Volume II: Country Reports · NWRS Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 NWSC Nepal Water Supply...

Development of an Assessment System to Evaluate the Ecological Status of Rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region

Funded by the European Commission, 6th Framework Programme contributing to priority "Specific measures in support of international co-operation (INCO)”,

A.2.1. Managing humid and semi-humid ecosystems". Contract number: INCO-CT-2005-003659

Deliverable 6

River Water Quality Policies, and Pressures and Impacts in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region Volume II: Country Reports

November 2005 Prepared by: B.K. Pradhan, R.K. Siddhi, M. Shrestha and R.L. Shilpakar International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Khumaltar, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] With contribution from: Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Rorkee, India

mailto:[email protected]

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports

This research work is funded by the European Commission under the 6th Framework Programme contributing to priority "Specific measures in support of international co-operation (INCO); A.2.1. Managing humid and semi-humid ecosystems". Contract number: INCO-CT-2005-003659 Co-ordinator: Prof. Dr. Otto Moog, BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; E-mail: [email protected].

i

mailto:[email protected]


Acknowledgments We are grateful to the Alternate Hydro Energy Centre (AHEC), Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India for preparing the Country Report of India as a contribution to subtask 3.2. The country partners, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh; National Environment Commission Secretariat (NECS), Thimpu, Bhutan; and Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR), Islamabad provided relevant documents and information to prepare this report. We are grateful to them for their invaluable contribution. We are also grateful to Dr. Andreas Hoffmann, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany and Dr. Bandana Pradhan, Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu, Nepal for their critical review and constructive suggestions. Our sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Otto Moog, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), the coordinator of ASSESS-HKH for his valuable comments and suggestions. Last but not the least we would like to express our sincere thanks to all colleagues in ICIMOD who directly or indirectly contributed to accomplish this study.

ii


Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank AHEC Alternate Hydro Energy Centre (IIT, Roorkee) AIBP Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme ARWSP Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme ASSESS-HKH Assessment System to Evaluate the Ecological Status of Rivers in the Hindu Kush

Himalayan Region BCM Billion Cubic Meters BECA Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act BOD Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand BWDB Bangladesh Water Development Board CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate CADP Command Area Development Programme CBO Community Based Organisation CEMAT CEMAT Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd. CGWB Central Ground Water Board CMO Central Monitoring Organization COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CWC Central Water Commission (India) DDC District Development Committee DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology DiSvi Italian NGO DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation DO Dissolved Oxygen DoE Department of Environment DoED Department of Electricity Development DoF Department of Forest DoI Department of Irrigation DOLIDAR Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads. DPAP Drought Prone Areas Programme DSCWM- Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management DWIDP Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention DWQ Drinking Water Quality DWQM Drinking Water Quality Monitoring DWRC District Water Resources Committee DWSS Department of Water Supply and Sewerage E Coli Eserisha Coli EAA Environment Assessment Act ECA Environmental Conservation Act ECoP Environmental Code of Practice ECR Environmental Conservation Rules EIA Environment Impact Assessment ENPHO Environment and Public Health Organisation EPC Environment Protection Council EQS Environmental Quality Standards ETFC Electricity Tariff Fixation Commission FAP Flood Action Plan FFC Federal Flood Commission FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency GLOF Glacier Lake Outburst Flood GNH Gross National Happiness GOP Government of Pakistan

iii


HDI Human Development Index HKH Hindu Kush Himalayan Region HMGN His Majesty’s Government of Nepal Hrs./day Hours per day ICAR Indian Council for Agricultural Research ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development IEE Initial Environmental Examination INGO International Non-governmental Organisation IPNS Integrated Plant Nutrient System IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature (World Conservation Union) IWM Institute of Water Modelling IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management KVWA Kathmandu Valley Water Authority (now Kathmandu Valley Water Management

Board) KWSB Karachi Water and Sewerage Board LBOD Left Bank Outfall Drain lpcd Litres per capita per day LSGA Local Self Governance Act mg/l Milligram per litre MINFAL Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock ml Millilitre MLD Million litres per day MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests MoEST Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology MoFSC Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation MoH Ministry of Health (now Ministry of Population and Health) MoI Ministry of Industry MoLD Ministry of Local Development MOPE Ministry of Population and Environment (Now part of MOEST) MoWR Ministry of Water Resources MPN Most Probable Number MPPW Ministry of Physical Planning and Works MTEF Mid Term Expenditure Framework MWSDB Melamchi Water Supply Development Board N Nitrogen NCS National Conservation Strategy NDC National Development Council NDWQS National Drinking Water Quality Standards NEA Nepal Electricity Authority NEAP National Environment Action Plan NEC National Environment Commission NEPA National Environmental Protection Act NEPP National Environment Policy of Pakistan 1999 NEQS National Environment Quality Standard NES National Environment Strategy NESS Nepal Environmental scientific Services NGO Non-governmental Organisation NH3 Ammonia NLCP National Lake Conservation Plan NO3 Nitrate NO3-N Nitrate-Nitrogen NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation NPC National Planning Commission NRCD National River Conservation Directorate

iv


NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit NWDA National Water Development Agency NWFP North-West Frontier Province NWP National Water Plan 2005 (to be published) NWQMP National Water Quality Monitoring Program NWRDC National Water Resources Development Council NWRS Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 NWSC Nepal Water Supply Corporation O&M Operation and Maintenance OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PCRWR Pakistan Council of Research in Water resources pH Hydrogen ion Concentration PIHS Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (2001/02) PLAN PLAN International (INGO) PNCS Pakistan National Conservation Strategy PSQCA Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority PWSC Pakistan Water Sector Strategy RBOD Right Bank Outfall Drain RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan RONAST Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology RWSSFDB Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board SAECP South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme SAF Sindh Agriculture Form SCARPs Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects SMO Salinity Control and Reclamation Project Monitoring Organization SPCB State Pollution Central Board SWMRMC Solid Waste Management & Resource Mobilisation Centre TCU True Colour Unit TDS Total Dissolved Solids TERI Tata Energy Research Institute (now The Energy Resources Institute) TOC Total Organic Carbon TSS Total Suspended Solids TSS Total Suspended Solids UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNICEF United Nations Children Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation VDC Village Development Committee WAPDA Water and Power Development authority WARPO Water Resource Planning Organisation WASAs Water and Sanitation Agencies WB World Bank WEC Water and Energy Commission WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat WHEM Water, Hazards and Environment Management WHO World Health Organisation WQS Water Quality Standards WRA Water Resources Act 1992 WSS Water Supply and Sanitation/Sewage WSSP Water Supply and Sanitation Project WSTFC Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission WUA Water User’s Association μS/cm Micro Siemens (mhos) per centimeters

v


Contents

1 Bangladesh Country Report ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 River System.................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Socio-economic Status and Indicators............................................................................................ 3 1.3 Most Relevant Socio-economic Pressures and Impacts.................................................................. 5 1.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments ...................................................................... 12 1.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework .............................................................. 17 1.6 Identification of Gaps ................................................................................................................... 25 1.7 Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................................. 26 1.8 References ..................................................................................................................................... 27

2 Bhutan Country Report .......................................................................................................................... 29 2.1 River System.................................................................................................................................. 29 2.2 Socio-eonomic Status and Indicators............................................................................................ 30 2.3 Most Relevant Socio-economic Pressures and Impacts................................................................ 32 2.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments ...................................................................... 37 2.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework .............................................................. 42 2.6 Identification of Gaps ................................................................................................................... 48 2.7 Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................................. 49 2.8 References ..................................................................................................................................... 51

3 India Country Report.............................................................................................................................. 53 3.1 River System.................................................................................................................................. 53 3.2 Socio-economic Status and Indicators.......................................................................................... 54 3.3 Most Relevant Socio-economic Pressures and Impacts................................................................ 57 3.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments ...................................................................... 73 3.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework .............................................................. 80 3.6 Identification of Gaps ................................................................................................................... 83 3.7 Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................................. 84 3.8 References ..................................................................................................................................... 85

4 Nepal Country Report ............................................................................................................................. 87 4.1 River System.................................................................................................................................. 87 4.2 Socio-economic Status ad Indicators............................................................................................ 89 4.3 Most Relevant Socio-economic Pressures and Impacts................................................................ 93 4.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments .................................................................... 111 4.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework ............................................................ 122 4.6 Identification of Gaps ................................................................................................................. 126 4.7 Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................................ 128 4.8 References ................................................................................................................................... 129

5 Pakistan Country Report ...................................................................................................................... 133 5.1 River System................................................................................................................................ 133 5.2 Socio-Economic Status and Indicators ....................................................................................... 134

vi


5.3 Most Relevant Socio-Economic Pressures and Impacts ............................................................. 136 5.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments .................................................................... 151 5.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework ............................................................ 155 5.6 Identification of Major Gaps ...................................................................................................... 156 5.7 Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................................ 156 5.8 References ................................................................................................................................... 157

List of Tables Bangladesh Country Report Table 1.1 Estimated BOD load by Industries 6 Table 1.2 Industrial Areas in and around Dhaka City 6 Table 1.3 Summary of Industries in and around Greater Dhaka 6 Table 1.4 Concentration (mg/l) of heavy metals in surrounding rivers 1997-1998 7 Table 1.5 Region-wise Numbers of Industrial Establishments and Polluting Industries 7 Table 1.6 Inter-linkage of Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses 11 Table 1.7 Water quality management options with anticipated outcome and actors 11 Table 1.8 Standards for inland surface water 18 Table 1.9 Standards for Sewage Discharge 18 Table 1.10 Standards for Waste From Industrial Units or Projects Waste 19 Table 1.11 Drinking Water Quality Standards 20 Table 1.12 Designated Stations for Water Quality Monitoring by DOE 20 Table 1.13 Policy, legal and regulatory framework and actions programs 24 Bhutan Country Report Table 2.1 Discharge Standards for Industries 43 Table 2.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Standards 45 India Country Report Table 3.1 Classification of River Basins 53 Table 3.2 Basin-wise Mean Flow and Usable Water Resources (in billion m3) 54 Table 3.3 Population of Large Urban Centres 55 Table 3.4 Socio-economic Indicators 56 Table 3.5 Designated Best Use Classification of Surface Water 61 Table 3.6 River Basin-wise Riverine Length under Different Levels of Pollution 64 Table 3.7 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits (Comparative Chart) 69 Table 3.8 Summary of Some Major Programmes 71 Table 3.9 Highlights of Legislation, Policies and Acts 77 Table 3.10 Water Quality Monitoring Network 82 Nepal Country Report Table 4.1 National Water Supply and Demand Status 88 Table 4.2 Estimated Water Use in Nepal in Years 2000 and 2027 88 Table 4.3 Water Supply Coverage (Population in 000s) 90 Table 4.4 Basic Sanitation Coverage (Population in 000s) 90 Table 4.5 Water Supply & Sanitation Coverage (2001) 92 Table 4.5 Socio-Economic Indicators 92 Table 4.6 Nutrient Load in Bagmati River in different seasons (mg/l) 94 Table 4.7 Water Supply Service Level Standards 98 Table 4.8 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits 100 Table 4.9 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits (Comparative Chart) 101 Table 4.10 Summary of Relevant Nepali Laws in Chronological Order 117 Pakistan Country Report Table 5.1 Economic Profile 135 Table 5.2 Some Selected Socio-Economic Indicators 136

vii


Table 5.3: Seasonal Water Quality of Major Rivers in Pakistan 137 Table 5.4 Area in Percentage with Different Groundwater Quality (depth 38 m) 138 Table 5.5 Area in Percentage with Different Groundwater Quality (depth 106 m) 138 Table 5.6 Changes in Tubewells Water Quality with Time 138 Table 5.7 Annual Generation of Industrial and Domestic Effluent of Major Cities (billion m3) 139 Table 5.8 Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment Facilities 141 Table 5.9 Hospital Wastes Generated in Major Cities 141 Table 5.10 Disposal of Saline Drainage Effluent (billion m3) 142 Table 5.11 Hazardous Pesticides in use in Pakistan 143 Table 5.12 Water Quality Monitoring Network 146 Table 5.13 Bacterial Contamination (% of Sample) 148 Table 5.14 Chemical Requirements for Drinking Water 150 Table 5.15 Physical and Chemical Standards for Drinking Water 150 Table 5.16 Bacteriological Standards for Drinking Water 151 Table 5.17 Summary of Relevant Pakistan Laws 155 List of Figures Bangladesh Country Report Figure 1.1 Rivers of Bangladesh 2 Figure 1.2 Water Quality of Buriganga (1998) 23 Figure 1.3 Concentration of DO in River Shitalakhya in different times of Day and Year 23 Bhutan Country Report Figure 2.1 Major Rivers of Bhutan 29 Figure 2.2 Organogram of Royal Government of Bhutan 46 Figure 2.3 Temperature, pH and DO Values at Different Locations around Thimpu 47 Figure 2.4: Thimpu River Quality 48 India Country Report Figure 3.1 Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna River basins 53 Figure 3.2 Water Quality Profile of Major Indian Rivers 63 Figure 3.3 Water Quality Trend - BOD 64 Figure 3.4 Water Quality Trend (Faecal Coliform, MPN/100ml) 64 Figure 3.5 Comparison of Water Quality Data (DO in mg/l) for the River Ganga 67 Figure 3.6 Comparison of Water Quality Data (BOD in mg/l) for the River Ganga 67 Figure 3.7 Comparison of Water Quality Data (DO in mg/l) for River Yamuna 68 Figure 3.8 Comparison of Water Quality Data for River Yamuna (BOD in mg/l) 68 Figure 3.9 Institutional Setup for Water Management in India 80 Figure 3.10 Water Quality Monitoring 82 Nepal Country Report Figure 4.1: Major Rivers of Nepal 87 Figure 4.2 Change in BOD Level at Different Sites of the Bagmati River (1988 and 2003) 96 Figure 4.3 Organogram of Government Ministries and Organizations 125 Pakistan Country Report Figure 5.1 Major Rivers of Pakistan 133 Figure 5.2 Consumption of Fertilizers in Pakistan 142 Figure 5.3 Consumption of Pesticides in Pakistan 143 Figure 5.4 Presence of Fluoride in Water 148 Figure 5.5 Presence of Iron in Water 149 Figure 5.6 Presence of Arsenic in Water 149

viii

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports - Bhutan

1 Bangladesh Country Report

1.1 River System

Bangladesh with a population of 146 millions, occupies an area of 144,000 km² between latitudes 20° 34' and 26° 38' and longitudes 88° and 92° 41' E. The country is bounded by India in the west, north and south and by Myanmar in the extreme southeast. The Bay of Bengal lies to the south. During normal flood of the monsoon about 20% of the country goes under water. But the catastrophic floods of 1987 and 1988 submerged about 40 and 60%, respectively of the land area.

The country lies at the deltaic or lower region of the three mighty river systems, the Ganga-Padma, the Brahmaputra-Jamuna and the Barak-Meghna. Perennial streams, beals and estuaries cover about 8 per cent of the land area. About 20,000 km2 of Bangladesh is occupied by hills and upland forest, 8,500 km2 by inland water, 6,000 km2 by tidal mangrove forests and 20,000 km2 by homesteads. Homesteads scattered throughout the country, contain about 5,000 km2 of tree-covered area.

Water is central to the way of life in Bangladesh and the singlemost important resources for the well being of its people. It sustains an extremely fragile natural environment and provides livelihood for millions of people.

Of a large numbers of rivers flowing through Bangladesh, 56 rivers originate outside Bangladesh, including the three major rivers: the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. The remaining are mainly tributaries of the major and medium rivers. The rivers of Bangladesh can be divided into the major rivers comprising of the Ganges–Padma, Brahmaputra–Jamuna and the Barak–Meghna, and medium and minor rivers (including border tributaries and distributaries). Throughout the areas traversed by these streams, scars of old channels are numerous and maps made approximately 200 years ago show that the pattern of stream channels has changed substantially.

The Ganges is the oldest river in this region. The Ganges River rises in the Himalayan Mountains near the Indo-Chinese border, flows southeasterly across India, and enters Bangladesh near Rajshahi. The drainage area of the Ganges-Padma above Harding Bridge is about 976,200 km2. The three Trans- Himalayas tributaries, the Karnali, Sapta Gandaki and Sapta Kosi from Nepal, contribute about 71% of the natural dry season flows and 41% of the total annual flow of the Ganges.

The Brahmaputra river rises in Tibet in China on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, flows eastward, then turns south and west through to the border of Bangladesh. At the border, the river again turns south and continues to its confluence with the Ganges-Padma. The Brahmaputra has a total catchment area of 607,464 km² of which 293,348 km² lies in China, 54,516 km² in Bhutan, 186,912 km² in India and 72,688 km² in Bangladesh.

1

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports - Bangladesh

The Brahmaputra – Jamuna, flowing from the north, joins the Ganges-Padma flowing from the west near Goalundo. The combined flow, known as Padma, flows southeasterly to its confluence with the Meghna near Chandpur, south of this junction; the combined rivers are known as the Meghna. The waters enter the Bay of Bengal through many estuaries, collectively known as the “Mouth of the Ganges”.

The Meghma river is formed by the confluence of the Surma and Kusiyara rivers approximately 140 km northeast of Dhaka. It drains the hills of Assam and Tripura states in India and the northeastern part of Bangladesh. In comparison with the Ganges–Padma and the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, the Meghna river system is small. Its drainage area above Bhairab Bazar is about 64,500 km².

The medium and minor rivers are classified into four categories as Western Rivers, Northern Rivers, Eastern Rivers and Southeastern Rivers crisscrossing the whole of Bangladesh as shown in Figure 1.1. These rivers play a major role in the economic development of Bangladesh.

Figure 1.1 Rivers of Bangladesh

2


Source: http://www.bangladeshgov.org

1.2 Socio-economic Status and Indicators

Demography and Human Settlement

Total population of Bangladesh was 146.7 million in 2003. The rate of population growth has slowed to less than 2% per year, but in absolute terms this still means that the population is projected to increase by 40% from about 129 million in 2000 to 181 million by 2025 and 224 million by 2050.

Most of the predicted population increase is expected to be in urban areas, where, partly due to rural urban migration, the population will increase by 46 million in the next 25 years, from 27 million (21% of total) in 2000 to 73 million (40%) by 2025 and 136 million (60%) by

3

http://www.bangladeshgov.org/


2050. Therefore, substantial investment and improved provision of social and economic infrastructure will be required in the urban areas.

57% of the population in rural areas and 51% in urban areas is classified as poor, but with most very poor in the cities. Poverty is the country's most pressing socio-economic issue and must be addressed within a comprehensive planning framework that facilitate intervention, which directly assist the poor (NWMP 2001).

Human Development Index

Human Development indicators for Bangladesh are comparatively low. Bangladesh has an adult literacy rate of 40% (2000) and a life expectancy at birth of 62 years (2003), a life expectancy index of 0.6 (2002), an under-5 infant mortality rate of 69 per 1000 live births, a maternal mortality rate of 380 per 10000 live births, and a morbidity rate of 18% for females and 15% for males (UNICEF, 2003). The Human Development Index (HDI) rank for Bangladesh is 139 (2003) and the corresponding HDI value is 0.520.

An estimate in 2001 indicated that the total population of Bangladesh stood at 143.8 million in 2002, a quarter of which will live in urban areas. The urban slum dwellers account for some 15% of the total population growing by 6% per annum (UNDP 2004).

Health

Water is the basic concern of health in Bangladesh as in other countries. The rural areas of Bangladesh suffer from lack of quality drinking water. Surface water supplies are generally polluted and ground water, which used to be the best source of drinking, is contaminated with arsenic in many parts of the country. Seepage of agro-chemicals into shallow aquifers are also polluting water making it unfit for human consumption.

Salinity intrusion from sea-water deep into the land in the southwest of Bangladesh are rendering groundwater unfit for consumption while surface water sources are polluted by municipal and industrial wastes making it not fit for drinking without proper treatment. These water supply and sanitation problems have obvious implications for public health. Diarrhoel diseases arising largely from drinking unsafe water are a leading cause of death in the rural areas. Lack of proper sanitation and drainage facilities are the primary causes of disease in the urban areas. Lack of access to safe water supply in the rural areas is a special hardship to women who have to face the problem almost on a daily basis.

4


1.3 Most Relevant Socio-economic Pressures and Impacts

Socio-economic Pressure

Human Settlement

Bangladesh has the highest rural population density in the world with around 1000 people per km2. Similarly, the capital city of Dhaka is already one of the most populated metropolises in the world.

The rapid rise in population without sanitation facilities has given rise to faecal pollution of water bodies alarmingly both in urban and rural areas. The problem has already become serious in urban areas like Dhaka, Chittagong, and Khulna.

Generation of domestic and industrial sewage in Dhaka is estimated at 1.3 millions m3 per day against the treatment capacity of just 0.12 millions per day. This is the only sewage treatment plant available in whole of Bangladesh.

In such circumstances, both the industrial and domestic sewage is being disposed untreated into the wetlands and rivers in and around Dhaka city causing a serious environmental problem as well as pollution of river waters. Sewerage coverage is about 110 km2 against 360 km2 of the city area serving 20% of its population.

Industry

In Bangladesh, industrial plants are mostly situated along the banks of the rivers in the vicinity of the cities of Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Bogra districts. The Department of Environment has listed 1176 industries that cause pollution that have been categorized into 9 types:

• Chemical including pharmaceuticals • Paper and pulp • Sugar • Food and tobacco • Leather • Industrial dyes • Petroleum • Metals • Power generation

Most of the effluents produced by these industries are dumped directly or indirectly into the rivers. In case of industries located in Dhaka, they are discharged into Buriganga, Balu and Sitalakhya rivers badly polluting them. Some 300 mills and factories created in and around Khulna city currently discharge huge amounts of liquids waste into the Bhairab River causing

5


a severe pollution. In Chittagong, the main polluters are the pulp and paper, fertilizer and petroleum/refineries industries located on the banks of the Karnafuli River and Kaptai Lake. Operation of ships, mechanized boats and ports cause marine oil pollution.

