estate Affiliates (PREA). The
application describes how Prudential Real Estate Affiliates combines attitudinal surveys
with hard measures to increase change ownership in real estate sales offices.
B. Survey Feedback and Organizational Dependencies
C. Limitations of Survey Feedback
D. Results of Survey Feedback
6. Summary
This chapter described the process of feeding back data to a client system. It concerned
identifying the content of the data to be fed back and designing a feedback process that ensures
ownership of the data. Feeding back data is a central activity in almost any OD program. A
special application of the data-collection and feedback process is called survey feedback which
enables practitioners to collect diagnostic data from a large number of organization members and
to feed back that information for purposes of problem solving.
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Chapter 9
Designing Interventions
Learning Objectives
1. To discuss criteria for effective interventions
2. To discuss issues, considerations, constraints, ingredients, and processes for interventions
3. To give an overview of the various types of interventions (discussed in detail, in later
chapters)
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. What are Effective Interventions?
Note: Students are often confused about the definition of an intervention. The term can be used
to refer to a major planned change effort such as the implementation of self-managed teams or
changing from a functional to a matrix structure. But it can also refer to a “process” commentduring a meeting like, “I notice that John Doe is doing most of the talking.” This too is an
intervention and students need to understand the similarities between these two seeminglydifferent examples.
A. The extent to which is relevant to the organization and its members
B. The degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes
C. The extent to which it transfers change-management competencies to
organizational members
2. How to Design Effective Interventions
A. Contingencies Related to Change Situations1. Readiness for change
2. Capability to change
3. Cultural context
4. Capabilities of the change agent
B. Contingencies Related to the Target of Change
1. Organizational Issues
a. Strategic Issues
b. Technology and Structure Issues
c. Human Resource Issues
d. Human Process Issues
2. Organizational Levels
Note: Interventions can address three different levels: individual, group, or organizational.
Some interventions can impact more than one level. The key is to think systemically. This is
heavily emphasized because of the possibilities of cross-level effects and potentially needed
integrations. Lastly, the practitioner should only design interventions appropriate for their skill
level. Table 9-1 lists OD interventions in terms of which level of the organization is primarilyimpacted.
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3. Overview of Interventions
A. Human Process Interventions
Note: The most common OD techniques, such as conflict resolution and team building
are in this category. These interventions pertain to social processes and relationships
among employees. They are applied at all three organizational levels. Individual and
group level interventions include coaching, training and development, processconsultation, third party interventions, and team building. System-wide interventions
(group and organization level interventions) include organization confrontation meeting,
intergroup relations, and large group interventions.
B. Technostructural InterventionsNote: Seven interventions fall under this category are described in detail over three
chapters (14, 15, & 16); structural design, downsizing, reengineering, parallel structures,
high-involvement organizations, total quality management, and work design.
C. Human Resource Management Interventions
Note: Under the area of performance management, three interventions are described:
goal setting, performance appraisal, and reward systems. Another set of human resourcemanagement interventions, aimed at developing and assisting organization members,
include career planning and development, managing workforce diversity, and employee
wellness programs.
D. Strategic Interventions
Note: Strategic interventions are applied primarily at the organizational level. Chapter
19 describes interventions that shape the competitive and collaborative strategies of organizations. They include integrated strategic change, mergers and acquisitions,
alliances, and networks. Chapter 20 addresses three additional interventions concerned
with organizational transformation, including culture change, self-designing
organizations, and organization learning and knowledge management.
4. Summary
An intervention is a set of planned activities intended to help an organization improve its
performance and effectiveness. Effective interventions are designed to fit the needs of the
organization, are based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes, and transfer competence tomanage change to organization members. Four types of OD interventions are addressed in this
book: (1) human process programs aimed at people within organizations and their interaction
processes; (2) technostructural methods directed at organization technology and structures for
linking people and technology; (3) human resources management interventions focused at
integrating people into the organization successfully; and (4) strategic programs targeted at howthe organization uses its resources to gain a competitive advantage in the larger environment.
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Chapter 10
Leading and Managing Change
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the different elements of a successful change program
2. To understand how leadership is linked to change activities
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Overview of Change Activities
Note: This chapter is devoted to a description of the different elements of a planned change
process that the OD practitioner must address to successfully implement change. While not all of the elements will need to be addressed in all situations, practitioners should routinely check each
one during planned change. In addition, the chapter begins to address the key concern of
leadership. Each of the phases of change can and should be linked to student’s understandingsand beliefs about what effective leadership is all about.
2. Motivating Change
A. Creating Readiness for Change
B. Overcoming Resistance to Change
Application 10-1: Motivating Change in Johnsonville Sausage provides students with an
example of how attentive management can motivate change among the workforce.
3. Creating a Vision
A. Describing the core ideology
B. Constructing the envisioned future
Application 10-2: This application describes how Premier, a leading healthcare alliance
developed a vision for the organization. The process outlines some of the specific
performance and human outcome elements of its desired future state.
4. Developing Political Support
A. Assessing Change Agent Power
B. Identifying Key Stakeholders
C. Influencing Stakeholders
Application 10-3: This application shows how one manager used the personal power
bases of expertise and reputation to form social networks with key stakeholders andgained support for a statewide change in the public schools.
5. Managing the Transition
A. Activity Planning
B. Commitment Planning
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C. Change-Management Structures
Application 10-4: This application shows how Hewlett-Packard and Compaq used
extraordinary detail with these techniques to manage the integration activities associatedwith this acquisition.