Tables 1.1 to 1.4 show the BOD load by industries, industrial areas in and around Dhaka city and industries by types in and around Dhaka city and industries by types in and around Greater Dhaka and concentration of heavy metals in surrounding rivers in Dhaka. These Tables indicate that most of the rivers are highly populated by the effluents discharged into these rivers without treatment. The dissolved oxygen in these rivers are very low and some are already polluted beyond toxic point. The most problematic industries for the water sector are textiles, tanneries, pulp and paper mills, fertilizers, chemicals and refineries where a large volume of water is involved in their production process thus producing equal volume of effluents which when discharged into rivers, streams and other water bodies become a major source of pollution.

Table 1.1 Estimated BOD load by Industries Type of Industry

Public enterprise

[No.]

Private enterprise

[No.]

Wastewater Discharge (m3/s)

BOD Load (ton/day)

Leather 1 195 15,800 17.6 Textile 20 482 40,000 26.0 Pulp & paper 4 1 228,000 40.0 Fertilizers 7 1 Na 21.0 Chemical 1 99 1,448 1.4 Pharmaceuticals 2 100 3,500 0.7 Sugar 12 4 30,000 4.0 Food & Fish 0 193 5,400 61.0 Rubber 25 Na 17.7 Plastics 30 Na Na Pesticides 1 3 200 Na Distilleries 4 1,600 5.7 Metal 17 67 13,800 Na Cement 1 1 na Na

Source: JICA 1999

Table 1.2 Industrial Areas in and around Dhaka City Cluster Name

Type of Industry

Number of Industries

Total Wastewater Discharge (m3/day)

Total BOD load

(kg/day)

Discharge Recipient

River Hazaribagh Leather 136 15,800 17,600 Turag Tongi BSCIC Textiles 13 4,300 4,400 Tongi Khal Fatulla Textiles 6 3,400 3,850 Buriganga Kanchpur Textiles 9 4,300 3,480 Lakhya Tejgaon Textiles,

Chemical 16 27

3,350 535

1,960 475

Begunbari Khal

Tarabo Textiles 14 1,150 1,475 Lakhya Total 221 32,835 33,240

Source: BKH, 1994

Table 1.3 Summary of Industries in and around Greater Dhaka Type of Industry Number

Textile, Garments, Jute, etc. 738

6


Type of Industry Number Paper, Pulp, Wood, etc. 171 Dyeing, Painting, Printing, etc. 241 Electrical, Electronics, Computer, etc. 129 Metal, Iron, Aluminum, Steel, etc. 289 Plastic, Polythene, Glass, Cosmetics, Jewellery, etc. 142 Food, Confectionery, Hotels, etc. 140 Dairy, Poultry, Fishery, etc. 28 Tannery, Shoe, etc. 75 Pharmaceutical, Hospital, Soap, etc. 61 Chemical, etc. 95 Ceramics, etc. 5 Building construction related, etc. 49 Handicrafts, etc. 16 Total 2,179

Source: WSP 1998

Table 1.4 Concentration (mg/l) of heavy metals in surrounding rivers 1997-1998 Sample source Al Cd Cr Pb Hg Se Zn

Buriganga River at Hazaribagh

3.262 0.008 0.2320 0.4700 0.0033 0.0060 4.3

Buriganga river at Chandnigath

5.396 0.006 0.21 0.2500 0.0016 ND 4.60

Buriganga River at Friendship Bridge

3.270 0.014 0.27 ND 0.0021 0.0010 2.3

Turga river at Amin Bazar 11.884 0.018 0.1100 0.3940 0.0058 0.0002 2.00

Lakhya River at Saidabad WTP Intake

2.952 0.006 0.0280 0.0740 0.0032 0.0005 2.00

Balu River at Zirani Khal 2.166 0.006 0.01-0.13 ND 0.0010 ND 3.00

Source: Measurements taken by IWM and DoE ND = Not Detectable

According the zoning of Bangladesh by regions for industrial purpose, the North Central (NC) region comprises about 49% of the total industrial establishment. About 33% of industries in NC region are textile apparels and tanneries of which Dhaka district accounts for almost half of it while Narayangunj accounting for another 32%. About 65% of the total chemicals, plastics and petroleum industries are also located in the NC region concentrated in and around Dhaka, Narayangunj and Gajipur districts (WARPO 2000). Regionwise number of industrial establishments notorious for polluting the river water and water bodies are given in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5 Region-wise Numbers of Industrial Establishments and Polluting Industries Region

No. of

Establishments Textiles, apparels

& tanneries

Paper, paper products &

printing

Chemicals, plastics & petroleum

Non-metallic minerals

manufacture North West 4,403 545 113 181 360 North Central 12,133 4,093 707 1,242 733 North East 1,117 55 20 47 132

7


South East 2,518 346 68 83 549 South West 849 72 39 42 199 South Central 1,408 128 29 77 157 South East 2,506 475 102 231 229 Total 24,934 5,714 1,078 1,903 2,359 Source: WARPO 2000a

Agriculture

Bangladesh is mostly agrarian. Agriculture at present provides 26% to GDP. The cultivable area is around 8.28 million ha of which 4.6 million ha has irrigation facilities. Bangladesh has already reached self-sufficiency in rice in 1992 and cereal grains in 2000 producing a record 25 million tons of cereals. The rise in production of yields is attributed to the large-scale use of chemical fertilizers such as Urea, Triple Super Phosphate, Muriate of Potash, Gypsum, pesticides and herbicides.

The total amount of fertilizers used is about 2 million tons and the amount of pesticides used is 12-15 thousand tons per year. The tendency to grow High Yield Variety (HYV) crops tends to still increase the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Application of these fertilizers and pesticides is the main source of pollution once they reach the water bodies either by surface run off or other agricultural operations. The traditional shifting cultivation practised in the hills of Chittagong district facilitates soil erosion and landslides, which increases sediment load particularly during monsoon season.

Low Flow in Dry Season

Bangladesh being the lower riparian country to both India and Myanmar suffers from the low flow syndrome during the dry season when the water is needed most for all uses including maintaining some flow in the rivers to redress the environmental concerns. Foul smells from the streams, paucity of fish population and dangers of salinity intrusion are some of the visual ill effects associated with low flow, let alone damage caused to bio–diversity and the functioning of aquatic ecosystems.

Salinity Intrusion

Salinity intrusion is a process, which takes place once the interface between fresh water, and saline water gets disturbed following the imbalance of the equilibrium state that existed earlier. This is exactly the situation that has been taking place in Bangladesh in its coastal of the areas if the Sundarbans following the imbalance between the fresh and sea waters with the over-withdrawal of fresh water from the Ganges River upstream.

Salinity intrusion is a major environmental impact affecting one third of Bangladesh. In some cases, the damage is irreversible. Many industries have been closed down with the increase of salinity in river waters. Farmers have been compelled to abandon agricultural lands due to increase of salinity in soil and lack of fresh water for irrigation. A large population in the

8


south is suffering from drinking water and people have started migrating towards north for job opportunities and better living condition.

Socio-economic Impacts

Pressure put on the rivers by the rising population and over-populated urban areas growth of industries, excessive fertiliser application and pesticides in agricultural practices and other causes mentioned above in Bangladesh have the following major adverse impacts

a. Poor Drinking Water Quality b. Destruction of Fish Culture and Marine Aquaculture c. Water borne Disease

Poor Drinking Water Quality

Most of the rivers around the big cities like Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna are already polluted. Taking Dhaka as an example, it is one of the most populous metropolises in the world almost touching the 10 million mark for population. The only city with the sewage treatment plant can just handle 0.12 million m3 per day of 1.3 million m3 per day of domestic and industrial sewage. Currently, both the industrial and domestic sewage is being disposed untreated into the wetlands and natural streams and rivers in and around Dhaka city causing a serious environmental problem and pollution of rivers, streams and wetlands. One can get the foul smell of faecal wastes and stingy smells of chemical and organic wastes while passing through such affected areas.

The organic waste and faecal contamination have the tendency to make water rich in nitrate leading to eutrophication with the assimilation of dissolved oxygen by the wastes. Once eutrophication takes place, the aquatic life like fish cannot survive on such waters and they start dying. Such water has the tendency to cause water borne diseases if consumed without treatment. Rampant disposal of municipal and industrial wastes is a major factor for polluting the water of such big rivers as Buriganga, Shitalakhya, and Balu in the Dhaka area.

Estimates show that water pollution from tanneries in Hazaribagh has a cost of US$ 125 per capita on health related expenditure for people living in the area. This is quite high on all accounts. Similarly, in Khulna industrial areas are centered around Shiromoni, Kalishpur and Rupasa where some 300 mills and factories discharge huge amounts of untreated liquid waste into the Bhairab River causing severe pollution in the river.

These pollutants are causing serious damage to both freshwater and marine ecosystems of the region including those of the Sunderbans. The only way out for the reduction of these pollution problems lies in making the polluters pay to the extent of their acts of pollution with a strong regulatory framework in place followed by a constant monitoring as the Government alone cannot correct the messes created all round.

Destruction of Fish Culture

9


Nature has blessed Bangladesh with many rivers, streams, lakes, haors, baors, beels and wetlands with opportunities for large-scale fishing.

According to the World Bank (1989), Bangladesh is the world leader in freshwater fish production per unit area with 4016 kg/km2 of water bodies and per capita fish production of about 5.5 kg. In the inland waters of Bangladesh some 260 species of finfish belonging to 55 families exist while 63 species of other families also occur. One can thus see a large variety of fish species within Bangladesh apart from the marine varieties. No wonder, fish is the staple food of Bangladesh providing 80% of protein intake to the daily diet.

The situation growth of fish has been constantly changing with the of various water bodies like rivers, streams, lakes, hatchery ponds and wetlands.

It is a known fact that fish use dissolved oxygen (DO) for their survival. With the pollution of water bodies by chemical and organic wastes having large biological and chemical oxygen demands the oxygen concentration in these water bodies is very low. The water bodies is no longer fit for consumption leading either to death or migration of fishes living there to some other places where they can thrive.

This is a big loss to the area inheriting the fish for centuries. Fish population in the rivers and other water bodies have thus drastically decreased due to water pollution by chemical and municipal wastes, fertiliser and pesticides.

It has also been reported that the global climate change with the sea level rise has also an adverse impact in fish production due to reduction of freshwater areas in Bangladesh. It is feared that salt water intrusion that is occurring now in Bangladesh will affect the pond culture of fish in the coastal areas unless such ponds are protected by embankments around with no possibilities for the saline water to encroach the fresh water.

Water-borne Diseases in Bangladesh

The present sanitation conditions are quite unsatisfactory particularly in rural areas. Raw sewage contamination of water systems in Bangladesh is the major factor in transmission and spread of various communicable water borne diseases including diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid etc. Industrial wastes, indiscriminate defecation practices and unhygienic disposal of human waste very often pollute the drinking water. The coliform count of most surface water resources is beyond the acceptable standard for any domestic use.

The high infant mortality in Bangladesh is attributed to the high prevalence of various waterborne diseases and unhygienic sanitation practices. Besides, the climate, the country's fresh water, and the ocean water offshore are all warmer, encouraging the growth of plankton in which the cholera bacterium lives. Massive annual floods, brought about by the monsoons, deposit contaminated water throughout the ponds and streams that people use for drinking water. Thus, Bangladesh's population density, poverty, climate and geography all are responsible for the highest rate of cholera infection in the world.

10


Diarrhoea and other gastro-intestinal diseases are caused by pathogens that are waterborne and are carried through the medium of water. These diseases account for nearly a quarter of illness in Bangladesh- about 12% by diarrhoea and 10% by other gastro-intestinal illness including enteric fever. Thus, water plays a major role in the overall disease profile of the country.

Inter-linkage of pressures, state, impacts and various responses related to water in a functional system is shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6 Inter-linkage of Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses Pressures State Impacts Policy Responses

Increase in population without sanitation facilities.

Fecal pollution of drinking water.

Increase in risk from water borne diseases.

Set up environment quality standards and increase treatment capacity of domestic sewage.

Increasing industrial settlements with increasing production near rivers.

High heavy metal load in rivers.

High fish mortality and loss of quality of fish as food.

Industrial EIA and effluent treatment plans to reduce pollutants load.

Increased use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

Decrease in quality of surface and groundwater; Increase in soil salinity.

Degradation of urban and rural drinking water and irrigation water sources; Migration of fish and fish mortality; Loss of soil fertility.

Environmental Conservation Act and Regulations.

Low water flow in the river system in the dry season.

Decrease in quality of surface water.

Quality of surface water substantially reduced.

National Water Policy and EIA for water development projects to increase surface water flow in the dry season.

The water quality problems are serious in Bangladesh. The rapid deterioration in water quality has been brought about by intensive industrial development in and around the cities of Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna-the major centers of industrial pollution over the years. The rise of population in the urban areas without proper sanitary facilities has further aggravated the water quality problems in Bangladesh. The water quality problems now faced by Bangladesh have to be systematically addressed beginning with clean-up and rehabilitation of river waters in and around Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna which are already popular as pollution hot-spots followed by other priority areas worst hit by pollution. The following options are put forward in a tabular form in Table 1.7 to address the requirements of the National Environmental Policy and National Water Policy. Thus gives the water quality management options with their anticipated outcomes and possible actors (UNEP 2001).

Table 1.7 Water quality management options with anticipated outcome and actors Option Outcome of the option Actors

Land zoning of industries: Export processing Zone, Industrial Park etc.

Support collective treatment of wastes. Reduces pollution load in water ecosystem

Ministry of land, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Environment and Forest and Department. Private sector and business community

11


Option Outcome of the option Actors Enforcement: ECA. ECR, WQS, EIA and environment audit

Help to build institutional capability to deal with rules and regulation. Reduce pollution load and other environmental impacts of industries and other development projects

Ministry of environment and forest department of environment, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of water resources. Media campaign, NGO actions and campaign on particular issues

Clean – up and rehabilitation of pollution Hot – spots: Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna etc.

Make the water available once again for different use and restore habitat for fishes, and other economic activities (e.g. potable water supplies). For example for Dhaka this would then obviate the need to seek relatively costly unpolluted potable water sources at great distances from the city

Ministry of Environment and forest, Department of Environment, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of water resources

Maintenance of dilution and dispersion flows in rivers: dry season water flow

Dilution and dispersion of pollutants in river system will reduce pollution load and concentration

Ministry of water resource, Ministry of environment and forest, department of environment

Sediment control and reduction in the main rivers

Reduces sediment load in the major river system and subsequently less sedimentation will be found the flood plain

Internationally coordinated action is required to reduce soil erosion in the upper catchments. Activities can be canalized through Joint River Commission, Ministry of water resource

Study of Bio- accumulation

Enable to detect accumulation of harmful substances in aquatic species and its health hazards

Fisheries department of fisheries, department of environment, Ministry of Health

Study on Agro chemicals Residues in water

Enable to detect residues of Agro chemicals in water ecosystem

Department Environment, Department of Agriculture

Source: State of Environments Study Team

1.4 Review of Existing Policies and Legal Instruments

Existing Policies

Water Policy

The National Water Policy of Bangladesh, formulated in 1999, lays down the broad principles of development of water resources and their rational utilization. It will help guide both public and private actions in the future for ensuring optimal development and management of water that benefits both individuals and the society at large.

As water is essential for human survival, socio-economic development of the country and preservation of its natural environment, it is the policy of the Government of Bangladesh that

12


all necessary means and measures will be taken to manage the water resources of the country in a comprehensive, integrated and equitable manner. The policies enunciated herein are designed to ensure continued progress towards fulfilling the national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and safety, decent standard of living for the people and protection of the natural environment.

The national Water Policy will be reviewed periodically and revised as necessary. It will guide management of the country's water resources by all the concerned ministries, agencies, departments and local bodies that are assigned responsibilities for the development, maintenance and delivery of water related services as well as the private users and developers of water resources.

Objective of National Water Policy:

The water policy of the government aims to provide direction to all agencies working with the water and institutions that relate to the water sector in one form or another, for achievement of specified objectives. These objectives are broadly:

a) To address issues related to the harnessing and development of all forms of surface water and ground water and management of these resources in an efficient and equitable manner

b) To ensure the availability of water to all elements of the society including the poor and the under privileged and to take into account the particular needs of women and children

c) To accelerate the development of sustainable, public and private water delivery systems with appropriate legal and financial measures and incentives including delineation of water rights and water pricing

d) To bring institutional changes that will help decentralize the management of water resources and enhance the role of women in water management

e) To develop a legal and regulatory environment that will help the process of decentralization and sound environment management and improve the investment climate for the private sector in water development and management

f) To develop a state of knowledge and capability that will enable the country to design future resources management plan by itself with economic efficiency, gender equity, social justice and environmental awareness to facilitate achievement of the water management objectives through broad public participation

The policies set forth are considered essential for addressing the objectives of improved water resources management and protection of the environment. Every public agency, every community, village and each individual has an important role to play in ensuring that the water and associated natural resources of Bangladesh are used judiciously so that the future generations can be assured of at least the same, if not better, availability and quality of those resources.

National Policy for Safe Water Supply and Sanitation (1998)

This policy was issued by the local Government Division of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives in 1998 with a call for nationwide access to safe drinking water and sanitation services at an affordable cost in order to improve the public health and produce a safer environment by reducing water borne diseases and

13


contamination of surface water and groundwater. Under the policy, the Government of Bangladesh encourages increased user and public participation including the active support and involvement of other partners–both non–governmental Organizations (NGOs) and International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), market oriented business organizations and similar private organizations in water and sanitation development.

This policy specifically aims at rural areas with the objective of reducing number of users per tubewell from existing 105 to 50 in the near future and installing one latrine per household to provide basic facilities at ease. In the urban area, the policy aims to ensure each household to have safe drinking water and easy access to sanitary latrine ranging from an ordinary pit latrine to standard water borne sewerage.

National Environmental Policy, 1992

The National Environmental Policy (NEP) was drawn up in 1992 based on the IUCN concept of sustainable development, which was an outcome of the National Conservation Strategy.

The objectives of the NEP are to:

• Maintain ecological balance and overall development through protection and improvement of the environment.

• Protect the country against natural diseases. • Identify and regulate activities, which pollute and degrade the environment. • Ensure development that is environmentally sound for all sectors. • Ensure sustainable, long-term and environmentally sound use of all national resources. • Actively remain associated with all international environmental initiatives to the maximum

possible extent.

The 1995 National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP) aimed to institutionalize both the Policy and the NCS into a strategy that could be implemented. NEMAP was based on a national consultative process to identify the main environmental issues in the country, including those that relate to water pollution and scarcity.

National Fisheries Policy, 1998

There was no consolidated national policy until 1998 when the National Fisheries Policy 1998 was formally adopted and declared for the first time with the objective of developing sustainable fishery and aquaculture, Fish being the staple food of Bangladesh, the new policy has tried to encompass all the issues related to the development of fishery in Bangladesh.

The Ministries of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL) is the lead agency responsible for formulating fisheries policy and strategies for proper management development of fishery resources for sustainable fish production. Under the MoFL there are four agencies working one way or another for the cause of fishery development in Bangladesh. Of these, Department of Fisheries (DoF) has the relevant functions and responsibilities for development and

14


management of fisheries and aquaculture. In the private sector, fishery co-operative societies and several NGOs are involved in the fisheries sector.

Fisheries and wildlife are integral aspects of economic development in Bangladesh and strongly linked to advancement of target groups, poverty alleviation, and nutrition and employment generation. Availability of water is thus important from the point of view of sustenance as well as commercial ventures.

Policies annunciated for fishery development in the National Water Plan are as follows:

• Fisheries and wildlife will receive due emphasis in water resource planning in areas where their social impact is high.

• Measures will be taken to minimize disruption to the natural aquatic and water channels. • Water-bodies like baors, haors, beels, roadside burrow pits etc. will as far as possible be

reserved for fish production and development. • Water development plans will not interrupt fish movement and will make adequate provisions

in control structures for allowing fish migration and breeding.

Industrial Policy

Bangladesh has a large industrial base having diversified its agrarian economy to a developing industrial economy, which involves the multifarious uses of water that call for attention.

Excessive water salinity in the southwest region of the country has been a major detriment to industrial growth. Also, pollution of both surface and groundwater bodies is a critical management issue. Taking this into consideration, the Government of Bangladesh has formulated the policy for industry as follows:

• Zoning regulations will be established for location of new industries with the consideration of fresh and safe water availability and effluent discharge possibilities.

• Effluent disposal will be monitored by relevant Government agencies to prevent water pollution.

• Standards of effluent disposal into common watercourses will be set by water resource planning organization (WARPO) in consultation with Department of Environment (DOE).

• Industrial polluters will be required under law to pay for the clean-up of water-bodies polluted by them.

Agricultural Policy

Bangladesh is mostly agrarian with 8.28 million ha of cultivated land for agriculture, which contributes 26% to the gross domestic product of the Nation.

Groundwater has being used extensively together with surface water where feasible for the development of agriculture in Bangladesh. The policy enunciated by the Government in this regard is to:

• Encourage and promote continued development of minor irrigation without affecting drinking water supplies.

15


• Encourage future groundwater development for irrigation by both the public and private sectors.

• Improve efficiency of resource utilization by conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater for irrigation and urban water supply.

• Strengthen crop diversification for more efficient utilization of water. • Strengthen the regulatory system for agricultural chemicals from polluting the ground and

surface water. • Strengthen the monitoring organizations for tracking groundwater recharge and changes in

surface and groundwater quality.