6. Sustaining Momentum
A. Providing Resources for ChangeB. Building a Support System for Change Agents
C. Developing New Competencies and Skills
D. Reinforcing New Behaviors
E. Staying the Course
Application 10-5: This application describes the transformation at the Veteran’s Hospital
Administration and how the leadership team sustained momentum for change by
instituting a performance management system and utilizing evaluation feedback to modify the
change process.
Video Option: The first part of the Southwestern College Publishing video for Organization
Development and Change describes a change process at Central Michigan Community Hospital.
After viewing the clip, have the students discuss the similarities and differences between the
principles described in the video and the phases in the change management process described in
this chapter.
7. Summary
This chapter describes five kinds of activities that change agents must carry out when planning and
implementing changes. The first activity is motivating change, which involves creating a readiness for
change among organization members and overcoming their resistance. The second activity concernscreating a vision that builds on an organization’s core ideology. The core ideology and envisioned
future articulate a compelling reason for implementing change. The third task for change agents is
developing political support for the changes. Change agents first must assess their own sources of
power, then identify key stakeholders whose support is needed for change and devise strategies for
gaining their support. The fourth activity concerns managing the transition of the organization from its
current state to the desired future state. This requires planning a road map for the change activities, as
well as planning how to gain commitment for the changes. The fifth change task is sustaining
momentum for the changes so that they are carried to completion.
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Chapter 11
Evaluating and Institutionalizing
Organization Development Interventions
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the issues associated with evaluating OD interventions2. To understand the process of institutionalizing OD interventions and the factors that
contribute to it
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Evaluating Organization Development Interventions
Note: There are two types of evaluation efforts. The first involves collecting information about
how well an intervention is progressing so that modifications in the implementation can takeplace. The second involves a determination about the impact of the intervention on theorganization. To isolate the impact, the OD practitioner must find ways to rule out alternative
explanations. This is not often an easy task and requires the practitioner to understand research
design issues and to apply them creatively.
A. Implementation and Evaluation Feedback
B. Measurement
1. Selecting variables
2. Designing good measures
a. Operational definitionb. Reliability
c. Validity
C. Research Design
1. Longitudinal measurement2. Comparison unit
3. Statistical analysis
Application 11-1: This application describes the evaluation of a large-scale change at the
World Bank, specifically the way the change was managed. It is a good example of how multiple
types of data can be collected and used to validate the evaluation data. The material presented so far in
this chapter can be used to assess the evaluation’s effectiveness. Get students to discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of the assessment? How could it have been improved? Ask how
much confidence they have in the lessons learned for this organization?
2. Institutionalizing Interventions
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Note: The key point of this section is that the extent of institutionalization can vary from a little
to complete. Note for the students how each element of the framework can contribute to
persistence and the different levels of persistence that can exist.
A. Institutionalization Framework
1. Organization characteristics
a. Congruenceb. Stability of environment and technology
c. Unionization
2. Intervention characteristics
a. Goal specificity
b. Programmability
c. Level of change target
d. Internal support
e. Sponsorship
3. Institutionalization processes
a. Socialization
b. Commitment
c. Reward Allocationd. Diffusion
e. Sensing and Calibration
4. Indicators of institutionalization
a. Knowledge
b. Performance
c. Preferences
d. Normative Consensus
e. Value Consensus
Application 11-2: Institutionalizing Structural Change at Hewlett-Packard. HP is one of the
premier companies in the U.S. and has implemented several major large-scale changes. The
application helps students to see that change can occur at many different levels and thatinstitutionalizing change is a difficult undertaking. It describes how culture and reward systems
can play a strong role in both supporting and constraining change.
3. Summary
This chapter explores the final two stages of planned change—evaluating interventions and
institutionalizing them. Evaluation was discussed in terms of two kinds of necessary feedback:
implementation feedback, concerned with whether the intervention is being implemented as
intended, and evaluation feedback, indicating whether the intervention is producing expected
results. Evaluation of interventions also involves decisions about measurement and research
design. Measurement issues focus on selecting variables and designing good measures. Research
design focuses on setting up the conditions for making valid assessments of an intervention’seffects. OD interventions are institutionalized when the change program persists and becomes
part of the organization’s normal functioning.
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Chapter 12
Individual, Interpersonal, and Group Process
Approaches
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the human process interventions aimed at individuals, interpersonal
relations and group dynamics
2. To understand the application and effectiveness of the various process interventions
(coaching, training and development, group process approaches, third-party interventions,and team building) in producing change
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Coaching
A. What are the Goals?
B. Application Stages
1. Establish the principles of the relationship
2. Conduct an assessment3. Debrief the results
4. Develop an action plan
5. Implement the action plan
6. Assess the results
C. The Results of Coaching
Note: Coaching is probably the fastest growing consultation segment over the last five
years. In some organizations, having a coach is considered a status symbol, much like having atherapist for New Yorkers. Coaching, unlike OD has persued professionalization as a means of
legitimizing the role and its practitioners. The professor could lead two types of discussions
about coaching. The first would concern its definition and students’ experience or observations of
coaching. The second discussion would examine when coaching would be considered an OD
intervention (Use criteria from Chapter 1 to define the OD intervention.)
2. Training and Development
A. What are the Goals?
B. Application Stages
1. Perform a needs assessment
2. Develop the objectives and design of the training
3. Deliver the training
4. Evaluate the training
Application 12.1 describes a management development program at Microsoft
Corporation. The company was interested in building the strategic competence of its middle
managers and making the organization more capable. The professor can discuss the extent to
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which the design and delivery process matches the process outlined in the text. What are the
strengths and weaknesses of the program as it was implemented?
C. The Results of Training
3. Process Consultation
A. Group Process
1. Communications
2. The functional roles of group members
3. Group problem solving
4. Group norms
5. The use of leadership and authority
B. Basic Process Interventions
1. Individual Interventions
2. Group Interventions
3. Content Interventions
4. Structural Interventions
Application 12.2: This application presents an example of process consultation with the
top-management team of a manufacturing firm. Ask students to identify differences between
process consultation and facilitation.
C. Results of Process Consultation
4. Third Party Interventions
A. An Episodic Model of Conflict
B. Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process
Application 12.3 describes an attempt to address conflict in an information technology unit.
How does this description fit with the process model in the text ? Ask students what they might havedone differently in this situation.
5. Team Building
Note: Team building typically holds great fascination for students, especially those
with a few years of work experience. It is also one of the most common and accepted
OD interventions.
A. Team Building Activities
1. Activities relevant to one or more individuals2. Activities oriented to the group’s operation and behavior
3. Activities affecting the group’s relationship with the organization
Application 12.4 presents an example of a team-building meeting involving a top-
management team.
B. The Manager’s Role in Team Building
C. The Results of Team Building
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6. Summary
In this chapter, we presented human process interventions aimed at individuals, interpersonal relations,and group dynamics. Coaching and training and development interventions are aimed mainly at
individuals. They seek to improve personal competence and are important aspects of leadershipdevelopment programs.
Process consultation is used not only as a way of helping groups become effective but also as a means
whereby groups learn to diagnose and solve their own problems and continue to develop theircompetence and maturity. The basic difference between process consultation and third-party
intervention is that the latter focuses on interpersonal dysfunctions in social relationships between two
or more individuals within the same organization and is targeted toward resolving direct conflict
between those individuals. Team building is directed toward improving group effectiveness and the
ways in which members of teams work together.
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Chapter 13
Organization Process Approaches
Learning Objectives
1. To understand three types of system-wide, human process interventions: the organization
confrontation meeting, intergroup relations interventions, and large group interventions
2. To review and understand the effectiveness of these interventions in producing change
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Organization Confrontation Meeting
Note: The organization confrontation meeting is a classic OD intervention. Help
students to see the process and the content features of the meeting. As they grow in their
knowledge of OD, they should begin to see this pattern of activities again and again in good ODintervention designs
A. Application Stages
Application 13.1: This application presents the Work-Out process at General Electric
Medical Systems business. It shows how the basic framework of a confrontation meeting can be
adapted to address organizational problems such as productivity and employee
involvement.
B. Results of Confrontation Meetings
2. Intergroup Relations Interventions
A. Microcosm Groups
Note: The trick to understanding microcosm groups is in recognizing the importance of
parallel processes. The parallel process concept suggests that if the group is composed
correctly and operated properly, the group itself will manifest the organizational problem
it was formed to address. By solving the problem within the group, they will be in a better
position to solve the problem in the larger organization or system.
1. Application Stages
a. Identify an issue
b. Convene the groupc. Provide group trainingd. Address the issue
e. Dissolve the group
2. Results of Microcosm Groups
B. Resolving Intergroup Conflict
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Note: The techniques involved with the confrontation meeting are quite similar to those
with resolving an intergroup conflict. The difference is that the organization
confrontation meeting is designed to address organizational problems and issues in general
whereas the intergroup conflict intervention is specifically designed to work on the relationships
between two groups.
1. Application States2. Results of Intergroup conflict Interventions
3. Large Group Interventions
Note: The third type of systemwide process interventions has been variously referred to as
“search conferences, open space meetings, and future searches.” The focus is on issues that affect
the entire organization or large segments of it. The defining feature of large-group interventions
is bringing together large numbers of organization members, often more than 100 for a two to
four day meeting or conference. Here, members work together to identify and resolve
organization-wide problems, to design new approaches to structuring and managing the
organization. This intervention is a fast growing segment of the OD profession.
A. Four Key Assumptions
1. Organization members’ perceptions play a major role in environmental
relations.
2. Organization members must share a common view of the environment to
permit coordinated action toward it.
3. Organization member’s perceptions must accurately reflect the condition
of the environment if organizational responses are to be effective.
4. Organizations cannot only adapt to their environment, they must create it
proactively.
B. Application Stages1. Preparing for the Large-Group Meeting
a. Compelling meeting themeb. Appropriate participants
c. Relevant tasks to address the conference theme
2. Conducting the Meeting
a. Open-systems methods1. Map the current environment surrounding the ganization
2. Assess the organization’s responses to environmental
expectations
3. Identify the core mission of the organization
4. Create a realistic future scenario of environmentalexpectations and organization responses
5. Create an ideal future scenario of environmental
expectations and organization responses. Members
create alternative, desirable futures
Application 13.3 describes a large-group intervention to address the complex issue of
how to manage forests in North America. The Seventh American Forest Congress
followed an open-systems model to design and implement its large- group meeting.