Constitutional and Legal Framework

Constitutional Provisions

No specific provision on water or water use is learnt to have existed in the Constitution of Bangladesh.

Legal Instruments

Pollution of Water Resources

There is no separate Water Resources Act as such in Bangladesh. The legal provisions for water are covered by clause 20, sub clause 2(a) of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1998 empowering the government to determine the water standards for drinking and industrial effluents.

Water quality standards for the inland surface water and drinking water are given under Schedule 3 rule 12 of the Environment Conservation Rules while the standard for the industrial effluents under Schedule 9 of the same rule.

Water and Environmental Pollution Control

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines for the water resources sector- the environmental component of the flood Action plan, FAP 16, prepared a set of EIA Guidelines for use in the water resources sector in 1992. They were approved by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) and Department of Environment and subsequently adopted by flood plan co-ordination Organization (FPCO) and Water Resource Planning Organization (WARPO).

In addition to water resources EIA guidelines, FAP 16 drafted a manual in 1995 for carrying out EIA with the intent of assisting people to familiarize the EIA work. Under Sustainable Environment Management Program (SEMP), the DOE has prepared 18 sets of sectoral EIA guidelines.

16


WARPO and DOE have been constantly working out new guidelines for the water resources sector with a view to refine the old and replace them by new.

1.5 Institutional Arrangements and Regulatory Framework

Legal and Regulatory Framework

As a response to the National Environment Policy, 1992, the following critical pieces of environmental legislation have been set as the framework for environmental management of the country.

i. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995 ii. The Environment Conservation Rules, 1997 iii. The EIA Guidelines for Industries, 1997 iv. The Environment Court Act, 2000

The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA), 1995 provides for the conservation of the environment, improvement of the environmental standards and mitigation of environmental pollution. Environmental Law means this law, the BECA, 1995, or any other law specified by the Government of Bangladesh in the official Gazette for the purpose of this Act and the rules made under these laws. Provisions of sections of the BECA that are relevant to ecology, formulation of environmental guidelines and power to make rules exist separately.

The Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR), 1997 are regulations made to enforce BECA, 1995.

The EIA Guidelines for Industries, 1997 cover significant water sector interventions, including flood control embankment, polders, dyke, water supply and sewage treatment, as well as roads and bridges. All these water sector interventions fall under the "Red" category, with the exception of bridges less than 100 m long and feeder and local roads. This requires the most stringent EIA process to be followed for proposed project construction, re-construction and extension.

The environmental Court Act, 2000 (ECA) provides for the establishment of environment courts and matters incidental thereto for dealing with issues relating to offences committed in contravention of BECA, 1995.

Environmental Quality Standards

The National Environment Quality Standards are given in the Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR) of 1997. Under Schedule 3 of ECR, quality standards for inland surface water and drinking water are given. Similarly, schedule 9 and schedule 10 give standards for sewage discharge and standards for waste from industrial units or project waste respectively. Schedule 12 gives standards for sector-wise industrial effluents. For this study, standards for

17


inland surface water, drinking water, sewage discharge and waste from industrial units or projects waste are given from among these schedules in Tables 1.8–1.10.

Table 1.8 Standards for inland surface water Parameter Best Practice based classification

pH BOD (mg/l)

DO (mg/l) Total Coliform (No./100 ml)

A. Source of drinking water for supply only after disinfecting:

6.5-8.5 2 or less 6 or above 50 or less

B. Water usable for recreational activity

6.5-8.5 3 or less 5 of more 200 or less

C. Source of drinking water for supply after conventional treatment

6.5-8.5 6 of less 6 or more 5000 or less

D. Water usable by fisheries: 6.5-8.5 6 of less 5 or more -- E. Water usable by various process and cooling industries

6.5-8.5 10 or less 5 or more 5000 or less

f. Water usable for irrigation: 6.5-8.5 10 or less 5 or more 1000 or less Notes: I. In water used for pisiculture, maximum limit of presence of Ammonia as Nitrogen is 1.2 mg/l. 2.Electrical conductivity for irrigation water - 2250 μS/cm (at a temperature of 25oC); Sodium less than 26 mg/l; boron less than mg/l. Source: ECR 1997

Table 1.9 Standards for Sewage Discharge Parameter Unit Standard limit

BOD mg/1 40 Nitrate mg/1 250 Phosphate mg/1 35 Suspended Solids (SS) mg/1 100 Temperature oC 30 Coliform. No. per 100 ml 1000 Notes: 1) This limit shall be applicable to discharges into surface and inland waters bodies. 2) Sewage shall be chlorinated before final discharge. Source: ECR 1997

18


Table 1.10 Standards for Waste From Industrial Units or Projects Waste Places for determination of standards Parameter Unit

Inland Surface Water

Public Sewerage connected to

treatment at second stage

Irrigated Land

Ammonical Nitrogen (as elementary N)

mg/l 50 75 75

Ammonia (as free ammonia) mg/l 5 15 2 Arsenic mg/l 0.2 0.05 0.2 BOD5 at 200˚C mg/l 50 250 100 Boron mg/l 2 2 2 Cadmium (as CD) mg/l 0.50 0.05 0.05 Chloride mg/l 600 600 600 Chromium (as total Cr) mg/l 0.5 1.0 1.0 COD mg/l 200 400 400 Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) mg/l 0.1 1.0 1.01 Copper (as Cu) mg/l 0.5 3.0 l3.0 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) mg/l 4.5-8 4.5-8 4.5-8 Electro-conductivity (EC) μS/cm 1200 1200 1200 Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 2,100 2,100 2,100 Fluoride (as F) mg/l 2 15 10 Sulfide (as S) mg/l 1 2 2 Iron (as Fe) mg/l 2 2 2 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (as N)

mg/l 100 100 100

Lead (as Pb) mg/l 0.1 1.0 0.1 Manganese (as Mn) mg/l 5 5 5 Mercury (as Hg) mg/l 0.01 0.01 0.01 Nickel (as Ni) mg/l 1.0 2.0 1.0 Nitrate (as elementary N) mg/l 10.0 Not yet Fixed 10 Oil and Grease mg/l 10 20 10 Phenolic Compounds (as C6H50H)

mg/l 1.0 5 1

Dissolved Phosphorus (as P) mg/l 8 8 15 Radioactive substance To be specified by Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission pH 6-9 6-9 6-9 Selenium (as Se) mg/l 0.05 0.05 0.05 Zinc (as Zn) mg/l 5 10 10 Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 2,100 2,100 2,100 Temperature oC 40 40 40-Summer Suspended Solids (SS) mg/l 150 500 200 Cyanide (as Cn) mg/l 0.1 2.0 2.0

Source ECR 1997

There are several government organizations in Bangladesh dealing with water pollution and scarcity problems. Among them the Department of Environment (DOE) under the Ministry of Environment and Forest deals with pollution issues while Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Communication and Ministry of Agriculture deals with Scarcity of water through their departments.

19


List of parameters and concentration limits of drinking water quality for Bangladesh are shown in Table 1.11.

Table 1.11 Drinking Water Quality Standards Parameters Units Concentration Limits

Electrical conductivity µS/cm (na) Calcium mg/l (na) TDS mg/l 1000 pH 6.5-8.5 Arsenic (Ar) mg/l 0.05 Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.005 Chromiuim mg/l (na) Cyanide mg/l 0.1 Fluoride (F) mg/l 0.1 Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.1 Nitrate (NO3) mg/l 45 TOC mg/l (na) Total coliform MPN/100ml 0 E Coli MPN/100ml 0 Ammonia (NH3) mg/l 0.5 Sulphate (SO4) mg/l (na) Chloride 150-600 Color TCU 15 Copper mg/l 1.0 Iron mg/l 0.3 Manganese (na) Odour and taste (na) Total hardness mg/l 10 Turbidity NTU (na) Zinc mg/l 5 Mercury mg/l 0.001 Aluminium mg/l 0.2 Residual Chlorine mg/l 0.2

Source: Report of the Task Force for NDWQS titled "A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal", March 2005.

Water Quality Monitoring

DOE has been monitoring water quality from a total of 80 stations including 78 rivers, one lake and one beel (a locally used term for water pool). Key water quality parameters like pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), total coliforms, heavy metals, electrical conductivity (EC), chloride, turbidity, total alkanity and temperature are regularly monitored from the specified stations (see Table 1.12).

Table 1.12 Designated Stations for Water Quality Monitoring by DOE Division Name of the River Number of Stations

Balu River 1 The Brahmaputra River 5

Dhaka

Buriganga 15

20


Division Name of the River Number of Stations Jamuna 2 Meghna 2 Sitalakhya 3 Turag 1 Dolasoria 1 Kaligonga 1

Narashanda 1 Dakatia River 1 Halda 4 Karnaphuli 1 Kushiara River 1 The Meghna River 1 Surma River 4

Chittagong

Kaptai Lake 1 The Jamuna River 1 Isamoti River 1 Korotoya River 2 Then Padma 2 Tangs River 1

Rajshahi

Tista River 3 Bagherhat River 1 Balesher River 1 Bhoirab River 7 Beel Dakatia 1 Doratana River 2 Gabkhan River 1 Kakshialy River 2 Kirtan khola River 1 Kumar River 2 Madhumati River 1 The Padma 2 Pashur River 1 Rupsa 3

Khulna

Sughandha River 1 Total 80

Source: UNEP 2001

The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) also collects data on suspended sediments and surface water salinity.

There are little doubts that there are “hot spots” of surface water pollution due to industrial effluents and municipal wastes around the major cities of Bangladesh i.e., Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Bogra. It now seems that time has now come to face the challenges confronted by these problems and that they have to be sorted out sooner than later.

Amongst the most polluted areas, the worst problems lie in the river Buriganga, situated to the south of Dhaka where the most significant source of pollution is from tanneries in the Hazaribagh area. In the dry season, DO level of the water of Buriganga river becomes close to zero. At this point, the river becomes toxic.

21


22


Figure 1.2 Water Quality of Buriganga (1998)

Source: UNEP 2001

Water quality samples at two stations of the River Buriganga taken at Hazaribagh and Chadnighat in 1998 showed that DO and BOD exceeded the allowable limits in the months of January, February, March and December with the worst situation prevailing during the months of January and February as seen from the Figure 1.2. The low values of BOD for the months of March and December could be due to the fact that the tannery factories might not be in operation during that period. The seasonal variation of river water quality in the Buriganga is very much linked with the seasonal variation of river flow and the operation of tannery factories. The quality of river water during the monsoon is fair with a lot of water to offset the pollution.

The second most polluted river is Sitalakhya flowing from the east of Dhaka. The major polluters of the river are Ghorashal Urea. Fertilizer Factory and an oil terminal situated on the bank of the river. Industrial establishments at Narayangunj and Demra are also sources of pollution to this river. Monitoring data of the DOE demonstrated that the concentration of DO in the Shitalakhya River beside the fertilizer factory varies between 2.1 to 2.9 mg/l during low tide (DOE). Monitoring data of the Surface Water Modeling Center (SWMC) on the same river showed a degrading trend for water quality over the years in the dry season. The lowest level of DO (less than one) was observed in the month of February 1998 (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Concentration of DO in River Shitalakhya in different times of Day and Year

23


Source: UNEP 2001

Water of the Balu river is badly contaminated by municipal and industrial wastes from the place called Tongi and the effluents flowing out through the Begubari Khal most of which gets generated from the Tejgaon industrial area in Dhaka. The water quality of rivers Balu and Turag becomes worse in the dry season with DO concentration touching zero (Saad, 2000).

While point sources of water pollution are easily identified and pollution control measures can be taken then and there, non-point sources of pollution cannot be easily identified, as they are more complicated to be traced. Non-point sources of pollution include agricultural run-off, urban run-off, fertilizers, pesticides, acid rain, animal waste, raw sewage, septic tank leakage, household waste etc. Since the sources of pollution are not known or identified, it becomes problematic to control their discharge into rivers and streams in a watershed. However, water quality problems caused by such sources may be significant to be identified for their proper treatment. Proper sampling techniques and long term monitoring of water quality at carefully selected locations can help to delineate “The sources” of such diffused pollution. Mohamed Khalequzzaman, Ph.D. has emphasized the need of a National Surface Water Quality Assessment Program (NSWQAP) to solve the problems created by non-point sources of pollution within the broad framework of handling the national surface water quality of Bangladesh.

There are many important NGOs with environmental interest. These include IUCN, National EIA Association, International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) and Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association (BELA).

A typical analysis dealing with policy, legal and regulatory frameworks and action programmes to address the water pollution problems is presented in Table 1.13.

Table 1.13 Policy, legal and regulatory framework and actions programs Pressures Policy, Legal and

Regulatory Framework Program Undertaken Probable Option to

address the problem

Industrial Effluent

Industrial policy, Environmental conservation Act and regulation guidelines for industrial EIA

There is very limited action program, Need institutional strengthening and enforcement of laws and regulations

Installation of Treatment plants, Land Zoning, Enforcement of ECA and ECR

Agrochemical

Agricultural policy, government has regulatory body, with some departmental regulatory body, with some departmental rules to oversee import of agrochemical and their use. However, legal and regulatory framework is not present

Need wider dissemination of knowledge regarding balanced use of agrochemical, Need legal and regulatory framework for banning import of hazardous agrochemical

Aware ness campaign Proper use of Agrochemical and Introduction of IPNS

24


Pressures Policy, Legal and Regulatory Framework

Program Undertaken Probable Option to address the problem

Fecal pollution

Safe water supply, and sanitation policy

Both government and non- – government organizations are working in water supply and sanitation. Municipal waste water treatment needs more attention, very limited measures have been taken

Safe sanitation system and awareness raising

Upstream withdrawal for consumptive and non – consumptive use

Ganges Water Treaty, National Water Policy: Dredging and water harvesting, Regional Cooperation, Augmentation of dry season flow, and Use of surface water for irrigation

Regional Cooperation and need institutional strengthening and financial support. Awareness – raising for consumptive use of surface and groundwater for irrigation

Strengthening of Regional Cooperation

Low water flow in the river system in dry season

National Water Policy. Ganges Water Treaty

Augmentation of dry season water flow consumptive use of surface and ground water for irrigation. Ganges Barrage

Strengthening of regional cooperation Implementation of Ganges Barrage Project

Source: State of Environment Study Team

1.6 Identification of Gaps

An institution, however, big and capable would find it difficult to handle the water pollution problem singly. So public–private venture, involvement of NGOs and INGOs and other partners should be brought into play for making real inroads into water pollution control in Bangladesh. This has not been done yet.

Looking at the immensity of the water pollution problem, only enforcement will not bring in a big change in water quality. There should be some action plans in the lines of Ganga and Jamuna Water Action Plans already initiated in India to clean up the badly polluted river waters.

There are gaps between the studies done and the action plans in Bangladesh due to the possibility of lack of fund for implementation.

Many Govt. organizations are involved in the matter of water management and water quality control in Bangladesh their action plans and programs need to be harmonized and coordinated to the basic needs of the country.

The Department of Environment under the Ministry of Environment and Forest in the single most important organization in Bangladesh, which has the greatest responsibility to carry out,

25


the onerous task of keeping surface water clean. It should be fully staffed with capable and motivated technical staff with skills and expertise to address the environmental concerns faced by the country.

These are the gaps the country should be read to redress fully in order to bring the visible change in the current crisis of surface water pollution in Bangladesh.

1.7 Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

Severity of water pollution problems is added to realities of drought and flooding in Bangladesh. While drought and flooding can be taken, as the consequence of the geographical setting of Bangladesh, the water pollution problem is mainly anthropogenic.

Fortunately, the pollution problems in Bangladesh are not the unknown entities as several studies have covered their magnitude and ramifications coming from them are well known.

The institutional framework is also in place to handle the environmental problems arising from industrial effluents and municipal wastes. The environmental problems cannot be solved in a short period. They need continuous efforts and resources to correct the wrong that have been already done. In financial terms, it is a costly affair. It is also time consuming.

What is needed now is the concerted effort from all sides - government, donors, NGOs and INGOs, above all, the people of Bangladesh to keep the river water clean and worthy for human use.

Recommendations

Future programmes and initiatives should focus on building institutional capacity harmonizing various policy issues that are conflicting, and raising public awareness in environmental issues.

In combating surface water pollution the Government needs to introduce land zoning of industries, strengthen water quality monitoring, enforce the Environment Conservation Act & Rules, and introduce waste reception and treatment facilities in ports.

The Government also needs to take measures for creating appropriate institutional, technical, human and logistic capacity for identifying, monitoring and implementing remedial measures.

Looking from the magnitude of the problem at hand, it is strongly felt any pollution clean up strategy must be through mobilization of other organization and the public in general, including public-private partnership approach.

26


Emphasis should be given to initiate a model clean up programme for an area which is seriously affected by municipal wastes and industrial effluents to be gradually replicated to other areas of urgent concern.

1.8 References

BKH (1994) Industrial Pollution Control Management, Interim Report. Manila: Asian Development Bank, BKH Consulting Engineers, (ADB TA 1769-BAN)

Bari, M. F. and Rahman, S.M. (2004) Water Quality Issues and States in Bangladesh. Paper presented in the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality held from 29 June-2July, 2004 in Kathmandu, Nepal.

JICA (1999) Country Profile on Environment. Dhaka: Japan International Cooperation Agency

Khalequzzaman M. An Action Plan to Improve the Quality of Surface Water in Bangladesh, (Ph.D. Thesis)

NWMP (2001) National Water Management Plan Volume No.2 Main Report, Dhaka: National Water Management Plan

UNEP (2001) State of Environmental. Bangladesh: UNEP & DOE/Government of Bangladesh

UNDP (2004) Human Development Report - 2004. UNDP (Oxford University Press, New Delhi)

UNICEF (2003) Bangladesh – Statistics. UNICEF

WAPRO (1999) The Environmental Setting, Technical Paper No. 4. National Water Management Plan Project, WAPRO

WSP (1998) Dhaka Water Resources Management Programme, Final Report. Dhaka: Fourth Dhaka Water Supply Project, WSP International Ltd., Dhaka Water supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA)

NDWQS (2005) Report of the Task Force for NDWQS titled "A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal", March 2005

UNICEF(2003) UNICEF – Bangladesh – Statistics (www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html)

27

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html


2 Bhutan Country Report

2.1 River System

The Kingdom of Bhutan having an area of 40,077 km² is bounded in the north by Tibet, People Republic of China and in the west, south and east by India. It is situated between the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayan Crestline to the north and the Brahmaputra plains to the south, rising from 100 m to 7,500 m above mean sea level. It is endowed with rich natural resources in the forms of natural forests and abundant water in rivers.

Bhutan has a forest cover of 72.5% of the total area of the country, a unique situation in South Asia. It has many rivers and rivulets generally flowing in the north-south direction merging ultimately into 4 major river systems; the Dragme Chhu, or Manas the Puna Tsang Chhu also called the Sankosh, the Wang Chhu and the Amo Chhu from east to west. These rivers cross border to join the Brahmaputra river in India (see Figure 2.1).

The average annual flow draining the country is estimated at 1600 m3/sec giving the per capita availability of water per annum at 75,000 m3 for the estimated population of 673,000 in 2000 with the annual growth rate of 3.1% per annum. This is the highest per capita water availability in the SAARC region and most probably in the world. The mountainous topography with varying altitudes from 100 m to 7500 m drained by four major rivers with their numerous tributaries have resulted in a high theoretical potential of hydropower put at 30,000 MW.

Figure 2.1 Major Rivers of Bhutan

29


Source: www.southasianfloods.org

The abundance of water at the national level gives a false sense of security. The uneven distribution of precipitation in time and space has led to seasonal and local imbalances. The country is already confronted with localized and seasonal water shortages for drinking and agricultural purposes. This situation is expected to be still worse with the rise in population and without a proper water management plan.

Today 78% of the total population has access to potable drinking water and 12.5% (38,750) of the arable area is irrigated from the total area of 310,000ha.

The pressure on the water resources is mounting due to competing demands from various users. In the past, water was mainly used for domestic and agricultural purposes. The domestic demand is increasing due to change in lifestyle caused by economic boom especially in the capital Thimpu . The water use for agriculture is also in the increase to keep pace with food demand of the rising population.

New demands are emerging from other sub-sectors such as hydropower and other incoming industries. Urbanization has become a key issue that has serious impacts on both water demand and water quality.

2.2 Socio-eonomic Status and Indicators

Demography and Human Settlements

30

http://www.southasianfloods.org/


Bhutan is the least populated country in South Asia with the current population around 668 thousand growing around 3.1% per annum from 564 thousand in 1994, (National Environment Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan, and Initial National Communication September 2000). If the current growth rate is to continue, the present population is estimated to be doubled by 2020. Most of the population is concentrated in river valleys and southern foothills while large areas in the north area are generally uninhabited. The average family size is 6.5 with 2 to 100 households per village.

Urbanization in Bhutan really began with the launching of the country's first five-year plan in 1961. Before that urban settlement in the Kingdom had been limited to a few traditional clustered villages generally located in fertile valleys. Before Thimpu became the capital of Bhutan, it was a dzong (monastery) surrounded by scattered settlements.

Thimpu as a capital grew gradually but steadily during 1960's with the establishment of infrastructural facilities for administration, education and health and migration of people filling the support services. Today Thimpu has a population of roughly 90 thousand growing almost at 10% per annum from the figure of 45 thousand in 1994. It is estimated to cross the 100,000 mark by 2006. The second largest city of Phuentsholing has also been growing if not as fast as the capital. Besides, there are 20 other townships having major urban areas. The urban population in 1994 was 14.5% of the total population of 564 thousand.

Due to the rural migration to the urban area, the rising urban population is putting pressure on the natural resources base in and around urban centers. The piped water supplies in Bhutan are designed to supply 120 liters per day With the urban population growing at the high rates of about 10% per annum for Thimpu, meeting the demand for safe and adequate drinking in the urban area is becoming a great challenge.

The land available for urban growth is limited by both topography and the government policy to maintain the present level of forest cover not less than 60% of the country area.

Growing urbanization has resulted in problems related to sewage disposal. The country's waste management system is in its initial stage.

Eight truckloads of solid waste estimated at 12 metric tons are collected each day in Thimpu either from sweepers collecting door to door or from strategically placed container bins. The solid waste so collected is transported in closed trucks to a landfill site located on the fringe of a ravine. The site was developed by erecting a retaining wall to prevent the garbage from slipping down into the ravine and diverting the stream to avoid water pollution. The site is to be developed as an amenity centre upon saturation. The Thimpu City Corporation has already begun the process of developing a second landfill site in view of the rising population and the increasing load of solid waste, which continues to grow from year to year.


31


Bhutan ranked 134 in 2003 and the corresponding HDI is 0.536, a significant improvement from its predecessor. The life expectancy at birth was only 35 years in 1960. It rose to 63 years in 2003. The under 5 infant mortality rate was 142 in 1984. It came down to 85 per 1000 live births in 2003. Similarly, maternal mortality came down from 773 deaths per 10,000 births to 260 for the same period. The adult literacy rate jumped to 47% in 2000 from the previous figure of 23.0% in 1984. Human development index has also gone up appreciably.

Drinking Water, Sanitation and Health

Overall 62% of the population had access to potable water and 70% had sanitation facilities in 2002. This shows a marked improvement in sanitation even in the rural community where sanitation facilities used to be fair in the past.

The health infrastructure had also been greatly improved from 4 small hospitals and 11 dispensaries with 2 doctors in 1961 to 28 hospitals and 145 basic health units served by 126 doctors and 928 paramedicals in 1998. Besides, there are 1058 village level health workers who provide basic medical help to the rural community. In 1998, there were 454 outreach clinics for people who are away from basic health units providing preventive health care to rural people covering also children immunization programme and health care of pregnant women.


Socio-economic Pressures

Environmental concerns of rural urban migration

Rural-urban migration can be attributed to excessive urbanization and growth of cities, as well as employment opportunity in urban areas. Migration from rural areas is expected to reduce pressure on agricultural land, but impose a severe strain on the already inadequate urban services and pose serious development and environmental problems. Some such problems are shortage of safe drinking water and electricity, inadequate hygiene, lack of sewage facilities, unemployment and the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements.

The Royal Government of Bhutan is conscious of the effect of rural urban migration on the structure and environment of the larger towns. The Government is effortful to control such large scale rural migration to urban centers with the creation of basic infrastructures-drinking water, schools, hospitals etc. and job opportunities for the local population in rural areas themselves.

Rapid growth and rural urban migration are the two major factors that give rise to pressure on the quality of water in Bhutan. Inadequate water supply and sanitary facilities resulting in

32


rampant defecation is likely to cause the faecal pollution of existing sources of water if the proper attention is not given and control measure not taken.

Industries

Industries small or large, by nature, have pressure on water resources depending on the size and nature of operation.

Industries started in Bhutan in the 1970s with the dual propose of creating job opportunities in the industrial sector and taking off some pressure from land for agriculture. The agricultural operation is limited due to topography of the land and off employment labour from agriculture is plenty and cheap. This gives the double bonus to the industry sector.

The mineral based industries like cement, calcium carbide, ferro-alloys etc produce industrial effluents in large volume, which are potential sources of pollution. Similarly, agro-based industries processing apples, pears, apricot, peaches, oranges, asparagus and mushroom for which Bhutan is famous, produce effluents if not in the degree as the mineral based industries. The distillery producing alcoholic beverage also has a large volume of effluents to handle. All these effluents if not treated properly before being discharged into rivers and streams, can damage the quality of river and stream waters and local environment with the foul and stingy smell.

A 1500 ton per day cement factory and the industrial estate developed at Jemina and the Service Center at Changzamtog close to Thimpu has been of environmental concern with the possibilities of downstream pollution of river water.

Agriculture

More than 85% of the Bhutanese people live in rural areas practising subsistence agriculture. Yet the current level of self-sufficiency is 65% and Bhutan has to import food from outside to meet the gap.

With the demand growing from year to year and the government’s policy to reach the self-sufficiency target, there is a tremendous pressure on Bhutanese farmers to grow more from the unit piece of land.

The agricultural land is already saturated and there is no chance to expand it further because of topography of the land. Forest encroachment is not possible as the government has a policy to keep 60% of the land area as forest.

The only avenue open to grow more from the limited land is the large-scale application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on crop cultivation. This poses a great threat to water quality as well as aquatic life such as fish. After the agricultural operation, the water drained takes away with it the traces of fertilizer and pesticides causing water pollution and disturbing the aquatic eco-system. Even if it does not pose a major threat for now, it may have widespread repercussions if proper controls are not taken in time.

33


Hydropower

Hydropower development in Bhutan has been more of a boon than pressure to rivers where hydroelectric projects are developed. Bhutan, which has been depending on fuelwood for 75% of its energy requirement, has been steadily developing hydroelectric projects with the cooperation of the Government of India. It has not only been able to supply electricity to its people at the affordable price but also export the large chunk of it to India to generate revenue, which is almost equivalent to 40% of the GDP. The contribution of hydropower sector to the national GDP is expected to rise further dramatically with the completion of projects now under construction and planning.

In spite of the positive aspect of hydroelectric development, some adverse impacts of hydroelectric projects such as depletion of water resources downstream of the diversion headwork affecting the aquatic life, local people in carrying out their traditional occupation of fishing and boating and displacement of local people is not ruled out. These effects have, however, to be fully addressed during the Environment Impact Assessment and Social Impact Assessment study carried out in order to minimize if not to eliminate the adverse impact caused by the hydroelectric projects.

Aquatic Eco-System

The impact of human intervention on aquatic ecosystems and eventually on the native cold-water fish community is viewed as a serious problem. Problems arising from siltation and pollution are not common in Bhutan since almost all the river systems have their origin in the snow fed mountains and pass through thick forests where there is less erosion. Siltation due to flash floods during the monsoon season or melting of snow has only a negligible impact on fish.

Several hydropower projects, some of them with a capacity of 1,000 MW, are under construction, but it is anticipated that they will have minimum impact on fish fauna, due to the location of these projects. On the other hand, the reservoirs, under these projects offer considerable scope for expanding fish culture. Over fishing and introduction of exotic fish species may have direct impact on indigenous fish. This is already controlled with the need for all fish catchers to take permit. Besides, fishing by net is disallowed in order to prevent the large-scale catch at a time.

Land Degradation

Land degradation has recently been taking place following more frequent forest fires brought about by "Slash and Burn" which has been detriment to the forest conservation in Bhutan. Eighty-five percent of the total population depends on agriculture and almost all arable land has already been tapped for agriculture. People need more land for subsistence agriculture and this has put pressure in the forestland.

Bhutanese farmers have also the habit of doing shifting cultivation. This means they require new area for cultivation. So they are cultivating in the land created by forest fires. Because of

34


the limited land area for agriculture, they cannot leave land fallow for productive cultivation. With the nutrients all gone without any manure application has led to soil erosion and frequent landslide. This makes the situation still more serious going for more forestland for cultivation leading to encroaching of forestland.

A recently published data (State of Environment Bhutan, 2001) indicates that a forest area of 88,300 ha has already been involved in shifting cultivation. Overgrazing and cultivation on steep slope are other causes of land degradation. Without proper control and application of improved agricultural farming, this tendency is bound to grow to meet the food demand of the growing population.


The pressures put on the quality of river water by various causes mentioned above have the following adverse impacts:

i. Poor Drinking Water Quality ii. Waterborne disease iii. Destruction of fish culture

Poor Drinking Water Quality

The growth of population and rural-urban migration has the tendency to pollute the water source. With the constant rise in urban population which stands at 10% for the capital city of Thimpu. The available potable drinking water facility is overstretched with the tendency for people to take untreated water resulting in water related diseases. The migration of people from the rural to the urban area has also put pressure on existing waste disposal facilities. Of all the cities only Thimpu has well planned waste disposal system where solid waste is carried by trucks to a landfill site which is already saturated and the second landfill site has been brought into operation. Elsewhere, the solid wastes are still to be properly planned not to be nuisances to the local surroundings and pollution problem.

The capital city Thimpu is well planned to take all the challenges brought about by a rural urban migration. As for example, it has well treated water plant that is even capable of catering 120 litres per capita per day. So also it has proper sewage treatment facilities by oxidation ponds. Phuentsholing has also similar facilities to handle the municipal waste. What is true of Thimpu and Phunentsholing may not, however, be of other cities scattered over 26 Dzongkhags (districts). A lot of improvement has still to be done to maintain the quality of water in its best shape in other places though for now water quality as such is not a big issue for Bhutan because it has fast moving rivers with voluminous discharges traversing through well maintained forested watersheds.

35


Water-borne Diseases

Diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, Hepatitis A and helminthes (Parasitic worm) infections are some of the water health problems especially affecting children in Bhutan.

As many as 600 infants deaths have been reported from diarrhoeal diseases every year. The causes identified 25 years ago with the advent of rural water and sanitary programme were unsafe drinking water supply, poor disposal of excreta and unhygienic conditions which spread germs and illness.

The government together with such agencies as UNICEF has steadily improved water supplies and sanitation. The incidence of diarrhoeal diseases and other endemic diseases and worm infestations has steadily dropped in recent years.

Attention has now been given to densely populated urban areas where waterborne diseases are still a major problem. UNICEF has now been focusing on the water supply and sanitation of schools and monastic institutions which together cover more than a sixth of total population of Bhutan with 114 thousand students from 343 schools and more than 9 thousand monks from several monasteries. Compared to overall national coverage for water and sanitation, the school; coverage is still low at 60% and 57% respectively. The sanitation is still worse in case of monastic institutions, which have less than 25% coverage of water and sanitation facilities individually.

Destruction of Fish Culture

The effluents produced by domestic and industrial wastes have both biological and chemical oxygen demands (BOD, COD) depending on the nature of the effluents produced. These effluents have the tendency to eat up the dissolved oxygen in the fresh water to the point of toxic state when the content of dissolved oxygen in the water body is zero and water is no longer fit for consumption by the aquatic life. It also indicates the worst state of water when small fingerlings and large fish start dying.

Bhutanese people like fish but large scale fish culture has not yet been developed in Bhutan probably due to religion related culture or habit. The policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan is also for the conservation of fish disallowing the commercial netting of fish. Fishing can only be by hooks, so that people do not have large catches at a time.

Fish abound in Bhutanese rivers of all kinds small and big. At least 41 varieties and species are known to exist in Bhutanese rivers. Bhutanese like Asla (Schizothorax progastus), the local variety over the exotic called the brown trout (Salmo trutta) introduced very early in 1930.

As stated earlier, the fast flowing rivers with big discharges have enough dissolved oxygen in their freshwaters. So depletion of fish population, it seems, has not occurred in large scales

36


though some of the polluted streams may not carry fish as fish would have moved to other fresh water areas where they can thrive better.


Existing Policies

National Water Policy

Bhutan Water Policy is a reflection of the Royal Government’s intentions on the conservation, development and management of the country’s water resources. It recognizes that water is a precious natural resource and a heritage, important to all aspects of social, economic and environmental integrity.

This Policy adopts an integrated approach. Emphasis is placed on water resources management within river basins and aquifers, including both upstream and downstream water users. Surface and ground water are seen as two forms of the same resource, often with close linkages. Both water quantity and quality are important and interlinked.

Water for human sustenance has direct linkage with poverty. Recognizing this strong linkage, all water programs shall aim at poverty alleviation to achieve Gross National Happiness (GNH).

The Bhutan Water Policy covers all forms of water resources including snow, glaciers, rivers, lakes, streams, springs, rainwater, soil moisture and groundwater.

Water vision for Bhutan is foreseen as sustainable management of water resources recognising and preserving the environmental, social, cultural and economic values and uses of water.

Though there is no legal provision for allocation of water in the absence of Water Act, there is already a general priority ranking principle in the present Water Policy for various uses as follows:

i. Drinking Water and Sanitation ii. Irrigation iii. Hydropower iv. Industries v. Other Uses

The first choice of priority given to drinking water in the national allocation in the water policy of Bhutan is obvious. Similarly, though there is no legal provision for the drinking water standards, Bhutan is already following the WHO standards for drinking water as given in this respect in the Table

Hydropower

37


Bhutan is blessed with a Hydropower potential of 30,000 MW. Its policy is to exploit this potential both for national consumption and export promotion. This has the double benefit as it will release pressure on the forest for firewood and create revenue from sale, of hydro energy to India so important for building the national economy.

38


Industries

Bhutan is basically an agrarian country. However, the arable area is limited being just 7.7% of the total area of the country which is 40,077 km2. Besides, the present policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan does not favour extension of agricultural area at the cost of the forest. Medium, small and cottage industries have therefore, been developing to provide employment opportunities to the idle rural population.

In the 1970s, the Royal Government of Bhutan initiated the development of basic infrastructure and created opportunities in the business sector ushering in a gradual transformation of the Bhutanese economy. Specialized and industrial establishment began in advantageous locations particularly along the southern hills with prospects for raw materials and sale of product across the border to India.

Industries small or large by nature have pressure on water resources depending on the size and nature of operation.

Industries in Bhutan are small and developing in leaps and bounds. The industrial sector in Bhutan had grown by 216% over a period of 5 years. The number of industries increased from 4.4 thousand to 13.9 thousand more than threefold from 1997 to 2002.

Agriculture

More than 85% of the Bhutanese people live in rural areas practising subsistence agriculture in a limited arable area of 310 thousand ha of which 38.7 thousand ha has some sort of irrigation facility. Agriculture has always played an important role in the subsistence livelihood of the Bhutanese people and more recently it has also helped in agro-based export production.

With the growing population at the rate of 3.1% per annum, Bhutan has been a net importer of food since the early 1960s. The current level of self-sufficiency is 65% with the remaining 35% being met from import from India.

The Government’s Policy is to reach the self sufficiency target with the optimum use of the limited arable land upon application of modern agricultural technology.

Despite significant increase in yield, the output of food grains has not been able to keep pace with increasing demand. This is bound to have pressure on the Bhutanese farmers to use chemical fertilizers and use of pesticides to grow more from the unit piece of land as there is less likelihood of more area for cultivation coming from the precious forest area due to the strict policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan to maintain not less than 60% of the country area under forest cover. This is gradually changing the traditional way of cultivating crops with the use of composted organic manure, which is less likely to pollute the river water than the chemical fertilizers.

39


It will be very difficult for National Environment Commission (NEC) to put control on such use of chemical fertilizers for the increased agricultural production in agricultural areas dispersed all over the country unless the Royal Government of Bhutan puts a blanket ban on use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides which is very difficult to see it happen as the demand for more food from the limited area grows from year to year. So countrywide campaign should be launched for the widespread use of organic compost providing all the technical support to the farmers in preparing such manure. Where chemical fertilizers and pesticides have to be used, only recommended dosage should be administered in designated areas in the presence of agricultural and law enforcing officials. This way river water can be protected from pollution chances and aquatic life can be maintained in nature.

Aquatic Eco-systems

A total of 41 indigenous fish species are known to exist in rivers and lakes of Bhutan (Coldwater fish and Fisheries in Bhutan, T.Petr). Eight exotic species, including the cold water brown trout and seven species of cyprinoids were introduced for warm water aquaculture. Brown trout (Salmo trutta) was introduced in 1930 and until the early 1980s it was raised in two trout hatcheries for stocking into rivers and streams. The stocking was discontinued in 1983 on the assumption that it was suppressing indigenous coldwater fish, especially Asla (Schizothorax progastus) that is held in high esteem by the Bhutanese. The suspected, but not proven, competition between brown trout and Asla should be fully assessed prior to any attempt at restarting stocking of brown trout.

Cold water fishery in Bhutan has a predominantly subsistence character. At present, Bhutan does not have a functioning coldwater fish hatchery or any table fish production farms. In 1990 the total fish production was estimated to be 331 tons, part of it coming from warm water pond aquaculture in the southern lowlands.

The impact of human intervention on aquatic ecosystems and eventually on the native cold-water fish community is viewed as a serious problem. Overfishing and introduction of exotic fish species may have direct impact on indigenous fish. This is already controlled with the need for all fish catchers to take permit. Besides, fishing by net is disallowed in order to prevent the large-scale catch at a time.

In order to boost the rural economy of Bhutan, regional cooperation with SAARC countries in the field of fishery development to exchange technical know-how needs to be established.

Environment

The National Environment Strategy (NES) “The Middle Path” is the main policy document for the environment sector designed to guide environmental consideration in Bhutan. It aims to minimise or mitigate the impacts likely to result from the development process to achieve the Gross National Happiness.

Real work on environment related issues began with the formation of National Environment Commission (NEC) by the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) in 1990 following the

40


major outcome of the workshop on Environment and Sustainable Development in 1990. NEC was given the responsibility of drawing up a national environment strategy (NES) to ensure that environmental concerns became an integral part of the development agenda. The ultimate goal of NES is to minimize or mitigate the impacts that are likely to result from the development process. The NES is called the Middle Path of sustainable development in Bhutan.

The NES outlines 3 main avenues of sustainable economic development as

i. expanding hydropower ii. increasing agricultural self sufficiency and iii. expanding the industrial base

The NECS then examines each avenue in detail taking into consideration the current status of each sector, enabling conditions for development and implications of such development.

The environmental conservation has been given the top priority in Bhutan. It is one of the four pillars of Gross National Happiness, the other three being good governance, socio-economic development and cultural preservation for which the Royal Government of Bhutan has been putting equal stress for enhancement in each sphere.

Constitutional and Legal Frameworks

Constitutional Provision

There is no specific provision for water in the Bhutanese Constitution

Legal Instrument

Water Resources

There is no comprehensive specific water law at present in Bhutan. Only certain clauses related to water are found in the few existing Acts such as the Land Act, 1979, Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995, Environment Assessment Act, 2000, Bhutan Electricity Act, 2001 and Water and Sanitation Rules formed in pursuance of the Municipal Act, 1999. These clauses are sometimes contradictory to each other. Farmers practise different customary rights coming from the age-old tradition in matters of sharing water for paddy cultivation and other crops. There is, therefore, an urgent need for a comprehensive Water Act, which covers all uses of water in a sustainable way. It is learnt that the Royal Government of Bhutan is presently working to constitute such an Act.

Although freshwater is in abundance in Bhutan, rapid urbanization and industrialization are bound to increase the pressure on the resource. The water quality is responsibly good as no polluting industries are located upstream. Solid waste and wastewater discharge from cities and industries if not properly controlled may lead to deterioration of surface water quality.

41


Environment Assessment Act, 2000 (EAA, 2000)

In the absence of Water Resources Act, the Environment Assessment Act, 2000 is an unique Act to deal with the water related pollution problems. The National Assembly of Bhutan passed the EAA in July 2000. The Regulations under the Act for the Environmental Clearance of Project and the Strategic Environmental Assessment were adopted in 2002. Under the EAA 2000, an environmental clearance is a prerequisite prior to commencement of any development activity. This was a major step towards the maintenance of water quality in Bhutan, as many issues related to environment dealt with water one way or another. So, even in the absence of Water Act, the EAA 2000 was helpful in maintaining the water quality of Bhutan. The Water Act is still required to deal with several issues related to its use and conflict resolution arising from them.

Mention is made in the Brief Report on State of the Environment 2004 of the initiation of the process of formulating a National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) with the analysis of pertaining laws and participation of stakeholders in the several workshops held in this context.


The Royal Government of Bhutan has appointed the NEC as the apex body for co-coordinating the management of water resources in the country. NEC has formulated the Water Policy, Water Vision and draft Water Act in collaboration with the Bhutan Water Partnership and Stakeholders. The Water Act, once finalized, will be submitted to the Royal Government of Bhutan for approval.

Among the NGOs, Bhutan Water Partnership has been playing a helpful role and continues to collaborate with the Government in water related issues.

The Middle Path towards sustainable development followed by the Kingdom of Bhutan has a clear and unique goal Gross National Happiness, interpreted as a blend of material and spiritual well being for the people to live in close harmony with nature. This is drawn from the Buddhist philosophy whish has a deep influence in thee Bhutanese Society.

The Middle Path under the National Environment -Strategy stresses the importance of protecting the watersheds to maintain the continuous flow of unpolluted water. The conservation of wetlands is equally important for the protection of bio-diversity and aquatic life. In all these protection and conservation measures, the participation of local people has been a key to preventing water resources from being polluted.

The NEC promulgateded six environmental assessment guidelines for the mining, roads, industries, hydropower, transmission lines and forestry sectors in 1999 in close consultation with all concerned stakeholders even prior toenactment of EAA, 2000. These guidelines were revised in 2003 in order to make them more practical and relevant to the Bhutanese context with the addition of two more sectoral guidelines for urban development and tourism. Several

42


relevant Environmental Code of Practices (ECOPs) were developed to support the environmental assessment guidelines. These guidelines help stakeholders in understanding the environmental issues and fulfilling the requirements under the EAA and its Regulations.

NEC also issued sectoral guidelines for industries with environmental standards for water as specified in Tables 2.1.