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b. Open-space methods
1. Set the conditions for self-organizing
2. Create the agenda
3. Coordinate activity through information
Application 13.4 provides a more detailed description of how an open-space meetingis conducted. The consultant organization believed the open-space design allowed them to discuss a
variety of issues in a flexible format and gave them the opportunity to network with colleagues in ways
that a normal annual meeting would not have supported.
3. Following up on meeting outcomes
C. Results of Large-Group Interventions
4. Summary
This chapter described three types of systemwide process interventions: confrontation meetings,
intergroup interventions, and large-group interventions. The organization confrontation meeting is away of mobilizing resources for organizational problem solving and seems especially relevant for
organizations undergoing stress. The intergroup relations approaches are designed to help solve a
variety of organizational problems. Microcosm groups can be formed to address particular issues and
use parallel processes to diffuse group solutions to the organization. Large-group interventions are
designed to focus the energy and attention of a “whole system” around organizational processes such as
a vision, strategy, or culture. It is best used when the organization is about to begin a large-scale change
effort or is facing a new situation.
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Chapter 13
Organization Process Approaches
Learning Objectives
1. To understand three types of system-wide, human process interventions: the organization
confrontation meeting, intergroup relations interventions, and large group interventions
2. To review and understand the effectiveness of these interventions in producing change
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Organization Confrontation Meeting
Note: The organization confrontation meeting is a classic OD intervention. Help
students to see the process and the content features of the meeting. As they grow in their
knowledge of OD, they should begin to see this pattern of activities again and again in good ODintervention designs
A. Application Stages
Application 13.1: This application presents the Work-Out process at General Electric
Medical Systems business. It shows how the basic framework of a confrontation meeting can be
adapted to address organizational problems such as productivity and employee
involvement.
B. Results of Confrontation Meetings
2. Intergroup Relations Interventions
A. Microcosm Groups
Note: The trick to understanding microcosm groups is in recognizing the importance of
parallel processes. The parallel process concept suggests that if the group is composed
correctly and operated properly, the group itself will manifest the organizational problem
it was formed to address. By solving the problem within the group, they will be in a better
position to solve the problem in the larger organization or system.
1. Application Stages
a. Identify an issue
b. Convene the groupc. Provide group trainingd. Address the issue
e. Dissolve the group
2. Results of Microcosm Groups
B. Resolving Intergroup Conflict
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Note: The techniques involved with the confrontation meeting are quite similar to those
with resolving an intergroup conflict. The difference is that the organization
confrontation meeting is designed to address organizational problems and issues in general
whereas the intergroup conflict intervention is specifically designed to work on the relationships
between two groups.
1. Application States2. Results of Intergroup conflict Interventions
3. Large Group Interventions
Note: The third type of systemwide process interventions has been variously referred to as
“search conferences, open space meetings, and future searches.” The focus is on issues that affect
the entire organization or large segments of it. The defining feature of large-group interventions
is bringing together large numbers of organization members, often more than 100 for a two to
four day meeting or conference. Here, members work together to identify and resolve
organization-wide problems, to design new approaches to structuring and managing the
organization. This intervention is a fast growing segment of the OD profession.
A. Four Key Assumptions
1. Organization members’ perceptions play a major role in environmental
relations.
2. Organization members must share a common view of the environment to
permit coordinated action toward it.
3. Organization member’s perceptions must accurately reflect the condition
of the environment if organizational responses are to be effective.
4. Organizations cannot only adapt to their environment, they must create it
proactively.
B. Application Stages1. Preparing for the Large-Group Meeting
a. Compelling meeting themeb. Appropriate participants
c. Relevant tasks to address the conference theme
2. Conducting the Meeting
a. Open-systems methods1. Map the current environment surrounding the ganization
2. Assess the organization’s responses to environmental
expectations
3. Identify the core mission of the organization
4. Create a realistic future scenario of environmentalexpectations and organization responses
5. Create an ideal future scenario of environmental
expectations and organization responses. Members
create alternative, desirable futures
Application 13.3 describes a large-group intervention to address the complex issue of
how to manage forests in North America. The Seventh American Forest Congress
followed an open-systems model to design and implement its large- group meeting.
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b. Open-space methods
1. Set the conditions for self-organizing
2. Create the agenda
3. Coordinate activity through information
Application 13.4 provides a more detailed description of how an open-space meetingis conducted. The consultant organization believed the open-space design allowed them to discuss a
variety of issues in a flexible format and gave them the opportunity to network with colleagues in ways
that a normal annual meeting would not have supported.
3. Following up on meeting outcomes
C. Results of Large-Group Interventions
4. Summary
This chapter described three types of systemwide process interventions: confrontation meetings,
intergroup interventions, and large-group interventions. The organization confrontation meeting is away of mobilizing resources for organizational problem solving and seems especially relevant for
organizations undergoing stress. The intergroup relations approaches are designed to help solve a
variety of organizational problems. Microcosm groups can be formed to address particular issues and
use parallel processes to diffuse group solutions to the organization. Large-group interventions are
designed to focus the energy and attention of a “whole system” around organizational processes such as
a vision, strategy, or culture. It is best used when the organization is about to begin a large-scale change
effort or is facing a new situation.
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Chapter 15
Employee Involvement
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the principle characteristics of employee involvement interventions
2. To understand the three predominant applications of employee involvement
3. To discuss the major types of employee involvement interventions
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Employee Involvement: What is it?