Table 2.1 Discharge Standards for Industries Parameters Unit Maximum value

a. Discharge Standards for cooling Tower Chlorine mg/l 0.5 b. Discharge Standards for Food Industry Ammonia (as N) mg/l 15 Pesticide residuals mg/l 0.05 c. Discharge Standards for Textile and Carpet Industry Copper mg/l 0.5 NH3 as N mg/l 8.0 Phenol mg/l 0.5 Sulfide mg/l 0.2 d. Discharge Standards for Fiberboard Industry Formalin No acceptable

level No acceptable level

NH3 as N mg/l 8.0 Phenol mg/l 0.5 e. Discharge Standards for Electric Arc Furnace wastewater stream Arsenic mg/l 0.1 Chromium (VI) mg/l 0.1 Lead mg/l 0.1 Mercury mg/l 0.001 f. Discharge Standards for General Industries PH -- 6-9 Temperature increase oC <3 Total suspended solids mg/l 50.0 Oil and grease mg/l 10.0 BOD5 mg/l 50.0 COD mg/l 250.0 Coliforms No./100ml 400 Ammonia (as N) mg/l 50.0 Arsenic mg/l 0.25 Benzene mg/l 0.1 Cadmium mg/l 0.1 Chromium total mg/l 0.5 Copper mg/l 3.0 Cyanide mg/l 0.2 Iron mg/l 3.5 Lead mg/l 0.8 Mercury mg/l 0.005 Nickel mg/l 3.0 Phenol mg/l 2.0 Sulphide mg/l 10.0 Zinc mg/l 5.0 Total metals mg/l 10.0

43


Source: RGOB 2004

NEC also issued water quality standards for drinking (Table2.2) in the lines of WHO Standard, which has not been approved by the Government yet.

44


Table 2.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Standards Parameters Unit Maximum Acceptable Concentration

Inorganic Parameters Antimony Arsenic Barium Boron Cadmium Chloride Chromium Copper Cyanide Fluoride Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Nitrate (as NO3) Nitrite (as NO2pH Selenium Silver Sulphate Sulphide (as H2S) Total dissolved solids Uranium Zinc

mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l -- mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l

0.005 0.05 1.0 5.0 0.01 250.00 0.05 2.0 0.02 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.001 45.0 3.0 6.5-8.5 0.01 0.05 500.00 0.05 500.00 0.02 5.00

These have been recommended by the NEC until more relevant information becomes available.

NEC as the lead agency for the enforcement and implementation of the EAA 2000 assessed and reviewed more than 164 development projects including water and other related projects in 2003 alone. It has also been conducting the monitoring of development activities.

Besides the NEC, agencies such as the Ministry of Trade, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, Bhutan Power Corporation, Bhutan Electricity Authority and some private organizations have environment cells. Some of the environment cells maintained by the government agencies are designated as competent authorities under the provisions of the Regulation for the Environmental Clearance of Projects 2002 for monitoring of respective activities as listed in Annex II of the said Regulation.

The Organogram of the Royal Government of Bhutan shows the institutional arrangement of the Bhutanese Governance with inter linkages.

45


Figure 2.2 Organogram of Royal Government of Bhutan

Head of Government CABINET

Speaker NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Chief Justice HIGH COURT

ROYAL AUDIT AUTHORITY

AUTONOMOUS AGENCIES -Planning Commission -Royal Civil Service Commission -National Environment Commission -Dzongkha Development Commission -National Commission for Cultural Affairs -Royal Monetary Authority -National Employment Board -National Pension Board -Department of Legal Affairs -Royal Institute of Management -National Technical Training Authority -National Library -Centre for Bhutan Studies

MINISTRIES HOME AFFAIRS

FINANCE FOREIGN AFFAIRS

AGRICULTURE HEALTH AND EDUCATION

TRADE AND INDUSTRY COMMUNICATIONS WORKS & HUMAN

SETTLEMENT

Dzongdag ZONGKHAG

(District Administration) DZONGKHAG

YARGEY TSHOKCHUNG

Thrimpon THRIMKHANG (District Court)

DUNGTHRIM (Sub- district Court)

DUNGKHAG (Sub-district Administration)

Gup GEOG

GEOG YARGEY

TSHOKCHUNG

Gup GEOG

His Majesty THE KING

ROYAL ADVISORY COUNCIL

ARMED FORCES

NEC has, therefore, made a modest endeavor to monitor the quality of water of the country's water bodies. In this respect, it has started conducting the monitoring of the quality of water of 4 major river basins in the country. Analysis is being conducted at the several sampling locations in the river basins and tributaries of major rivers.

In 1997, the NEC Secretariat with the assistance of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) conducted a study to collect the baseline water quality database for major watersheds in Bhutan (NEC 1997). Consequently from 2001 to 2003, NEC collected baseline data and information and started conducting water quality monitoring in the major river basins.

46


Presently, such data are collected twice a year for wet and dry seasons. Monitoring is also carried out in wastewater treatment plants and major industries.

The Department of Power under the Ministry of Trade and Industry has also set up sampling stations to collect and monitor the data.

The findings of the NEC study show that the State of water resources of Bhutan in a macro-scale is very healthy with its main rivers and tributaries still in pristine condition barring a few exceptions where rivers pass through heavily populated and highly industrial areas. The natural quality of water in Bhutan is characterized as highly oxygenated slightly alkaline with low conductivity and no salinity

The samples of water streams collected from different locations around the capital Thimpu show consistently higher content of dissolved oxygen as shown in the Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Temperature, pH and DO Values at Different Locations around Thimpu

Source: NEC 2004

However, there are places especially along the banks of streams and rivers both in urban and rural areas, which create pollution problems that need to be addressed. The pollution problems have arisen resulting from oil and grease spills from workshops, grey water sullage from domestic households and uncontrolled seepage and overflow from septic tanks and untreated effluents from industries being discharged directly into the streams and rivers as shown in figure 5.3 for the water samples collected for the Wang Chhu from different locations. Chhu in Bhutanese stands for river.

47


Figure 2.4: Thimpu River Quality

Source: NEC 2004

From the figure 2.4, it is seen that both conductivity and turbidity tend to decrease down stream of Dodena, pH value continued to be constant all the way to Chukha. The coliform count tended to rise manifold greater than the headwaters at Dodena beyond Pangrizampe where the Sunday market is held. This is attributed to unsanitary conditions arising from the unsanitary activities of people both working as hawkers and visitors. The coliform count, however, decreases beyond the Chukha area.

NECS is presently working to develop appropriate Water quality standards. It is expected that the appropriate water quality standards will be in place by the ninth five year ending 2008.


Rural Urban Migration

Policy to maintain a proper balance of rural urban migration is lacking putting pressure on limited resources water and stretching facilities available in the urban centres especially in Thimpu and Phuentosoling.

Environmental concerns of rural urban migration should be addressed with an eye on rural and urban development so as not to exert excessive pressure on available water resources in and around the urban centers and overstretch the available facilities such as drinking water in order to prevent ill effects arising out of them such as poor quality of drinking water and unmanageable domestic waste to handle land degradation.

Land Degradation

48


A well-defined land policy for land use is lacking. There are no rules and Acts to control land degradation arising from man made forest fires like “Slash and Burn”, shifting cultivation and cultivation on steep slopes.

A comprehensive land policy should be developed putting restriction on development of undesirable land for agriculture and man made forest fire like “slash and burn” if necessary by enacting legislation that can be enforced.

Water Pollution

A natural water resource management plan embracing all uses also after uses from the household and industry does not exist.

Currently, there are no separate rules for handling solid waste and infectious and hazardous waste from hospitals.

There should be separate rules for solid waste management with specific guidelines for disposal of solid waste.

Infectious and hazardous waste from hospitals should be carefully handled separate from other wastes and disposed off in sanitary conditions.


Conclusions

Bhutan is blessed with abundant water resources providing excellent opportunities for overall development of the country. Harnessing water resources is one such avenue for development of hydropower, which is already taking place in Bhutan. With the proper management plan in place, Bhutan can suffice the water needs of all the sectors. With the extensive coverage of their watersheds by forest, are in the pristine condition in the upstream reaches. These watersheds have enriched the river systems with the perennial supply of water.

Apart from affluent south urban centres where rivers tend to be polluted with the increased activities of people moving from the hills down to urban centres for job opportunities, the rivers in the north in the sparsely populated areas are in their best shape. As the rivers carry considerable discharge, the effect of pollutants tends to be reduced after they pass through the potential points of pollution. The case in point is the Thimpu river which having traversed through 6km of the capital Thimpu emerges yet to be fresh again in its downward journey.

Because of the hill terrain of the country and the limited land for agriculture, agriculture has to be developed most carefully using modern technology of farming with application to grow more from the unit land. The judicious use of chemical fertilizer is demanded so as not to

49


pollute the water bodies. For this, organic compost manure is to be put into service as far as practicable with the balanced growth of livestock and fodder to feed the stock.

As the agricultural land is limited, the extension of agricultural land in the steep terrain will bring in land erosion as well as landslides disturbing the ecosystem of the area which is to be avoided at all costs.

The present growth rate of population at 3.1% per annum is very high even in the context of the SAARC countries. If the present trend is to continue, the present population of Bhutan at 668 thousand is expected to be doubled in 2020. This will put tremendous pressure on the available water resources with tendencies towards scarcity for drinking water, problem of disposal of domestic sewage, increased growth of industrial effluents, settlement problems in the limited area, etc. So population is a major issue to be handled with much care and attention for the balanced growth of Bhutan.

Population control is not a one-stroke solution as the control can be brought about by many timely measures with the education of the rural population spread over a long time. It has been found that control of population growth in the urban area with the educated elite couple is more effective. The migrant population in the urban centres has, however, to be dealt with carefully as they lack education coming from the rural area. With proper control measures in place, Bhutan can make the best out of its valuable water resources yet maintaining its quality.

Recommendations

Institutional Reforms

Presently, the water resources activities are scattered among different ministries and departments in Bhutan. It is desirable to bring these activities in one or two departments as appropriate under one ministry. This will greatly help in coordinating and implementing the activities in question.

Need of National Water Plan

Priority should be given to the formulation of a broad based National Water Plan embracing all water uses and projecting different perspectives of development.

Enactment of Water Resources Act

A comprehensive Water Resources Act should be enacted to execute the National Water Plan to enforce the regulations that already exist under different Acts and implement those regulations to be issued under and within the Act. The present EAA 2000 and the related regulations needs to be amended in light of the experience so far gained to meet the emerging challenges of environment in modern Bhutan.

50


2.8 References

RGOB (No Date) Water Policy of Bhutan, Web site. National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan (RGOB)

RGOB (1998) The Middle path, National Environment Strategy for Bhutan. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan

RGOB (2000) Environment Assessment Act 2000. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan

RGOB (2000) First Greenhouse Gas Inventory. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan,

RGOB (2000) Initial National Commission. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan,

RGOB (2001) State of the Environment Bhutan 2001. SACEP, NORAD, UNEP, NEC, RGOB

RGOB (2002) Regulation for the Environmental Clearance of Projects and Regulation on Strategic Environmental Assessment, 2002. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan

RGOB (2004) Environment Discharge Standard. Thimpu: National Environment Commission, Royal Govt. of Bhutan

NEC (2004) Brief Report on State of the Environment. Thimpu: National Environment Commission (NEC)

UNICEF(2004)UNICEF–Bhutan-Statistics (swww.unicef.org/infobycountry/bhutan_bhutan_statistics.html)

51

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bhutan_bhutan_statistics.html

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports - India

3 India Country Report

3.1 River System

In India, the numerous river systems that drain the country have been classified as Himalayan, peninsular, coastal and inland-drainage basins. Out of these only the Himalayan rivers fall within the scope of this study. These rivers are snow-fed and the flow is high to medium throughout the year with additional flows caused by heavy rainfall during the monsoon months of June to September, when the catchments areas are prone to flooding.

Figure 3.1 Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna River basins

India has 14 major river basins occupying 83% of the total drainage basins and contributing 85 per cent of the total surface flow. The Brahmaputra, Ganga and Indus head the list of major river systems. The rivers have been classified as shown in the table below.

Table 3.1 Classification of River Basins Category Basin Area

(km2) No. of Basins

Percentage of Total Drainage Area

Major More than 20,000 13 82.4 Medium Between 2,000 and 20,000 48 8 Minor and Desert Less than 2,000 52 9.6 Source: CPCB 2003 quoted in Sengupta et al. 2004

The Ganga basin is the largest and makes up about one-quarter of the total area of the country, with the Himalayas to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south. Practically all the tributaries in the northern part are perennial, whereas many in the southern part are not. The other major river is the Brahmaputra accounting for the greatest volume of water due to

53


the heavy rainfall in its catchments area having an average annual rainfall of 2,800 mm, with as high a figure as 9,000 mm in Meghalaya. The country, therefore, receives an equivalent of about 4,000 billion m3, which is, however, very unevenly distributed, both spatially and temporally. Out of this, 3,000 billion m3 is concentrated during the four monsoon months and the balance 1,000 billion m3 in the remaining 8 months. The mean flow in the country’s rivers is about 1,900 billion m3 out of which only 690 billion m3 is utilizable.

The basin-wise details of the three rivers systems falling within the study area are given below.

Table 3.2 Basin-wise Mean Flow and Usable Water Resources (in billion m3) Surface water Ground water River Basin

Mean flow Utilisable Replenishable Utilisable Indus 73.31 46.00 26.50 24.30 Ganga 525.02 250.00 171.00 156.80 Brahmaputra 529.05* 240.00 26.55 24.40

Source: National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan, 1999, as quoted in UNEP Environmental Issues – State of Environment, India 2001. * Includes additional contribution of 91.81 billion m3 being the flow of 9 tributaries joining the Brahmaputra.

3.2 Socio-economic Status and Indicators

Socio-economic Status

The progress that India has made in the main economic sectors like agriculture and food production, industrial development, energy generation, are very remarkable. Improvements in the socio-economic conditions as well as in other areas have also been equally commendable. India now ranks amongst the ten most industrialized nations in the world. The country is also self-sufficient in food, life expectancy has improved, infant mortality rate has declined and the literacy rate has increased. On the other hand, the country is still struggling in bringing down the annual population growth rate and at the same time faced with many undesirable consequences and unanticipated environmental problems as a result of rapid economic growth.


The population of the country has grown three times to over a billion from 361 million in 1951. It is anticipated that the annual growth rate will decline to 1.44 per cent over the period 2006 – 2016 from the present growth rate of 1.57%. It has, however, been established that there is a population momentum hidden in the age structure of the population – the percentage in the reproductive age group being about 50%. This means that the population momentum is expected to continue for some time and an additional population of 417 million is expected as a result of this between the period 1991 and 2016, as has been predicted by some recent population studies by the government and independent sources.

54


The United Nations "World Population Prospects", released on 24th February 2005 in New York, estimates that there will be 1,395 million people in India by 2025, and 1,593 million in 2050. China will be populated by 1,441 million by 2025, and 1,392 million in 2050.

Uttar Pradesh is the most populated state in the country and West Bengal is the most densely populated whereas Arunachal Pradesh is the least populated. 25% of the country’s poor live in urban areas and 31% of the urban population is poor. Traditional rural-urban migration exists in India as villagers seek to improve opportunities and lifestyles. In 1991, 39 million people migrated in rural-urban patterns of which 54% were female. Caste and tribe systems complicate these population movements. Seasonal urban migration is also evident throughout India in cities like Surat where many migrants move into the city during periods of hardship and return to their native villages for events such as harvesting. India's largest cities/urban areas have been listed in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Population of Large Urban Centres Rank City/Urban Area Population

1 Mumbai (Bombay) 16,368,000 2 Kolkata (Calcutta) 13,217,000 3 Delhi 12,791,000 4 Chennai 6,425,000 5 Bangalore 5,687,000 6 Hyderabad 5,534,000 7 Ahmadabad 4,519,000 8 Pune 3,756,000 9 Surat 2,811,000

10 Kanpur 2,690,000 11 Jaipur 2,324,000 12 Lucknow 2,267,000 13 Nagpur 2,123,000 14 Patna 1,707,000 15 Indore 1,639,044 16 Vadodara 1,492,000 17 Bhopal 1,455,000 18 Coimbatore 1,446,000 19 Ludhiana 1,395,000 20 Kochi 1,355,000 21 Visakhapatnam 1,329,000 22 Agra 1,321,000 23 Varanasi 1,212,000 24 Madurai 1,195,000 25 Meerut 1,167,000 26 Nashik 1,152,000 27 Jabalpur 1,117,000 28 Jamshedpur 1,102,000 29 Asansol 1,090,000 30 Dhanbad 1,064,000 31 Faridabad 1,055,000 32 Allahabad 1,050,000 33 Amritsar 1,011,000 34 Vijayawada 1,011,000 35 Rajkot 1,002,000

55


Source: India's national census of 2001

Human Development Index and Poverty Levels

Before going on to discuss this issue, a breaking news item of great significance has been the passing by the Indian Parliament of a revolutionary piece of legislation known as the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 assuring 100 days of employment every year to each rural household in the country. It has been pointed out that this could very well be termed the most important legislation on behalf of the impoverished millions since India became independent.

Over the period 1980 – 1995, it has been reported that the annual growth rate of the labour force was 1.9% and this is expected to come down to 1.7% during the period 1995–2010. On the other hand, it is to be noted that there has been a decline in the growth process of employment intensity as per the MOF 2000 Report – a continuous decline over the periods 1972–1978 and 1987–1994 from 2.75% to 1.77%. These figures underline the importance of the above Act. Another interesting aspect is the fact that in an agricultural economy like India, much under-employment exists especially in the rural areas.

India was ranked 128 in terms of the human development index in the 1999 Human Development Report (UNEP 2001) – far behind other developing countries like Vietnam, Brazil and Sri Lanka. This takes into consideration the three essential but not exhaustive indicators: (i) life expectancy at birth as a measure of health status and longevity; (ii) educational attainment representing the level of knowledge and skills; and (iii) an appropriately adjusted real GDP per capita serving as a surrogate for command over resources.

As per the report of Chelliah and Sudarshan 1999, in 1993-94, over 70% of the population was rural and more than half the population was below the poverty line based on the head-count ratios for the five states of Bihar, Orissa, Assam, West Bengal and Maharashtra. More recent estimates have shown that the proportion of the population below the poverty line has declined from 54.9% in 1973-74 to 36% in 1993-94, as available from the NSS for 1993-94. MOF 2000 has, however, reported that due to the rise in population, the number of poor has remained at 320 million.

Socio-Economic Indicators

Some relevant socio-economic indicators obtained from UNICEF 2004 are presented in the Table 3.4. It may be noted that the statistical data shown below may be different to the information quoted elsewhere. The UNICEF data have been adopted for uniformity with those for other countries of the Region for more meaningful comparison as presented in Volume I: Synthesis Report.

Table 3.4 Socio-economic Indicators Socio-economic Parameter Indicator

56


Socio-economic Parameter Indicator Population (2003) Urban Rural

1,065,462,000 28% 72%

Under-5 Mortality (2003) 87 (per 1000) Infant Mortality (2003) 63 (per 1000) Maternal Mortality Ratio (2000) 540 (per 10,000) Life expectancy at birth (2003) 64 years GNI per capita US$ 530 Population below poverty line 35% WS Coverage (Total) (2002) Urban Rural

86% 96% 82%

Sanitation (Total) (2002) Urban Rural

30% 58% 18%

Adult Literacy Rate Male Female

68% 45%

Source: UNICEF 2004


In the course of the preparation of the Report on the State of the Environment – India 2001(UNEP 2001), a very comprehensive study was carried out with respect to the pressures, impacts, state and response to the pertinent environmental issues and their bearing on the overall socio-economic conditions. This report has identified and broadly covered five priority areas of concern and requiring immediate action. These were the following:

• Land degradation • Biodiversity • Air pollution with special reference to vehicular pollution in cities • Management of fresh water resources, and • Hazardous waste management with special reference to municipal solid waste management.

Of these, except for air pollution, the remaining four have a direct bearing on the quality of surface water sources and are discussed further in the subsequent sections of this chapter. Air pollution, on the other hand, may be considered to be one of the factors leading to global warming and leading to climate change.


Land Degradation

Direct pressures emanate from deforestation, which is a type of degradation by itself as well as being responsible for other types of degradation like water erosion. MOEF 1999 has reported that between 1980 and 1990, the annual depletion amounted to 0.34 million ha while afforestation efforts covered about one million ha annually. Pressures from other user groups

57


have also resulted in forest shrinkage. Wind and water erosion is predominant because per capita forestland is only 0.08 ha as against the requirement of 0.47 ha to meet basic needs. Against the permissible felling of trees of 12 million m3, the demand was more than 27 million m3 resulting not only in rapid forest depletion but also consequent loss in vegetative cover essential for the health of the land. Other activities are over-grazing and over-extraction of green fodder, shifting cultivation, encroachment of forest land for agriculture, occurrence of frequent forest fires, extension of cultivation to land of lower potential, use of agrochemicals along plus the improper and indiscriminate use of municipal wastes leading to soil and water contamination, expansion of surface irrigation causing excessive waterlogging and resulting in varying degrees of salinity and sodicity in different parts of the country, increasing urbanization, industrialization and infrastructural development progressively taking away considerable areas of land, mining and quarrying activities, have all added to the degradation process.

Biodiversity

It need not be emphasized that the loss of biodiversity has serious economical and social consequences to a country. The main causes of biodiversity loss in India are habitat destruction, over-exploitation, pollution, and species introduction. Dominant problems that bedevil conservation and threats confronting biodiversity have been listed below:

• Low priority given to conservation of living natural resources • Exploitation of these resources for financial benefit • Values and knowledge about such species and the ecosystem inadequate • Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization • Habitat destruction • Extension of agriculture • Filling up of wetlands • Conversion of rich biodiversity sites for human settlement and industrial development • Destruction of coastal areas, and • Uncontrolled commercial exploitation.

Management of Freshwater Resources

Pressures in this priority area emanate from uneven resource distribution, with declining resource availability, both with respect to surface water as well as groundwater; inequitable water supply; resource degradation; and inefficient resource utilization.

There are huge disparities in the water available both basin-wise as well as region-wise.