Note: As one of the fastest growing classes of OD, the chapter presents interventions that are
aimed at moving decision making downward in the organization. Its history begins with the
quality of work life (QWL) movement as described in chapter 2. Special attention should be
placed on the working definition of EI. That is, how are power, information, knowledge & skills,and rewards manipulated to increase employee participation and empowerment in organizational
functioning? Stress how each of the four interventions will vary in terms of their impact on each
of these four dimensions.
A. A Working Definition of Employee Involvement
B. The Diffusion of EI Practices
C. How EI Affects Productivity
Note: This is important material. The relationship between EI and productivity is not
simple. The amount of research that has been done in this area of OD is intense and should be
appreciated by the students.
2. Employee Involvement Applications
Note: This section deals with the three major applications of EI that vary in the amount of power, information, knowledge & skills, and rewards that are moved downward throughout the
organization.
A. Parallel Structures
1. Application Stages2. Cooperative Union-Management Projects
Note: This intervention is most closely related to the original QWL movement. The
predominant feature of this intervention is the sharing of decision power with theunion and its members. Problem solving skills and knowledge are also increased butcan be controlled by management. Information and rewards tend to be pushed less.
Application 15-1: The application describes a classic example of a cooperative union-
management program at GTE of California. Notice how this effort was revised andimproved using an action research approach and the role the reward system
change played in its success.
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3. Results of Parallel Structure Approaches
B. High-Involvement Organizations
Note: High involvement organizations (HIO’s) are one of the most pervasive OD
interventions in terms of its impact on the four elements and one of the most popular areas of practice and research. HIO’s consciously attempt to push all four elements down into the
organization. The success of the intervention is largely dependent on that part of the organization
having relative autonomy from the other parts. Without that independence, it is difficult to beable to control all of the organizational systems necessary to align the four elements.
1. Features of High-Involvement Organizations (HIO’s)
2. Application Factors
3. Results of HIO’s
Application 15.2 presents an example of how Chrysler applied high-involvement principles to
its Neon automobile. The Neon drew critical acclaim for its short design time and was introduced in
Japan to compete with Toyota’s and Honda’s popular subcompacts.
C. Total Quality Management (TQM)
Note: This intervention was very popular in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. The increased
use of TQM has replaced the Quality Circles (QC) intervention in many organizations. QC’s tend
to push knowledge and skill levels down through problem solving and group training, much like
union-management interventions. Another important evolution has been the recent mergence of
six-sigma programs. Based on the principles of TQM, large organizations, such as GE, Motorola,
May Co., and Sun Microsystems, are attempting to drive out important sources of variation and
achieving near perfection in the execution of critical processes.
1. Application Stagesa. Gain long-term senior management commitment
b. Train members in quality methodsc. Start quality improvement projects
d. Measure progress
e. Reward accomplishment
Application 15.3 describes a six sigma effort at GE Financial Services.
2. Results of Total Quality Management
3. Summary
Employee involvement interventions are technostructural change programs aimed at moving
organization decision making downward to improve responsiveness and performance and toincrease member flexibility, commitment, and satisfaction. Different approaches to EI can be
described by the extent to which power, information, knowledge and skills, and rewards are
shared with employees. Major EI interventions are parallel structures, including cooperative
union– management projects and quality circles; high-involvement designs; and TQM. The
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results of these approaches tend to be positive, and the quality of research supporting these
interventions is increasing.
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Chapter 16
Work Design
Learning Objectives
1. To explore work design as a central component of many EI interventions
2. To approach work design from three different perspectives: engineering, motivational,
and socio-technical
3. To understand how different approaches align with different technical and interpersonal
conditions
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
Note: Work design is often an integral part of EI interventions. Students should be encouraged to
see both the similarities between EI and work design (both effect the technical and the structural
components of organization design) and the differences (individual/group level versus
organizational level). The three approaches described here should be understood for theirunderlying assumptions, the outcomes likely to result from using each approach, and the
conditions under which each is likely to be most successful.
1. The Engineering Approach
Note: The engineering approach is the oldest and most prevalent approach to designing
work. It produces two kinds of work design: traditional jobs and traditional work design.
It remains an important work design intervention because its immediate cost savings and
efficiency can easily be measured, selection costs are low, and training costs are
minimized.
2. The Motivational Approach
Note: The motivational approach, based mostly on Hackman and Oldham’s work, is the
classic job enrichment model. While some students may have been exposed to it in priororganization behavior courses, the focus here should be on the process of implementing
job redesign.
A. The Core Dimensions of Jobs
1. Skill Variety, Task Identity, and Task Significance2. Autonomy
3. Feedback from the Work Itself
B. Individual DifferencesC. Application Stages
1. Thorough diagnosis
2. Forming natural work units
3. Combining tasks
4. Establishing client relationships5. Vertical loading
6. Opening feedback channels
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D. Barriers to Job Enrichment
E. Results of Job Enrichment
Application 16.1 presents an example of job enrichment in a large data-entry operationwhere workers were not directly involved in the redesign process and where supervisors
developed and implemented the changes. Although the results were extremely positive, researchsuggests that employee participation in the change program might have produced even more
beneficial outcomes
3. The Sociotechnical Systems Approach
Note: Sociotechnical Systems (STS) theory underlies many current EI and work design
approaches. For example, TQM approaches, trumpeted by many as a revolutionary
approach to organizational improvement look remarkably similar to many STS guidelines (e.g.,
variance control). Students should have a thorough grasp of STS theory and guidelines.