This large variation in the utilizable water resources is illustrated by the availability of 18,417 m3 per capita in the Brahmaputra Valley to as low as 180 m3 capita in the Sabramati basin (Chitale 1992). Even within the Ganga basin, per capita water availability varies from 740 m3 in the Yamuna to 3,379 m3 in the Gandak. It has been reported that there has been a progressive reduction in the land and fresh water. In 1985, the per capita availability of renewable fresh water was 5,277 m3 whereas this declined to 2,464 m3 in 1990 (Engelman

58


and Roy 1993). Another report (Pachauri and Sridharan 1998) estimated the per capita water availability in 1947 as 6,008 m3 which dropped to 2,266 m3 in 1998. For an estimated population of 1.081 billion people in 2005, the available and utilisable water resources per capita per year works out to 2,205 m3 and 1,005 m3 respectively.

Hazardous Waste with Special Reference to Municipal Waste Management

In an industrialized country like India, the generation of hazardous industrial waste is very large and spread over the country. The major hazardous waste-generating industries are petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, paint and dye, petroleum, fertilizers, asbestos, caustic soda, inorganic chemicals and general engineering industries. The Indian industrial sector is reported to have quadrupled in the last thirty years and with it the generation of hazardous wastes, which contain cyanides, pesticides, complex aromatic compounds, etc.

At the same time, due to the rapid population growth and urbanization in the country, there has also been a significant increase in the generation of municipal solid wastes. It has been found that the per capita solid waste generation varies from 100 gm in small towns to 500 gm in large towns. In the case of Mumbai, the population grew from 8.2 million in 1981 to 12.3 million in 1991, a growth rate of 49% whereas the corresponding increase in waste generation was from 3,200 tonnes per day to 5,355 tonnes per day – a growth of approximately 67%.


Land Degradation

As a result of the pressures on the land and forests referred to above, estimates of actual land-use and vegetation cover reveal that 80 million ha out of 142 million ha under cultivation is substantially degraded and about 40 million ha out of 75 million ha under the forest departments has a canopy cover of less than 40%. Similarly, 11 million ha of pastureland has also been reported to be substantially degraded. According to the Wastelands Atlas of India 2000, the total wastelands area in 584 districts is 63.8 million ha accounting for 20.2% per cent of the total geographical area. Other impacts are soil erosion with both on-site and off-site consequences; loss in productivity; loss of nutrient and or organic matter; sedimentation of river beds and siltation of canals and reservoirs; increasing frequency of floods; chemical degradation in the form of loss of plant nutrients and salinisation of the soil; pollution of the soil with heavy metals due to improper disposal of industrial waste, and the use of domestic and municipal wastes and agro chemicals like fertilizers and pesticides; and crusting and scaling.

Biodiversity

Other environmental considerations have also emerged resulting in adverse impacts on the overall environment and the aquatic ecosystem, in particular. The destruction of natural habitats and over-exploitation of natural resources has brought about a loss in biodiversity,

59


which is a matter of great concern for the country since many plant and animal species are severely threatened.

The issue of ecological sound water use needs to be addressed in the context of ensuring provision of clean water for multi-purpose uses; restoring and maintaining fish habitats; ensuring provision of water for sustainable use including the preservation of key features of wetlands; and protection of the aquatic environment in future. Planned activities are guided by various international conventions and protocols, including the Convention on Biodiversity, Ramsar Convention, Framework Convention on Climate Change, and Convention on Combating Desertification. The main obligations that have to be fulfilled pertain to the following:

• Water pollution and control • Water management for fisheries • Water management for ecologically sensitive areas • Supporting appropriate and adequate environmental measures • Implementing the required institutional reforms • Institutional strengthening and capacity building to achieve the above.

Out of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world, India may be said to be still quite sensitive to the needs of conservation while undertaking development activities, as a result of which, it is still rich in biological resources. As experienced elsewhere, industrialization and economic development during the past few decades have not only put immense strain and altered ecosystems but have also resulted in damage in some cases. The major causes of biodiversity loss have been habitat destruction, over-exploitation, pollution, and species introduction. Some other causes that deserve mention are fires, land degradation and natural calamities like droughts, diseases, cyclones, and floods.

MOEF 1999 has estimated that the country has lost 4,696 million ha of forestland to non-forestry purposes of which 0.07 million ha has been illegally encroached upon, 4.37 million ha subjected to cultivation, 0.52 million ha given to river valley projects, 0.14 million ha to industries and townships, 0.06 million ha for transmission lines and roads, and the rest for miscellaneous purposes.

India’s contribution to the world’s biodiversity has been reported as 8% of the total number of species estimated to be 1.75 million (Khoshoo 1996) while it occupies only 2.4%of the world’s land area. Among the 18 hot spots in the world, two which are found in India are the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The former also includes Nepal and Bhutan and part of Yunan province in western China.

All of the major habitat types like forests, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs and deserts have been adversely affected as a result of the pressures on biodiversity listed and discussed above.


60


Quantity-wise, it has been reported that the status of the per capita per year availability of renewable fresh water resources is as follows:

• only four of the 20 basins had more than 1,000 m3/capita • nine basins had between 1,000 to 1,700 m3/capita • five basins had between 500 to 1,000 m3/capita • two basins had had less than 500 m3/capita

It has also been recorded that in 1997, availability exceeded requirements in most of the agro-ecological zones except the two zones covering the Eastern Plains and Kutch and the northern plains, where it is less than the demand. However, by 2047, it is envisaged that demand will exceed availability in five of the twenty zones. Out of these five deficient zones, the situation will be critical in the three zones covering the Bengal and Assam plains, where availability is expected to be less than 75% of the total demand (TERI 2001). Furthermore, despite the top priority given to drinking water, the total population with access to potable water is less than 100% in most urban and rural areas. The overall situation has been made worse due to the poor execution of policies at the field level, lack of proper policies at the state level with respect to resource management and conflict resolution, and over exploitation due to inadequate legislation for water abstraction. All these factors have adversely affected resource availability.

Regarding resource quality, pristine water quality has generally been maintained in the less populated upper reaches of rivers, where human interference is minimal. However, the picture changes dramatically as the rivers enter the plains and the water begins to get exploited for irrigation use and starts receiving pollution from different sources. The quality aspects have been discussed and graphically illustrated in the earlier sections.

Water Quality

Many of the recent reports have very correctly emphasized that one of the most pressing problems for the country in the coming years will be the availability of fresh water. This situation has been created by a combination of factors including, urban growth, increased industrial activities, intensive farming, plus the overuse of fertilizers and other chemicals in agricultural production. Based on designated best use of water five quality classes have been identified for classifying surface water in India (Table 3.5).

Table 3.5 Designated Best Use Classification of Surface Water Designated Best Use Quality

Class Primary Water Quality Criteria

Drinking water source without conventional treatment but with chlorination

A Total coliform organisms (MPN*/100 ml) - 50 or less; pH – between 6.5 and 8.5; Dissolved Oxygen - 6 mg/l or less; and Biochemical Oxygen Demand – 2 mg/l or less

Outdoor bathing (organized)

B Total coliform organisms (MPN/100 ml)* - 500 or less; pH - between 6.5 and 8.5; Dissolved Oxygen - 5 mg/l or less; and Biochemical Oxygen Demand – 3 mg/l or less

Drinking water source with C Total coliform organisms (MPN/100 ml)* - 5000 or less;

61


conventional treatment pH – between 6 and 9; Dissolved Oxygen - 4 mg/l or less; and Biochemical Oxygen Demand – 3 mg/l or less

Propagation of wild life and fisheries

D pH - between 6.5 and 8.5; Dissolved Oxygen - 4 mg/l or less; and Free ammonia (as N) – 1.2 mg/l or less

Irrigation, industrial cooling, and controlled disposal

E pH - between 6.0 and 8.5; Electrical conductivity – < 2,250 micro-mhos/cm; SAR** - < 26; and Boron - < 2 mg/l

*MPN – Most Probable Number **SAR – Sodium Adsorption Ratio

Source: CPCB 1978

The water quality profile of the major Indian rivers according to the above classifications has been illustrated in the Figure 3.2, which is an overview of the water quality in the major river systems of the country.

62


Figure 3.2 Water Quality Profile of Major Indian Rivers

Source: http://www.cpcb.nic.in

Such classifications have resulted in setting water quality targets and identifying needs and priorities for water restoration programmes and developing river conservation plans like the Ganga Plan, the Yamuna Action Plan and the National River Conservation Plan. According to the (CPCB 2003) report prepared after an analysis of the data from water quality monitoring stations located country-wide, the estimated polluted stretches of major rivers have been identified as summarized in the table below.

63

http://www.cpcb.nic.in/


Table 3.6 River Basin-wise Riverine Length under Different Levels of Pollution S.N. Level of Pollution Riverine Length (km) Riverine Length (%-age)

1. High pollution 6,086 14 2. Moderate pollution 8,691 19 3. Relatively clean 30,242 67

Source: CPCB 2003

The pollution indicators for the three levels of pollution are: (i) High pollution – BOD > 6 mg/l; (ii) Moderate pollution – BOD = 3–6 mg/l; and (iii) Relatively clean – BOD < 3 mg/l.

Results obtained during 1990–2000 indicate that there has been a degradation in the river water quality in terms of BOD and faecal coliform. As shown in the two figures below, the BOD and coliform density have increased during 1986 and 2001.

Figure 3.3 Water Quality Trend - BOD

Source: Sengupta et al. 2004

Figure 3.4 Water Quality Trend (Faecal Coliform, MPN/100ml)


64



The adverse impact on the ecosystems including the human environment has resulted from improper storage, handling, transportation, and treatment of both hazardous and municipal wastes. There have been cases of contamination of aquifers in Tamilnadu due to uncontrolled release of chromium contaminated wastewater and sludge, and in the Delhi-Rajasthan area, contamination was due to improper management of hazardous wastes.

Most of the biomedical wastes are collected without segregation and tend to be disposed along with municipal wastes thus creating a health hazard to sanitary workers besides creating adverse environmental conditions.

Projections have been made with respect to municipal wastes, which are expected to reach 450 g to 945 per capita by the year 2047. This would mean a total generation of 300 million tonnes annually and the land required for disposal would be about 170 km² (CPCB 2000a).

Response to Pressures and Impacts

Land Degradation

Steps to address this problem are currently being implemented under appropriate programs like watershed management programs, preparation of soil erosion maps and working on various aspects of soil conservation. These are being carried out by the state governments as per the guidelines of the centre. The Soil and Water Conservation Division of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) has been playing a key role in integrated watershed management in river valley catchments and flood-prone rivers considered highly critical and are being given top priority under numerous centrally-supported projects. Also, 30,000 hectares of sand dunes have been treated with shelterbelts and strip cropping. The preparation of soil erosion maps is an on-going joint programme of the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning and the ICAR/Water Conservation Research and Training Institute. Another activity of the MOA, the All-India Land Use and Survey, is also involved in the generation of spatial and non-spatial information on Indian soils and in the preparation of thematic maps like land capability classification, hydrological soil grouping irrigability classification, etc.

Biodiversity

The focal point for the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity is the MOEF and its mandate covers survey of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife, and conservation of natural resources. A number of legislative regulatory measures are in place and there are institutions working on various aspects related to biodiversity. The Botanical Survey of India is one of the oldest institutions in the country. This together with the Zoological Survey of India conducts surveys and inventorization of the fauna and flora resources. Besides these, there are the Forest Survey of India entrusted with the task of assessing forest cover for developing an accurate database for planning and monitoring purposes, and the Wildlife Institute of India, which carries out studies on endangered species of animals and critical

65


ecosystems. Over 47 thousand species of plants and 89 thousand animal species have been recorded by the Botanical Survey and the Zoological Survey respectively.

The policy responses that exist cover in situ conservation of natural habitats and ecosystems in the form of protected areas of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, and forest preservation plots; and programmes like “Eco Development” with local communities, Biosphere Reserve for conserving specified ecosystems, scientific management and wise use of fragile ecosystems, and significant wetlands declared as Ramsar sites, etc. Ex-situ conservation measures outside natural habitats in the form of central and state government managed botanical gardens and zoos. More recent conservation efforts have focused on wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs management.


Various government agencies are involved in the management of water resources in the country. The Ministry of Water Resources is the central agency responsible for developing, conserving and managing water a national resource for usages as diverse as irrigation, groundwater exploitation, drainage and flood control, performing its functions through the Central Water Commission, the National Water Development Agency and the Central Ground Water Board. Whereas, for dealing with matters pertaining to water quality and the environment, the nodal agency is the Ministry of Environment and Forests; urban water supply and sanitation is co-ordinated by the Ministry of Urban Affairs; and rural water supply and sanitation by the Ministry of Rural Development. In addition to these agencies, related aspects of water necessarily come within other ministries and departments like the Ministry of Agriculture, Power, Health and Family Welfare, Surface Transport, and the Inland Waterways Authority.

Other responses, specifically with reference to water quality monitoring, prevention and control of pollution initiatives including plans and programs, have been described below. Also, the pertinent policies and legislations guiding the management of water resources and its quality have been dealt with in some detail and illustrated in the following sections.

The Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1985 by the Government of India to clean up the Ganga River through elaborate plans to construct sewer systems, treatment plants and pumping stations. It has been reported that the overall result has not been that encouraging as a result of poor management. This is an ambitious river conservation plan for pollution abatement of the river. The river water quality has been monitored regularly since April 1986 and a regulatory mechanism does exist under which the river quality is monitored and reviewed from time to time according to a fixed schedule, which is further discussed in a subsequent section. Comparison of results obtained between 1986 and 2003 shows that DO levels which were in the range of 5.9–6.6 mg/l in 1986 increased to 7.2–10 mg/l in 2003 in the Allahabad to Varanasi stretch of the Ganga, thus, indicating an improvement in the health of the river. As for the BOD in the critical stretch of the river between Kannauj and Varanasi, this ranged from 5.55–15.5 mg/l.

66


Figure 3.5 Comparison of Water Quality Data (DO in mg/l) for the River Ganga


Figure 3.6 Comparison of Water Quality Data (BOD in mg/l) for the River Ganga


The Yamuna Action Plan was launched in 1993 by the Government of India in 12 towns of Haryana, 8 towns of Uttar Pradesh and Delhi with the assistance of the Japan Bank for International Co-operation. Yamuna River is a major tributary of the Ganga River and the major schemes under the Yamuna Action Plan included interception and diversion works, pumping stations and sewage treatment plants and other non-sewerage components like low cost sanitation, improved wood-based and electric crematoria, bathing ghats (river banks) and river front (banks) development, plantation, and public participation. A comparison of data available for DO and BOD for the river during 1990 and 2003 has been rather disappointing. The BOD ranged from 3–26.5 mg/l in 1996, while it ranged from 7.5–29.5 mg/l in 2003. This deterioration in the water quality has been due the significant pollution from Delhi and Agra

67


during the period together with the low flow conditions in the river. The two figures below illustrate the comparison of the river water quality in the Yamuna in 1996 and 2003.

Figure 3.7 Comparison of Water Quality Data (DO in mg/l) for River Yamuna


Figure 3.8 Comparison of Water Quality Data for River Yamuna (BOD in mg/l)


Following the success of the Ganga Action Plan, the Central Ganga Authority has also undertaken pollution abatement programmes in other polluted major and medium rivers in the country. These fall under the National River Conservation Plan covering 18 national rivers traversing 22 states of the country. This has now been extended to cover 29 rivers flowing through 22 states. The primary focus is on cleaning the rivers through the interception and diversion of domestic sewage followed by treatment for safe disposal in natural water courses or application on agricultural land for irrigation. The National River Conservation Directorate also maintains close liaison and co-ordinates its activities with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) for installing effluent

68


treatment plants by industrial establishments that are likely to pollute the rivers. Industrial pollution of the rivers is monitored by the respective SPCBs in association with the CPCB.

Drinking Water, Sanitation and Public Health

Both drinking water quantity and quality have a direct bearing on the health and hygiene practices of the people. It is quite evident from the preceding overview sections that the overall water stress conditions combined with increasing population and urbanization have resulted in conditions of inadequate and unsafe water supplies. Progressive deterioration of the quality of water in the sources plus lack of adequate water treatment facilities and leaking distribution systems have also added to the danger of water-borne diseases becoming endemic. These aspects are not receiving the required attention due to the sheer magnitude of the problem, on the one hand, and the paucity of resources, on the other. It is, however, commendable that national programmes that include National River Conservation, the Accelerated Rural Water Supply and the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission of the Central Government assist the states in addressing the inadequacies and challenges resulting from both the quantity and quality of the water being supplied to the people. It has been reported that as of 1 April 1999, 18.8 per cent of the total habitations are still not covered or are only partially covered. Regarding the urban scenario, about 88 per cent of the population, on average, has been covered with organized drinking water supply in Class I cities and Class II towns of the country. Of the 299 Class I cities only 77 cities have universal water supply coverage. There also exists a huge disparity in the quantity of water supplied in the different cities and towns. The CPCB study conducted in 1994-95 (CPCB 2000a and 2000b) referred to herein also included wastewater generation, collection, treatment and disposal. The study covering 299 Class I cities and 345 Class II studies found that most of the cities did not have organized wastewater collection and treatment facilities. These generally do not function properly and remain closed most of the time due to improper design and poor maintenance. One interesting finding has been that the cities and towns of Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Gujarat contribute nearly 60 per cent of the total wastewater generated in the country.

Rural sanitation is the responsibility of the state governments under the Minimum Needs Programme and is further supplemented by the Centrally Sponsored Rural Sanitation Programme being implemented with the objective of increasing coverage and eradicating manual scavenging. The Ninth Plan target is to provide basic adequate sanitation facilities to at least 50 per cent of the total rural population of the country.

The Government of India has set its own drinking water quality standards and is presented in the table below, which also compares the standards as set or proposed for consideration in some of the countries of the region. The WHO guideline values have also been included for completeness.

Table 3.7 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits (Comparative Chart) Parameters Units Concentration Limits

69


Nepal (proposed)

WHO (Guideline values)

China

India Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Thailand

Electrical conductivity

μS/cm - - 400 - 750 (3500)

- -

Calcium mg/l - - 100 75 (200) - - - TDS mg/l 1000 1000 1000 - 1000 - pH 6.5-8.5 - 6.5-

8.5 6.5-8.5 (0.2)

6.5-9.0 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.003 0.003 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.005 0.01 Chromium mg/l 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 Cyanide (CN) mg/l 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.2 Fluoride (F) mg/l 0.5-1.5 1.5 1.0 0.6-1.2

(1.5) 0.6 (1.5) 0.1 0.05

Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 Nitrate (NO3) mg/l 50 50 88 45 45 45 45 TOC mg/l - - 5 - - - - Total coliform MPN/

100 ml 0 in 98% samples

Nil - nil nil - 2.2

E Coli MPN/ 100 ml

0 Nil - nil nil - none

Ammonia (NH3)

mg/l 1.5 1.5 0.5 - 0.06 0.5 -

Sulphate (SO4) mg/l 250 250 250 150 (400)

200 (400)

- 200 (250)

Chloride mg/l 250 250 250 250 (1000)

200 (1200)

150-600 250 (600)

Color TCU 5 15 <15 10(50) 30 15 5 (15) Copper mg/l 1 1.0 1.0 0.05

(1.5) 0.05(1.5) 1.0 1.0 (1.5)

Iron mg/l 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3(1) 0.3(1) 0.3 0.5 (1) Manganese mg/l 0.2 - - - - - 0.5 Odour and taste

non- objection able

non-objectionable

none - none - none

Total hardness mg/l 500 - 250 300 (600)

250 (600)

10 -

Turbidity NTU 5 5 <3 10 (25) 2 (8) - 5 (20) Zinc mg/l 3 3 1 5 5 (15) 5 5 (15) Mercury mg/l 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 Aluminum mg/l 0.2 0.2 - - 0.2 0.2 - Residual Chlorine

mg/l 0.1-0.2 - 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 -

Note: The figures in parentheses indicate maximum permissible values. Source: Report of the Task Force for NDWQS titled "A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal", March 2005


The provisions with respect to legislation have been discussed above. The executive responsibilities with respect to prevention and control are with the CPCB at the central level. At the state level, this responsibility is with the state Department of Environment, the SPCBs

70


and the Pollution Control Committees. In addition, various projects to regulate storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes have been initiated.

Regarding municipal solid waste, the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment is the responsible agency at the central level. It has a co-ordinating and monitoring role and at the same time sponsors research and development projects, and conducts training courses and workshops regularly. The other two Ministries also involved with solid waste management are MOEF and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources. The latter is currently implementing projects in related areas. At the local level, the responsibility to ensure waste collection, transportation and disposal lies with municipal authorities or corporations, and is regulated and controlled by the Municipal Acts. Some other pertinent initiatives have been the following:

• Surveys in 22 municipalities regarding recyclable wastes being carried out by the National Waste Management Council

• Strategy paper and manual prepared by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute

• Policy paper on promoting integrated provisions of water, sanitation, solid waste management facilities in the country prepared by the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization

• Master plan preparation initiated by MOEF and CPCB after intensive interactions with municipalities and other concerned ministries

• National Programme on Energy Recovery from urban municipal and industrial wastes launched by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources.

From the discussions in the foregoing sections, some of the major programmes have been summarized in the Table below.

Table 3.8 Summary of Some Major Programmes 1972- 73

Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)

• Introduced by the Government of India to assist the states and union territories to accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply in rural areas. The entire programme was given a mission approach with the launch of the technology mission called the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission aimed at covering the rural inhabitations of Not Covered (NC), Partially Covered (PC) and quality affected categories.

1973

Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)

• Aims to minimize the adverse effects of drought on the production of crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and human resources in areas that are constantly affected by severe drought Conditions. Since 1995-96, the programme approach has been redesigned and based on river watershed development.