A. Conceptual Background
1. Sociotechnical system2. Environmental relationship
B. Self-managed Work Teams
1. Team Task Design
2. Team Process Interventions
3. Organization Support Systems
Video Option: The third clip on the Southwestern College Publishing video for
Organization Development and Change describes the challenges in implementing a self-
directed work team at Next Door Food Store. After viewing the clip, have the students analyze
the work performed by this team using the 2” X 2” tables in the text. What is the level of task
interdependency and task uncertainty? What is the apparent level of social and achievement needsin this case? Is self-directed teams the appropriate job design in this situation?
C. Application Stages
D. Results of Self-Managed Teams
Application 16.2 describes how one of ASEA Brown Boveri’s plants implemented self-
managed teams. It clearly demonstrates the importance of aligning the systems to support
self-management as well as the process of gradually increasing the team’s autonomy and
responsibility.
4. Designing Work for Technical and Personal Needs
A. Technical Factors
B. Personal Need Factors
C. Meeting Both Technical and Personal Needs
5. Summary
Three different approaches to work design are examined: the engineering approach, themotivational approach, and the sociotechnical systems approach. Each approach is described
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within a contingency framework to determine which is most likely to result in high productivity
and worker satisfaction. The engineering approach produces traditional jobs and traditional work
groups. Traditional jobs are highly simplified and involve routine and repetitive forms of work,
rather than coordination among people to produce a product or service. The motivational
approach produces enriched jobs involving high levels of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback from the work itself. Enriched jobs achieve good results
when the technology is uncertain but does not require high levels of coordination and whenemployees have high growth needs and low social needs. Finally, the sociotechnical systems
approach is associated with self-managed teams. These groups are composed of members
performing interrelated tasks. Members are given the multiple skills, autonomy, and informationnecessary to control their own task behaviors with relatively little external control.
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Chapter 17
Performance Management
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the relationships and components associated with managing individual
and group performance
2. To explore three interventions concerned with managing performance of human
resources: goal setting, performance appraisal, and reward systems
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Goal Setting
A. Characteristics of Goal Setting
1. Establishing Challenging Goals2. Clarifying Goal Measurement
B. Application Stages
1. Diagnosis
2. Preparation for goal setting
3. Setting of Goals
4. Review
C. Management by Objectives (MBO)
1. Work group involvement
2. Joint manager-subordinate goal setting
3. Establishment of action plans4. Establishment of criteria for success
5. Review and recycle
6. Maintenance of records
Note: MBO is not formally practiced by many organizations per se, but its legacy is
alive and well in most organizational vocabularies. It is presented here as an example of a
comprehensive intervention that combines goal setting and appraisal and links these events to the
reward system. MBO has become woven into the fabric of most organization’s human resourcepractices and can be a relatively transparent system or process.
Application 17.1 describes how a performance management process was designed at
Monsanto Company. It shows how goal-setting processes can be linked with businessstrategies and performance appraisal processes.
D. Effects of Goal Setting and MBO
2. Performance Appraisal
A. The Performance Appraisal Process
B. Application Stages
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1. Select the right people
2. Diagnose the current situation
3. Establish the system’s purposes and objectives
4. Design the performance appraisal system
5. Experiment with implementation6. Evaluate and monitor the system
Note: As part of the appraisal design process the above criteria are presented. These
criteria can be used in a diagnostic way as well to measure the state of the current appraisal
system. Students may find these criteria helpful in diagnosing and designing appraisal and otherfeedback systems.
Application 17.2 describes the redesign of a performance appraisal process for the
Washington State Patrol agency. It demonstrates the importance of a pilot test and integrating the
appraisal process with context factors and other organizational initiatives.
C. Effects of Performance Appraisal
Video Option: The fourth clip on the Southwestern College Publishing video forOrganization Development and Change describes the performance management process at
LaBelle Management, including the goal setting and appraisal processes. After viewing the clip,
have the students diagnose the system. What are its strengths and weaknesses? How might they
improve the process? How does the system fit with the strategy, technology, and levels of
employee involvement in the organization?
3. Reward Systems
Note: In this section criteria for reward systems are presented. Similarly to the criteria for
performance appraisal design, student may find these guidelines helpful in understanding the
strengths and weaknesses of current and proposed reward systems. Most pay systems tend to fall
short on many of the criteria providing an opportunity to talk about why money is not a goodmotivator in many cases. It also affords an opportunity to talk about what types of rewards are
most likely to generate positive behaviors.
A. Structural and Motivational Features of Reward Systems
1. Design features of a reward system
a. Person/job based vs. performance based
b. Internal and external equity
c. Hierarchy
d. Centralization
e. Rewards mix
f. Security
g. Seniority
2. Motivational factors
a. Availability of rewards
b. Timeliness of rewards
c. Performance contingency
d. Durability
e. Visibility
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B. Skill-Based Pay Systems
C. Performance-Based Pay Systems
D. Gain Sharing Systems
Application 17.3 describes the reward system at Lands’ End Direct Merchants. It describes a variety
of reward system design features as well as how a number of different types of rewards can be mixedtogether to produce an overall reward system.