1974- 75

Command Area Development Programme (CADP)

• This centrally-sponsored command area development programme aims at increased utilization of the available irrigation potential by provisions such as better micro systems for water distribution; provision of inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and other infrastructure facilities and; dissemination of advanced technology amongst farmers.

1983

National Water Resources Council

• Headed by the Prime Minister, the Council’s scope includes preparing and reviewing the National Water Policy; reviewing water development plans and giving directions for related

71


studies; advising practices and procedures for fair distribution and utilization of water resources in different regions and by different beneficiaries

1986

Centrally Sponsored Rural Sanitation

• Programme (CSRSP) • The programme supplements the state’s efforts by providing

financial and technical assistance to include sanitation issues and other issues like personal hygiene, home sanitation, garbage and excreta disposal.

1993

National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP)

• Focuses on urban lakes subjected to anthropogenic pressures and aims at prevention of pollution from point and non point sources, treatment of the catchments area etc. 21 urban lakes have been Identified for conservation of which 11 have been recognized for study during the first phase of the programme

1995

National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD)

• The Central Ganga Authority established in 1985 under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister was redesignated the National River Conservation Directorate in July 1995. It coordinates the implementation of schemes under the Ganga and other river action plans. These include works to intercept, Divert and treat wastewater from all sources. The following programmer were initiated under NRCD Programmes:

a) Ganga Action Plan Phase-I aiming at restoring the river water quality to the 'Bathing Class Standard.

b) The National River Conservation Plan launched in 1995 covers 18 major rivers in 10 states of the Country. Under this action plan pollution Abatement works are being taken up in 46 towns in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnatak Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

c) Ganga Action Plan Phase-II includes: o Yamuna Action Plan under which pollution abatement

work is ongoing in 6 towns of Haryana, 8 towns of UP and in Delhi.

o Under the Gomti River Action Plan pollution abatement works are being taken up in Lucknow, Sultanpur and Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh.

o Damodar Action Plan under which pollution abatement works are being taken up in 12 towns including 8 in Bihar and 4 in West Bengal. Under the Ganga Action Plan (Main stem and Supreme Court Cases) pollution abatement works are being taken up in 59 towns in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal

1996

Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programmes

Programme (AIBP) • Launched by the Government of India, the programme aims to

accelerate the implementation of the on-going irrigation/multipurpose projects on which substantial progress has already been made but targets have spilled from plan to plan due to the financial constraints faced by the state governments.

Source: AHEC 2005

72



The first piece of Indian legislation dealing with environmental issues may be said to be the Indian Penal Code 1860 with specific reference to water pollution of water sources but limited to only public springs and reservoirs used for drinking water purposes. The 1950 Constitution of India specially requires that environmental protection be treated as a fundamental duty.

On the policy front, the Government of India has enunciated three policies having a direct bearing on water resources. These are the following:

• Policy Statement for the abatement of Pollution 1992 • National Conservation Strategy and the Policy Statement on Environment and Development

1992 • National Water Policy 2002

Provisions have been made to ensure that both ‘reactive’ and ‘comprehensive’ approaches are adopted “to integrate environmental and economic aspects in development planning, preventive aspects for pollution abatement, and promotion of technological inputs to reduce industrial pollution, through reliance upon public co-operation in securing a clean environment”. However, in the light of issues and new challenges that have arisen during the past decade, reviews of the existing policy documents and making the necessary revisions are needed.

Environmental laws on pollution prevention in water as well as other environmental regulations also exist and these have to be reviewed and improved upon to confirm with revised policy issues.

Existing Policies

The three policy documents referred to above have been highlighted in this section.

Water Resources

The Government of India framed the National Water Policy in 1987 and revised it in 2000. This confers top priority to drinking water supply in the allocation of water resources and is followed by irrigation, hydropower, navigation, industrial and other uses, in that order. Other issues like planning of water resources projects, making best use of the available water, water pricing, water quality, water zoning for proper management have also been addressed. Besides development, conservation, sustainable utilization, and management, the need to be governed by national perspectives has been emphasized. Improvements in existing strategies, innovation of new techniques for elimination of surface as well as groundwater pollution, and improvements in water quality in general have also been taken care of. Another important aspect is the implementation of regular water quality monitoring programmes by the concerned agencies for both surface and groundwater in order to ensure pollution control at the source itself.

73


Environment

Two general policy statements on the environment are of great significance. These are the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development 1992 and the Policy Statement on Abatement of Pollution 1992. The former sets out the priorities and strategies for action, development policies in the light of environmental perspectives, international co-operation approaches, and the necessary support policies and systems for the implementation of the Policy. This also recognizes the roles of the government, NGOs, industrial establishments and the general public in the preservation and protection of the natural resources and the environment while undertaking development activities. The basis for the integration and international co-operation while dealing with environmental aspects in all the pertinent policies and programmes of the different sectors has also been spelt out.

The Policy Statement for the Abolition of Pollution is a demonstration of the commitment by the Government of India for undertaking the needed actions to arrest the further deterioration of the environment. Besides the development of the needed regulatory and legislative frameworks, provisions have been made in the Policy Statement regarding the promotion of voluntary initiatives in environmental protection and improvement through appropriate incentive mechanisms. The emphasis is on integration – incorporating decision making at all levels, pollution prevention at source, adoption of best practices, controlling pollution through “polluter pays” mechanism, focusing on heavily polluted river stretches and areas, and involving the public in decision making.

The Environment Action Programme was initiated in 1993 to prepare action plans for the integration of environmental concerns into the development process. Institutional strengthening and promotion of decentralization systems have been given high priority. A comprehensive national policy on the environment is also in the offing, with the Ministry of Environment and Forests in the process of developing it.

Another document of relevance is the National Forest Policy. The purpose of this policy statement is also to ensure environmental sustainability and the need to maintain an overall ecological balance through defined specific strategies.

Aquatic Ecosystems

There does not appear to be any specific policy document on aquatic ecosystems and is generally covered in the policy documents referred to above.

Industries

The 1956 Industrial Policy Resolution had allocated the major part in the country’s development to the public sector. With the experience gained in the course of the subsequent Five-Year Plans, economic reforms were initiated by the Government in 1991 that augured in a critical transitional phase of restructuring of Indian industries. The emphasis of the New

74


Industrial Policy was on deregulation – the basic objectives being to promote growth, increase efficiency and enhance international competitiveness.

To address the undesirable impacts on the air, water and land environment due to the rapid industrialization that has taken place, it was necessary to give adequate importance to pollution abatement measures. They have been addressed in both policy statements and legislation. In order to ensure proper implementations of the various provisions, there is, however, the need for a more effective regulatory mechanism.

Agriculture

It is understood that the National Agricultural Policy is being formulated (UNEP 2001). It is being finalized and will focus on optimal use of land, water and generic resources in a sustainable manner. Leasing and consolidation of land, improvement of the rural marketing infrastructure, and use of 80 million ha of wasteland and community land for agro-forestry. Greater emphasis will be on the following for ensuring sustainable agricultural development:

• Conservation of land, water and biological resources • Development of rural infrastructure • Development of rain-fed agriculture • Development of minor irrigation • Timely and adequate availability of inputs • Increasing flow of credit • Enhancing public sector investment • Effective transfer of technology, and • Marketing infrastructure support and export promotion.



India’s constitution has been amended to make provisions for “conservation”. The 1976 42nd Amendment to the Constitution has laid stress on the importance of “green thinking” and the provisions for pertinent articles have been made. The state is required to ensure the following:

• Protecting and improving the environment, and • Safeguarding the forests and wildlife. • It is also the fundamental duty of all citizens of the country to:

- Protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife - Have compassion for living creatures.

The 1992 73rd Amendment to the Constitution, in the11th Schedule, has empowered and made the Panchayat (local) bodies responsible for soil conservation, water management, watershed development, drinking water and other community related activities including management of its assets. The 74th Constitutional Amendment of the same year, on the other hand,

75


empowers urban local bodies to take appropriate measures to protect the environment and to enhance it through the promotion of ecological effects.

Legal Provisions

In keeping with the spirit of the Constitution, the conservation and protection of water resources and the environment have been incorporated in various Acts, Rules and Notifications promulgated over the years by the Government. The more pertinent pieces of legislation have been briefly described in the following sections. The Table below has been presented to provide pertinent information at a glance and summarizes the legislation, policies and Acts related to water management in India.

76


Table 3.9 Highlights of Legislation, Policies and Acts Year Policy/Act/

Programme Salient features

1956

River Boards Act • Empowering the Central Government to establish, on request from the state Governments, a River Board for advising the governments on matters concerning the Regulation or development of an interstate River or river valley.

• Central Government has not constituted any River Board under this Act so far.

1956

Inter-State Water Disputes Act

• Enabling the creation of a Water Disputes Tribunal for the adjudication of water disputes that cannot be settled by negotiations with powers as are vested in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.

• The Tribunal has the powers to carry out, or permit to be carried out, necessary surveys and investigation.

• Any matter referred for arbitration under the River Boards Act, however, does not qualify to be referred to the Interstate Water Disputes Tribunal. Similarly, neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall have or exercise jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to a Tribunal under this Act.

1901, 1972

Irrigation Commissions (First Irrigation Commission1901; Second Irrigation Commission, 1972)

To review and examine: • Irrigation facilities available in the country and adequacy of water

supply in major irrigation projects • The administrative and organizational set up for planning, execution

and operation of irrigation works • Criteria for sanctioning irrigation projects and develop matters

related to irrigation development in the country Recommended: • River basin and sub-river basin approach for water resource

planning and management • High priority to irrigation works in drought-prone areas and efforts

at resource conservation 1974

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act

• Established the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).

• Empower the SPCBs to lay down and maintain location and source specific standards for discharge of wastewater.

• The actual provisions for enforcement such as penalties, imprisonment etc. are confined to source-specific standards for individual polluters.

1977

The Water Cess Act

• Empowers the SPCBs to levy a cess on local authorities supplying water to consumers and on consumption of water for certain specified activities.

• Acts as a supplementary market-based instrument for pollution abatement

• Provides for a rebate on the cess payable if the local authority or industry concerned installs a plant to treat sewage or trade effluent.

1992- 1993

73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution

• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments entrusted local bodies with functions relating to water supply. The amendments also seek to ensure a better relationship between the state governments and urban local bodies.

2002 National Water • Accords top priority to drinking water supply in the allocation of

77


Year Policy/Act/ Programme

Salient features

Policy,

water resources for various beneficial uses. • Also addresses issues like need for well developed information

system for better resource planning, maximizing water availability, planning of water resource development projects, financial and physical sustainability of projects, participatory approach, private sector participation, water quality, water zoning, water conservation, flood and drought management, performance improvement. The Policy also calls for intensifying research in areas like assessment of water resources, hydrometeorology, water quality, water harvesting, water losses etc


The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 was enacted under Article 252 of the Constitution to address the environmental issues at the national level – the main feature being the setting up of the CPCB and SPCBs to control pollution in the country in order to maintain the “wholesomeness” of natural water courses and bodies. This Act also has provisions to establish institutional structures for preventing and abating water pollution, standards for water quality and effluents, monitoring and compliance mechanisms, penal provisions against violation of the Act, and a permit system, i.e., a “consent” procedure for controlling and preventing water pollution. This Act has been amended in 1988 and Rules for operationalizing the Act were framed in 1975.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was promulgated in 1977 and subsequently amended in 1991 and is primarily for the levy and collection of fees on water abstracted from natural sources by industries and local authorities. This was adopted to strengthen the Pollution Control Boards financially in their efforts to promote water conservation.

The River Boards Act of 1956 enables the States to enroll the Central Government in constituting Advisory River Boards to resolve inter-State co-operation matters.

Environmental Pollution Control

The Acts, Rules and Notifications that relate to the environment in general are the following:

• Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules 1995 – This provides the guidelines for the establishment of new units and the conditionalities thereof.

• National Environment Appellate Authority Ordinance 1997 – This deals with appeals arising out of restrictions and safeguards as required under the Environment (Protection) Act.

• Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects – Notification 1994 – This prescribes mandatory requirements for environmental clearance.

• Environmental Standards Notification 1992 - This specifies effluent standards that are to be met by specific industries.

78


• Environmental Audit Notification 1992 – This requires industrial establishments to submit environmental audit reports as required by pertinent sections of the Water Act and the Air Act or both.

• National Environment Tribunal Act 1995 – This provides for award of compensation for damages arising from activities involving hazardous substances.

• Environment Protection Act 1986 (EPA) and Environment (Protection) Rules 1986 – The EPA has a broad coverage in which the environment includes water, air and land as well as the relationship that exists between water, air, land human beings and other creatures. This authorizes the Central Government to protect and improve the environment and deal with all matters relating to pollution control. The Rules set out the procedures for setting standards of emissions or discharges of pollutants into the environment.

There also exist important legislations on hazardous waste including industrial and municipal waste and are briefly described below:

• Hazardous Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 – This puts a legal binding on health institutions regarding the disposal of their wastes.

• Manufacture Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Wastes 1989 – This and the amendments to it under the EPA have made provisions for disclosure of information, preparation of emergency plans and conditions for import of such chemicals. The responsibilities of various stakeholders for the management of such chemicals and the containment of their spillage have also been spelt out.

• Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1988 – This and the subsequent amendments to it in 1998 and 2000 provide for comprehensive guidance to generators, transporters and operators of disposal facilities, among others, in dealing with such wastes, and monitoring norms for State Governments.

• Municipal Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1999 – This states the procedures for the management of solid waste, specifications for landfill sites, and responsibilities of municipal bodies in the collection, segregation, storage, transportation and disposal of municipal wastes.

Aquatic Ecosystems

There does not appear to be any specific piece of legislations for aquatic ecosystems as such. This is generally covered by the EPA. The 1897 Indian Fisheries Act is also of relevance as it establishes two sets of penal offences for which the Government can take appropriate actions against persons with the intent to catch or destroy any fish by using dynamite or other explosives, or poison fish in order to kill.

Industries

Prohibition of Industrial Pollution - Pollution generally, including industrial pollution, is managed by the EPA, the EP Rules and the Industrial Enterprises Act. The former Act and Regulation prohibit industrial pollution. It has been provided that no person shall emit, or cause the emission of noise, heat, radio-active material and waste from any mechanical means, industrial establishment or any other place in contravention of the prescribed standards set in the pertinent Acts discussed above.

79



This section deals primarily with the existing organizations and institutional arrangements related predominantly with water quality monitoring and the networks that have been established in the country. In 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) was constituted as the nodal agency of the Central Government responsible for the protection and management of the environment of the country. It is also entrusted with the planning, promotion, co-ordination, and the overseeing of the national environmental and forestry programmes.

Institutional Arrangements

The MOEF, CPCB and SPCBs constitute the core regulatory and administrative core. In addition, other ministries and agencies are also involved while carrying out various pertinent functions, policies and schemes to promote environmental management. The central and the state pollution control boards have been specifically set up to control and monitor environmental degradation in the country. The chart and the tables presented below illustrate the different agencies and network that are responsible for monitoring, reporting, and studying environmental pollution and management.

Figure 3.9 Institutional Setup for Water Management in India

MoWR - Ministry of Water Resources MoRD - Ministry of Rural Development MoUD - Ministry of Urban Development MoEF - Ministry of Environment & Forests MoA - Ministry of Agriculture MoP - Ministry of Power CWC - Central Water Commission NWDA - National Water Development Agency CGWB - Central Ground Water Board Source: HAEC 2005

80


For co-ordinating the efforts of the various agencies referred to above, the Water Quality Assessment Authority was established in May 2001 with the mandate to exercise the powers under the EPA. The following responsibilities fall within its domain:

• Issuing directions to investigating agencies • Unifying water quality monitoring network • Sponsoring Research and Development programmes • Standardising • Collecting and disseminating data • Ensuring restoration of water quality • Giving recognition to environmental laboratories • Preparing guidelines for prevention, control and abatement of water pollution.

81


Regulatory Framework

The monitoring and regulatory set up is described in the following Figure and Table 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Water Quality Monitoring

Table 3.10 Water Quality Monitoring Network Organisati

on No. of

Stations Frequency and No. of Stations

Parameters

CPCB 784 Monthly-254 Quarterly-349 Half Yearly-178 Yearly-3

Temp., Conductivity, BOD, Nitrate, Nitrite, Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Colour, Odour, Total Dissolved Solids, COD, Na, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, B, Total Alkalinity, Phenophthelene Alkalinity, F, Cl, Sulphate, Phosphate, Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen, Ammonical Nitrogen, Turbidity, Hardness, Total Fixed Solids, Suspended Solids, As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn, Hg and Pesticides (7 Nos.) Nine Core Parameters (Bold) are Monitored for all the stations as per frequency and other parameters are monitored once in a year and micropollutants are monitored on selected locations

CWC

371 Bi-monthly – 164 Monthly – 179 Thrice in a month – 28

Temp., Colour, Odour, Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, COD, Na, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, B, Total Alkalinity, Phenophthelene Alkalinity, F, Cl, Sulphate, Nitrate, Nitrite, Phosphate, Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform, Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen, Ammonical Nitrogen, Turbidity, Hardness, Total Fixed Solids, Suspended Solids, As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn, Hg and Pesticides (7 Nos.)

CGWB 15355 Yearly

pH, Conductivity, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Cl, Sulphate, Nitrate, F, Phosphate, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Total Hardness, Silica, Fe, B, Total Dissolved Solids

82


Organisation

No. of Stations

Frequency and No. of Stations

Parameters

Parameters for Specific Studies: Al, As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Se, Sr and Zn

State Ground Water Dept.

32826 Yearly

pH, Conductivity, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Cl, Sulphate, Nitrate, F, Phosphate, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Total Hardness, Silica, Fe, B, Total Dissolved Solids

NRCD

134

Monthly Temp., pH, Discharge, Velocity, DO, BOD, COD, TKN, Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform and site specific micropollutants


Voluntary Instruments

Non-Government organizations (NGOs) and other voluntary organization are likely to play significant role in training the farmers, industrialists, general public in the planning and implementation of water conservation measures as well as pollution reducing measures. At present such arrangements are not properly institutionalized. However, given the impact of water quality on socio–economics and health of rural masses there is a need to make the existing legal instruments as well as voluntary instruments more effective.


The current issues regarding the existing environmental policy principles, legislation and institutional mechanism have been discussed above. Based on this, the important gaps that are evident in the current set up are listed below:

• Functions of concerned agencies with respect to policy formulation, implementation and decision making are not clearly defined

• Duplication of functions amongst the agencies has resulted in poor co-ordination • Lukewarm attitude of agencies and personnel towards the adoption of a decentralized

approach in the management of natural resources and the environment • Absence of adequate participation of all stakeholders in decision-making • Poor performance due to weak enforcement mechanisms • Lack of a “command and control” approach in addition to insufficient transparency and

accountability coupled with the absence of well-defined regulations • Poor monitoring and reporting systems in the existing enforcement mechanism • Inconsistencies and conflicting provisions as well as inadequacies in the existing legislation

with respect to o non-specificity of water rights and ownership; o lack of sub-ordinate enabling legislation; o lack of harmony amongst related legislations; and o lack of adequate legal provisions to encourage private sector participation in

multi-purpose projects.

83



This section attempts to summarize the issues that need to be addressed urgently and recommendations have been highlighted specially with respect to the legal aspects.

There is a water stress situation in the country due to growing water demand from the various sectors and the progressive deterioration in quality of the available water. Widespread over-exploitation of the water resources to meet the ever-widening gap between demand and supply and the indiscriminate disposal of wastes from urban centres and industries are indeed alarming. As has been pointed out, in terms of the total precipitation in the country, only 1,860 billion m3 out of a total of 4,000 billion m3 is available from both surface and underground sources.

The greatest challenge lies in addressing the gross contamination of rivers due to indiscriminate discharges of untreated domestic and industrial wastes. Only 26% of the wastes generated by Class I cities and Class II towns undergo some form of treatment. The total amount of industrial waste produced amounts to 13,000 MLD, of which only 8,000 MLD is treated before being discharged into water courses. Low flow conditions in some of the rivers have added to the problem of contamination and ecological sustainability. This will need to be regulated more effectively through strict enforcement of the existing Act and Rules.

From the extensive review of the existing legal instruments it is evident that the control and prevention of environmental pollution have both been highlighted in the Constitution of India and received due importance with the formulation of adequate Acts and Rules pertaining to the environment, water and hazardous wastes, etc. The permissible limits for various parameters with respect to both domestic and industrial wastewater have been set out and their compliance is binding. Environmental laboratories have been notified and their capacity and capability are improving.

River Conservation Action Plans are having a positive impact in maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of the national aquatic resources through prevention and pollution control. This will need to be given continued top priority and extended to cover more river systems. The monitoring and pollution control work that the Central and State Pollution Control Boards and other agencies are carrying out deserves appreciation but will need to be expanded further. It has been possible to classify the major rivers into five categories. There has been a discernible improvement in water quality due to Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan. In the case of the Yamuna Action Plan, however, there has been deterioration due to increased pollution loads created by population increases and low flow conditions in the river.

It is also commendable that the Water Quality Assessment Authority has been active since May 2001 in establishing a uniform protocol for water quality monitoring and improved co-ordination amongst the various agencies.

84


From the discussion on gaps that exist in water resources quality management elaborated in the preceding sections, it is recommended that the following actions are given priority:

• Adopt efficient management practices for optimal utilization of the water resources • Recycling of wastewater • Development and restoration of catchment areas • Maintenance of minimum flows in natural water courses • Recharging ground water through rain water harvesting • Conservation of surface waters • Water conservation through community participatory education by emphasizing public

involvement in water resource development • Institutional strengthening including training of personnel for all categories as part of capacity

building especially in the prevention and regulation of water pollution • Expansion of the River Conservation Action Plans to cover all major and medium river

systems.