E. Promotion SystemsF. Reward System Process Issues
4. Summary
This chapter presented three types of human resources management interventions—goal setting,
performance appraisal, and rewards systems. Although all three change programs are relatively new to
organization development, they offer powerful methods for managing employee and work group
performance. They also help enhance worker satisfaction and support work design, business strategy,
and employee involvement practices. Principles contributing to the success of goal setting includeestablishing challenging goals and clarifying measurement. Performance appraisals represent an
important link between goal setting and reward systems. As part of an organization’s feedback and
control system, they provide employees and work groups with information they can use to improve
work outcomes Reward systems interventions elicit, reinforce, and maintain desired performance.
They can be oriented to both individual jobs, work groups, or organizations and affect both
performance and employee well-being.
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Chapter 18
Developing and Assisting Members
Learning Objectives
1. To examine three human resource management interventions: career planning and
development, workforce diversity, and employee stress and wellness.
2. To understand how OD efforts enhance traditional human resource approaches to these
issues.
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
1. Career Planning and Development Interventions
Note: Career planning and development is a large area within human resource management. We
have chosen to orient the material around the career stages of an individual and note how the
organization may adjust its human resource practices. This developmental orientation can becompared with the issue orientation adopted in the workforce diversity section.
A. Career Stages
B. Career Planning
Application 18.1 describes how Colgate-Palmolive, an international consumer-products
company, revised career planning to integrate better with business strategy and human
resources planning.
C. Career Development
D. Role and Structure Interventions
1. Realistic Job Preview2. Job Rotation and Challenging Assignments3. Consultative Roles
4. Phased Retirement
E. Individual Employee Development Interventions
1. Assessment Centers
2. Mentoring
3. Developmental Training
F. Performance Feedback and Coaching Interventions
G. Work-Life Balance Interventions
2. Workforce Diversity Interventions
A. Age
B. GenderC. Race/Ethnicity
D. Sexual Orientation
E. Disability
F. Culture and Values
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Application 18.2 describes a workforce diversity intervention at Baxter Exports, showing
how diversity can exist in many areas and how organizations can employ a range of
interventions to make the workplace more flexible.
3. Employee Stress and Wellness Interventions
A. Work LeavesB. Stress Management Programs
1. Definition and model of stress management
2. Alleviating stressors and coping with stress
Application 18.3 describes the evolution of an EAP and wellness program at Johnson &
Johnson and demonstrates how such programs can be implemented in large, decentralized
organizations.
4. Summary
This chapter presented three major human resources interventions: career planning and development,
workforce diversity interventions, and employee stress and wellness interventions. Career planninginvolves helping people choose occupations, organizations, and jobs at different stages of their careers.
Career development helps employees achieve career objectives. Workforce diversity interventions are
designed to adapt human resources practices to an increasingly diverse workforce. Age, gender, race,
sexual orientation, disability, and culture and values trends point to a more complex set of human
resources demands. Within such a context, OD interventions (e.g., job design, performance
management, and employee involvement practices) have to be adapted to a diverse set of personal
preferences, needs, and lifestyles. Employee stress and wellness interventions, such as work leaves and
stress management, recognize the important link between worker health and organizational
productivity. Although these kinds of change programs generally are carried out by human resources
specialists, a growing number of OD practitioners are gaining competence in these areas and the
interventions are increasingly being included in OD programs.
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Chapter 19
Competitive and Collaborative Strategies
Learning Objectives
1. To compare and contrast two different classes of strategic interventions: competitive andcollaborative
2. To describe two types of interventions within each category
Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes
Note: This chapter describes interventions that help organizations implement strategies for both
competing and collaborating with other organizations. These change programs are relatively recent
additions to the OD field. They focus on helping organizations position themselves strategically in their
social and economic environments and achieve a better fit with the external forces affecting goal
achievement and performance. Practitioners are discovering that additional knowledge and skills in
such areas as marketing, finance, economics, political science, and complexity theory are necessary toimplement these strategic interventions. The interventions described in this chapter help organizations
gain a comprehensive understanding of their environments and devise appropriate responses to external
demands.
1. Environmental Framework
Note: It’s important that students be able to articulate the similarities and differences among the general
environment, the task environment (also known as the industry structure), and the enacted environment.
A. Environmental Types
1. General Environment
2. Task Environment3. Enacted Environment
B. Environmental Dimensions
Note: We highlight several features or dimensions of the environment, including information
uncertainty, resource dependence.
2. Competitive Strategies
Note: This section describes two very different intervention activities. The first intervention
process, integrated strategic change, focuses on strategic OD activities at the firm or business
level. The second set of activities is associated with merger and acquisition activities. Thecriterion of either intervention is to make an organization’s strategy more unique, difficult or
costly to imitate, and valuable.
A. Integrated Strategic Change (ISC)
1. Key Features
a. The organization’s strategic orientation
b. The strategic plan (creation, support, planning, and execution)
c. Integrating individuals and groups into the process
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2. Application Stages
a. Performing the strategic analysis.
b. Exercising strategic choice.
c. Designing the strategic change plan.d. Implementing the strategic change plan.
Application 19.1 describes an integrated strategic change process at Microsoft Canada and
demonstrates how the process was refined over time as the organization builds capability in strategic
management. Help the students to see how strategic interventions, such as integrated strategic chance,are broad descriptions or summaries that usefully describe a large number of changes. Help the students
recognize the different parts of the ISC process in the case.
B. Mergers and Acquisitions
Note: Mergers and acquisitions (M&As) involve the combination of two organizations. The
term merger refers to the integration of two previously independent organizations into a completely
new organization; acquisition involves the purchase of one organization by another for integration into
the acquiring organization. M&As are distinct from the strategies of collaboration described later inthis chapter because at least one of the organizations ceases to exist.
1. M&A Rationale
Note: Despite M&A popularity, they have a questionable record of success. Encourage the
students to explore or juxtapose the reasons for M&As on the one hand and their lack of success on the
other. If organizations are poor at executing them, why do them?
2. Application Stages
a. Precombination Phase
1. Search for and select candidate.
2. Create an M&A team.3. Establish the business case.
4. Perform a due diligence assessment.5. Develop merger integration plans.
b. Legal Combination Phase
c. Operational Combination Phase
Note: This final phase involves implementing the merger integration plan. In practice, it
begins during due diligence assessment and may continue for months or years following the legal
combination phase. M&A implementation includes the three kinds of activities described below.
1. Day 1 activities.2. Operational and technical integration activities.
3. Cultural integration activities.
Application 19.2 describes several of the key issues in the M&A process at Dow Chemical and UnionCarbide. It clearly demonstrates the importance of cultural issues in mergers and the role that OD can
play in the process.
3. Collaborative Strategies
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Note: This section discusses collaborative strategies where two or more organizations
agree to work together to achieve their objectives. This represents a fundamental shift in strategic
orientation because the strategies, goals, structures, and processes of two or more
organizations become interdependent and must be coordinated and aligned. Be sure thatstudents can readily list 3-5 reasons for collaboration.
A. Collaboration Rationale
B. Alliance Interventions
Note: Alliances are a formal agreement between two organizations to pursue a set of
private and common goals through the sharing of resources, including intellectual property,
people, capital, technology, capabilities, or physical assets. The term alliance generally refers to
any collaborative effort between two organizations, including licensing agreements, franchises,
long-term contracts, and joint ventures. Make sure the students understand the importance of trust
in alliances. How can OD practitioners help two organizations build trust between them?
1. Application Stages
a. Alliance strategy formulation.b. Partner selection.
c. Alliance Structuring and Start-up
d. Alliance Operation and Adjustment
C. Network Interventions
Note: Networks involve three or more organizations that have joined together for a common
purpose. Their use is increasing rapidly in today’s highly competitive, global environment.
Managing the development of multi-organization networks involves two types of change:
(a) creating the initial network and (b) managing change within an established network.
1. Creating the Network
Note: First, the initial creation of networks recognizes their underorganized nature. Forming
them into a more coherent, operating whole involves understanding the relationships among the
participating organizations and their roles in the system, as well as the implications and consequencesof organizations leaving the network, changing roles, or increasing their influence.
a. Identification stage.
b. Convention stage.c. Organization stage.
d. Evaluation stage.
2. Managing Network Change
Note: Change within existing networks must account for the relationships
among member organizations as a whole system. The multiple and complex
relationships involved in networks produce emergent phenomenon that cannot be
fully explained by simply knowing the parts. Each organization in the network hasgoals that are partly related to the good of the network and partly focused on self-
interest. How the network reacts over time is even more difficult to capture and is
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part of the emerging science of complexity. Depending on the professor’s preferences
and interests, this section represents a real opportunity to describe and discuss the
topics of networks, chaos and complexity theories, non-linear systems dynamics, and
other similar “new sciences.”
The process of change described here comes from Malcolm Gladwell’s Tipping
Point. The key issues are “structure” and “agency” as defined by the network theorists.
a. Create instability in the network.
b. Manage the Tipping Point. 1. The Law of the Few: Salespeople, Mavens, Connectors
2. Stickiness
3. The Power of Context
3. Rely on Self Organization
Application 19.3 describes the behaviors of organizations within the Toyota network in
response to a crisis. The application demonstrates the fragility of collaborative networks,
their robust and responsive capabilities, and the importance of the law of the few, stickiness, andcontext. We chose this application because we were amazed with the story and found many of theissues of network change manifest. In some cases, the salespeople, mavens, and connectors are
obvious, and the messages were sticky because the system was in crisis. Nevertheless, it shows
how powerful these concepts can be in application.
4. Summary
In this chapter, we presented interventions aimed at implementing competitive and
collaborative strategies. Organizations are open systems that exist in environmental contexts and they
must establish and maintain effective linkages with the environment to survive and prosper. Threetypes of environments affect organizational functioning: the general environment, the task
environment, and the enacted environment. Only the last environment can affect organizational choicesabout behavior, but the first two impact the consequences of those actions.
Two competitive strategies for OD are presented. The first, integrated strategic change (ISC),
is a comprehensive intervention for responding to complex and uncertain environmental pressures. The
second involves mergers and acquisitions where two or more organizations combine to achieve
strategic and financial objectives. The M&A process has been dominated by financial and technical
concerns, but experience and research strongly support the contribution that OD practitioners can make
to M&A success.
Collaborative strategies are a form of planned change aimed at helping organizations create
partnerships with other organizations to perform tasks or to solve problems that are too complex and
multifaceted for single organizations. Both alliance and network development interventions are
collaborative strategies. Alliance interventions describe the technical and organizational issues involved
when two organizations choose to work together to achieve common goals. Network developmentinterventions address two types of change. First, because multiorganization systems tend to be
underorganized, the initial development of the network follows the stages of planned change relevant to
underorganized systems: identification, convention, organization, and evaluation. Second, the
management of change in a network also acknowledges the distributed nature of influence and
adopt methods of change that rely on the law of the few the power of context and the stickiness