3.8 References

AHEC (2005) Study of Pressures and Impacts on Rivers Water Quality – Review of Existing Policies and Socio-Impacts (Draft Report). Roorkee: Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology

Chitale, M.A. (1992) Population and Water Resources of India. Pune: Umesh Communications

CPCB & NATMO (2001) Environmental Atlas of India

CPCB (1978) Water Cess Act. New Delhi: Government of India, Central Pollution Control Board

CPCB (1999a) Water Quality Status and Statistics (1996 & 1997). New Delhi: Central Pollution Control Board

CPCB 2003 Water Quality in India: Status and Trends (1999 – 2000). MINARS/20/2002-2002

Engleman, R..; Roy, P. (1993) Sustaining Water – Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies. Population and Environment Programme, Population Action International

GOI (1974) Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act. New Delhi: Government of India

GOI (1986) Environment (Protection) Act. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests

GOI (1989) Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules (as amended). New Delhi: Government of India

85


GOI (1989) Manufacture, Storage, Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (as amended). New Delhi: Government of India

GOI (1992) National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests

GOI (1992) Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992. New Delhi: Government of India

GOI (1998) Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules. New Delhi: Government of India

GOI (1999) Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules. New Delhi: Government of India

GOI (2000) Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules. New Delhi: Government of India

MOEF (2002) Report of the Expert Group on Water Quality Monitoring System for Protecting the National Water Resources. New Delhi: Government of India, WQAA

MOEF 1999 Annual Report (1999 – 2000). New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests

MOWR (2000) National Water Policy 2000. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Water Resources

Pachauri, R.K.; and Sridharan, P.V. (1998) Looking Back to Think Ahead – Growth with Resource Enhancement of Environment and Nature. New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute

Sengupta M.; Trivedi, R.C.; and Dalwani, R. (2004) Water Quality Issues and Status in India. Paper presented at the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality in South Asia – Issues and Status, June 29 – July 2, 2004, Kathmandu, Nepal

UNICEF (2004)UNICEF-India-Statistics (www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_india_statistics.html)

UNEP (2001) Environmental Issues – State of the Environment, India 2001.

86

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_india_statistics.html

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports - Nepal

4 Nepal Country Report

4.1 River System

Nepal is endowed with abundant water resources. Approximately 6,000 rivers and streams flow through its boundaries. The total drainage area of these watercourses is about 194,471 km², 76% of which falls within Nepal. It is noteworthy that as many as 33 of the larger rivers have drainage areas greater than 1,000 km².

Based on their source and discharge, the rivers have been classified into three types. The first category consists of perennial snow-fed rivers originating in the Himalayas with significant flows even in the dry season and include the Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali river systems. The second category consists of the Mechi, Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti and Babai river systems originating in the Midlands or the Mahabharat range and fed by precipitation as well as ground water regeneration, including springs. A large number of smaller rivers in the Terai fall within the third category, originating from the Siwalik range and characterized by seasonal flows with flash floods in the monsoon season.

The map below illustrates the major river systems in the country.

Figure 4.1 Major Rivers of Nepal

Source: Bajracharya 2004

As part of the Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 (NWRS 2002) preparatory work, a River Basin Planning Framework (December 2000) was also developed which showed that, taking all aspects of location and time of water supply and demand into consideration, most of the water needs over the next 25 years could be met. A summary of the study's conclusion according to river basins is presented as Table 4.1.

87


NWRS 2002 has reiterated that water is the principal natural resource of economic value for Nepal. At present 33% of Nepal's agricultural production is based on irrigation systems. Intensification of agriculture through expansion of irrigation is considered one of the principal means of increasing the food supplies to meet with future population growth. Similarly, 84% of Nepal's electricity is currently produced by hydroelectric generation. The realization of prospects for very large increases in hydropower generation would allow Nepal to meet its domestic demands and to export its renewable energy to its neighbours.

Table 4.1 National Water Supply and Demand Status River Basin Study Conclusion

Mahakali Present and future water needs can be comfortably met. Karnali Water surpluses offer opportunities for large multipurpose benefits. Babai Water shortage exist but with water diversion from Bheri, there will be

a large water surplus West Rapti Water supply will be adequate to support some surface irrigation. Gandaki Water surplus basin with potential to irrigate adjacent Terai areas. Bagmati Water shortages exist and quality problems are pronounced. Kamala Available flow can be balanced with newly developed irrigation areas. Koshi Water surpluses subject to operation policies for power, irrigation and

flood control are prioritized. Kankai Water shortages for three months from March to May if full irrigable

area is developed using surface water. Source: NWRS 2002

This is a resource, which, therefore, needs to be properly harnessed and whose quality needs to be protected for the benefit of generations to come. The NWRS 2000 preparatory work referred to above (WECS 2000) had also estimated current water uses and potential uses in 2027. This is presented in the Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Estimated Water Use in Nepal in Years 2000 and 2027 Year 2000 Year 2027

Water Demands/ Uses

Water Volume (million m3/yr)

Water Volume (million m3/yr)

Domestic Water Use

Population 22.9 million

800 Population 38.8 million

1,800

Irrigation Area 1,104,000 ha

13,000 Area 1,766,000 ha

37,000

Con

sum

ptiv

e

Industrial Water Use

80 180

Non

- C

onsu

mpt

ive

Hydroelectric Power

Capacity 342 MW

1,000

Capacity 22,000 MW

60,000

Total Demand/Use 14,880 98,980 Water Supply (Surface and Groundwater)

230,000 230,000

Source: WECS Estimates 2000 in NWRS 2002

88


4.2 Socio-economic Status ad Indicators


Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world. The last census in 2001 put the population of the country at approximately 23 million with a historical growth rate of 2.2%. The majority of the population is almost equally distributed between the Hills and the Terai with only 7.3% living in the mountains.

Despite steady improvements made in some of the social and economic conditions over the last decade, the country remains one of the poorest countries of the world with an annual per capita of about US$ 250, with many development indicators showing a bleak quality of life. Progress in the fight against poverty has been hampered and poverty is widespread with more than 38% of the population (about 8 million) living below the poverty line, including successive and ineffective democratic governments over the past decade. Nepal does not lack poverty reduction efforts. These range from policies for broad-based growth to infrastructure improvement and from expansion of basic social services to interventions targeting the poorest plus the most deprived citizens of the country. Even though social and economic infrastructure has improved, they have failed to reach large sections of the needy population (WAN 2005).

The population of Nepal had increased from 15 million in 1981 to 18.5 million in 1991. The latest census of 2001 reported a population of 22.7 million, resulting in an annual growth rate of 2.2% for the 1991 – 01 decade. The geographic distribution of the population in 2001 was 7.3% in the Mountains, 44.3% in the Hills and 48.4% in the Terai.

Though Nepal has traditionally been predominantly a rural society, urbanization has been quite significant due to the expansion of road networks, development of market centres, rural-urban migration and the natural process of population growth and development. In addition, support infrastructure such as health and education services, banking and administrative services has further fuelled rapid growth leading to rise in commercial centres and urbanization. Major indicators of urbanization potentialities may be summarized briefly as follows:

• Concentration of population • Location along major highways • Availability of infrastructure such as electricity and telecommunications • Availability of services for public health, education, commerce, etc. • Employment opportunities at all levels, both professional and otherwise.

There were 33 urban centres in 1991 accounting for 9.2% of the total population. Due to rapid urbanization and an increasing trend in population concentration in the municipalities, in the past decade the number of municipalities increased to 58, accounting for 14.2% of the total population in 2001. The main reasons contributing to the rapid increase in urban populations are:

89


• A high natural increase ranging from 2.6% to 3% per annum in the last four decades • High levels of migration from rural to urban areas • Extension of municipal boundaries • Designation of new municipalities.

It has been estimated that the total urban population will be 12.3 million, out of the total population of 38.2 million by 2027, accounting for 32.1% of the total (WECS 2000).


It has been reported that the HDI score for Nepal stands at 0.504 (UNDP 2004) – a promotion from low to medium status. Except Pakistan, Nepal is, however, lower than the other South Asian nations. For the four districts of Lalitpur, Kaski, Bhaktapur, and Kathmandu, HDI is 0.550 or over; whereas the lowest score is in the case of Mugu, followed by Kalikot, Bajhang and Jajarkot, where the HDI is less than 0.400. Over the years, it has been seen that there has only been a slight improvement in human development as a whole throughout the country. The percentage increase is relatively lower in the Far-western and Mid-western Development Regions than the other Development Regions. It is noteworthy that the percentage increase in urban areas has been 3% compared to 17% in rural areas (UNDP 2004).

Poverty and environmental degradation have been found to be closely related. The HDI is also an indication of the existing poverty levels. The portion of the population below the poverty line varies in different reports but 40% is a generally accepted figure. It has been reported that this figure may be around 35% currently (NPC 2002).


The water supply and sanitation coverage at the end of the Ninth Plan (mid-July 2002) has been reported as follows.

Table 4.3 Water Supply Coverage (Population in 000s) Rural Population Urban Population Total Population Developme

nt Region

Benefited % Benefited % Benefited %

Eastern 2,917 61 471 70 3,388 62 Central 4,251 65 1,465 85 5,716 69 Western 3,216 79 412 72 3,628 78 Mid-western

2,284 80 168 70 2,452 79

Far-western 1,917 85 114 46 1,833 81 Total 14,585 71 2,630 76 17,017 72

Source: DWSS Data

Table 4.4 Basic Sanitation Coverage (Population in 000s) Rural Urban Total

No. % No. % No. % Basic Sanitation 4,094 20.0 1,826 53.0 5,920 25.0

90


Source: DWSS Data

The national population census conducted in 2001 has, however, estimated the water supply and sanitation coverage as shown in the table below, but the criteria used for defining accessibility is not clear.

91


Table 4.5 Water Supply & Sanitation Coverage (2001) Region Sanitation

Coverage (%) Water Coverage

(%) Sanitation Gap–

Water less Sanitation (%) Terai 38 89 51 Hills 56 75 19 Mountains 40 72 32 National 48 82 34 Source: National Census 2001

In a more recent report (UNICEF Statistics–2004), the coverage for water supply have been shown as 84% of the total population, made up of 82% rural and 93% urban. Similarly, the sanitation coverage have been shown as 27% of the total population, made up of 20% rural and 68% urban.

There are, therefore, inconsistencies in the figures that have been reported by different sources. It will be evident that there is the need to create a sound database and district and village profiles updated regularly to ensure reliability of the figures. The coverage figures of NGO programmes tend to be overlooked generally. With the inclusion of all programmes in the district development plans and proper monitoring and evaluation, more reliable data may be expected to be available in the future.


Some relevant socio-economic indicators obtained from (UNICEF 2004) are presented in the Table below. It may be noted that the statistical data shown below may be different to the information quoted elsewhere. The UNICEF data have been adopted for uniformity with those for other countries of the Region for more meaningful comparison as presented in Volume I Synthesis Report.

Table 4.5 Socio-Economic Indicators Socio-economic Parameter Indicator

Population (2003) Urban Rural

25,164,000 14% 86%


84% 93% 82%


27% 68% 20%


59% 24%

Source: UNICEF 2004

92



The combined physical pressures resulting from human settlements, industries, hydro-power, irrigation, and agriculture has affected to a large extent the aquatic ecosystem balance in practically all the river basins in the country. This is evident from the condition of the river systems in the Kathmandu valley that forms the head reaches of the Bagmati river basin. The rivers have more or less been turned into virtual sewers resulting from the indiscriminate discharging of raw untreated domestic as well as industrial wastewater into the water courses.

In fact, all the five key environmental issues – forest depletion, soil erosion, solid waste management, water quality management, and air pollution– indicate that environmental conditions are fast deteriorating. The major reasons for this are the rapid and uncontrolled growth of population coupled with poor management and over-use of the available resources.


As briefly referred to above, the pressures on the river ecosystems have been brought about by domestic pollution, industrial effluents, toxic contamination, and other physical pressures like morphological disturbances and water-induced disasters.

Besides landslides and river erosion, which are very common during the monsoon season, the Himalayas of Nepal are quite susceptible to land degradation caused by glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF). This has been attributed to global warming and such floods not only cause serious damage to infrastructure, house, and the environment along the flood path but also directly affect the quality of the river water.

Rapid and haphazard urbanization has exerted tremendous pressure on the environment. The most visible indicator is the generation of solid waste in the urban centers and heaped under unsanitary conditions in city streets and river banks. Migration to cities, especially from the Hills, seeking better employment and education opportunities, has been the main cause for the rapid growth in the urban population. Changing consumption patterns and breakdown in traditional waste management systems have aggravated the problem. The sharp increase in the use of chemical fertilizers has adversely affected recycling and the production of organic fertilizers.

Due to the limited availability and poor quality of the water at demand centers, there is immense pressure on the water resources. Here too, the rapid growth in population and urbanization brought about by natural growth as well as migration are factors that have put great pressure in the existing water supply system. As mentioned earlier, other activities that are generating pressure arise from industries, irrigation, garbage etc. All these activities also have an adverse effect on the quality of river water as a result of the wastewater generated and discharged into rivers without treatment. About 85% of the water used constitutes domestic wastewater and the volume varies greatly from city to city. A 1999-estimate put the maximum flow of approximately 33,600 m3/day in Kathmandu and the minimum volume of about 700 m3/day to be in Dhulikhel.

93


As pointed out earlier, besides solid waste and domestic wastewater other major sources of contamination of water bodies are industrial wastes, man-made disasters, increase in the use of agro-chemicals and land use patterns. A brief statistical analysis is presented here. It has been reported that in 1991/92, 40 per cent of the total industrial establishments were grossly polluting water courses. In a subsequent study by Devkota and Neupane in 1994, it was found that 72% of the polluting industries were in the Kathmandu Valley contributing about 7% of the total domestic and industrial effluents. In an earlier study by IUCN in 1991, 125 industries were identified as being pollution “hot spots”, out of which as many as 60 were in the highly- polluting category.


Water Quality

It may be said that the water quality of the major rivers is within acceptable standards as a result of the large volumes and limited human interference. This is, however, not the case with urban rivers and in the immediate vicinity of major sources of pollution. Poor and unsanitary wastewater disposal systems and interconnections with storm-water drains are the major issues as far as water pollution in urban areas is concerned. Some of the earlier studies that have been done of the River Bagmati, both near the source at Sundarijal and near the Chobhar gorge outlet point at Sundarighat, have shown that water quality at the latter point is very poor as established by the higher concentrations of BOD and nutrients (see Table 4.6 and Figure 4.2). These trends are clear indications of the fact that the downstream sites are affected by anthropogenic factors. Aquatic bio-diversity has also been disturbed.

Table 4.6 Nutrient Load in Bagmati River in different seasons (mg/l) Sites Season Ammonia Nitrate Phosphate

Pre-monsoon <0.20 <10 0.04 Monsoon <0.50 <10 0.05

Sundarijal Post-monsoon <1.0 <10 0.02

Pre-monsoon 6 to 9 <10 0.20 Monsoon <3.0 <10 <0.5

Pashupati Post-monsoon <3.0 <10 0.04

Pre-monsoon 15 to 20 <10 0.80 Monsoon 15 to 20 <10 0.80

Tilganga Post-monsoon 15 to 20 <10 0.80

Pre-monsoon >30 <10 >2.0 Monsoon 15 to 20 <10 0.50

Minbhawan Post-monsoon 20.0 <10 0.50

Pre-monsoon >30 <10 >2.0 Monsoon 20.0 <10 0.80

Sundarighat Post-monsoon 20.0 <10 1.00

Pre-monsoon >30 <10 2.00 Monsoon 15 to 20 <10 0.80

Chovar Post-monsoon 15.0 <10 0.80 Gaur Pre-monsoon <1.0 10.0 0.50

94


Monsoon <1.0 <10 0.10 Post-monsoon <0.5 10.0 0.10

Source: Shrestha et al. 2004

95


Figure 4.2 Change in BOD Level at Different Sites of the Bagmati River (1988 and 2003)

0

40

80

120

160

2 00

BO

D (m

g/L

)

Sundarijal T ilganga Sundarighat

Sites

Jan-88

Jan-03

Source: Shrestha et al. 2004

Solid Waste Management

Not many studies have been done on impacts of municipal wastes on the surrounding environment and human health. The condition of the rivers and the health of waste collectors, however, is an indication of the seriousness of the problem in the major cities. Not only has the quality of the water in the streams but the aesthetic value of the cities in the Kathmandu Valley has been greatly lowered. Hazardous wastes like medical wastes, obsolete pesticides and old batteries, though the production of which is comparatively low, is of major concern because these are not being properly handled. The health hazard is increased because most of the waste is mixed with other garbage and is either dumped or burned in ordinary kilns.

Aquatic Eco-system

Only limited studies have been carried out with respect to aquatic animals in Nepal and information is not available as to how many of them are threatened or extinct. A study of the Kathmandu Valley rivers has shown that the head reaches are rich in aquatic bio-diversity but become progressively poor as they flow through the city core and become grossly polluted. Besides the impact on the water ecology, it has already been pointed out in detail in the earlier sections that the remarkable increase in water related diseases and the lowering of the aesthetic values of the rivers are equally of great concern.


The number of deaths due to diarrhoea and dysentery has been reported as decreasing with the years. The Epidemiology and Disease Control Division statistics for the four months of Baisakh to Shrawan 2062 (mid-April to mid-August 2005) indicate out of a total of 1,413 reported cases of diarrhoea, 43 deaths occurred throughout the country. A sample of the statistics of the districts, show that Baitadi topped the list with 300 reported cases and 16 deaths, followed by 233 cases and 11 deaths in Jumla, 206 cases and 1 death in Bajhang, 106

96


cases and 3 deaths in Mugu, 68 cases and 4 deaths in Bajura, and 12 cases and 2 deaths in Achham. The Shukraraj Tropical and Infectious Disease Hospital reported the most number of cases – 1,302 but no deaths were reported.

There are, however, many more unreported cases and water-borne diseases continue to take their toll every year with the progressive degradation of the quality of water as a result of uncontrolled pollution of water sources by domestic and industrial discharges. Drinking water quality has a direct impact on human health. It has been reported that in Nepal 28,000 children die each year due to diarrhoeal diseases caused primarily by poor environmental sanitation conditions and lack of access to potable drinking water. One out of every eight Nepalese children still dies by the age of five. A significant amount of working days is lost by a large portion of the adult population due to sickness related to water-borne diseases. Furthermore, though a 1999-report of the Department of Health Services shows a decreasing trend in the total diarrhoeal deaths from 1995 to 1998, there has been an increase in the total diarroheal patient visits. The latter makes up the highest share of the total out-patient visits in the hospitals in the country.

Response to Pressures and Impacts

Water Quality and Environmental Considerations

The rich but fragile environmental conditions have posed a number of physical and human challenges. It is a known phenomenon that the rugged topography, young geology and monsoon climate all result in high rates of runoff, erosion and sedimentation. Besides frequent related natural calamities, human activities have also resulted in unsustainable pressures on both biological and physical resources including aquatic species and habitats. Water resources development, therefore, needs to be carried out in a sustainable manner and overall water resources management directed towards enhancing the environmental conditions with special emphasis on preserving river water quality over the long term. Though not to the desired extent, the Government has taken steps to address the problems highlighted above. Some of the major responses that have been initiated so far are highlighted below.

Water Quality

The Government has not officially adopted nor enforced any drinking water quality standards or effluent standards to be maintained with respect to discharges into rivers. Though the government has been in the process of formulating appropriate water quality since a number of years, this has not been receiving the required attention in the past. Though the writ petition filed by PRO Public a number of years ago was dismissed the concerned authorities were directed by the Supreme Court to formulate water quality standards within ninety days. This deadline has not been met so far and it is understood that the Ministry of Water Resources has constituted a Committee headed by the Executive Secretary of the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat and three sub-committees are currently working on quality/effluent standards for Irrigation and Agriculture, Industries, and Drinking Water.

97


Water Supply and Sanitation Service Levels

A wide range of standards for water supply service levels exist. The standards that are currently in use and have been proposed for adoption in the National Water Plan are presented in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Water Supply Service Level Standards High Medium Basic

Quantity (lpcd) 112 –150 65 20 – 45 Quality WHO Standards National Standards Protected source Accessibility Within the house

(fully plumbed) Within the compound (yard tap)

Within 20 minutes walking distance (standpost supply)

Duration of supply (hrs/day)

24 24 Intermittent

Continuity (months/year)

12 12 12

In the most advanced urban areas the service level is between basic and medium even where the residences are fully plumbed. Existing systems and service levels are not sustainable due to low revenue collection and lack of proper operation and maintenance.

Sanitation service level categories have been described below.

1. On-site sanitation services to the rural communities to be as follows: • pit latrine • VIP latrine • pour-flush latrine

Choice of latrine-type in terms of design and technology will depend on soil condition, economy and water facilities available

2. For urban communities, the options available are: • Toilets connected to individual septic tanks • Toilets connected to sewerage system in core urban areas where residents can afford to share

the capital investment as well as the operation and maintenance costs 3. Public toilets in community centres and other service/work areas; and common toilets in poorer

communities where there is no access to land for individual toilets.

Drinking Water Quality

Because of ineffective institutional programs and low priority to water quality, drinking water quality (DWQ) has not been receiving the required importance so far. The DWQ testing laboratory established in 1965 at the Sundarijal Water Treatment Plant was probably the first DWQ laboratory in Nepal. This laboratory was established primarily for testing basic physical and chemical parameters for Kathmandu City. Until 1985/86, DWQ was rarely addressed and was considered an academic matter. A comprehensive DWQ monitoring (DWQM) program was started in the Kathmandu water system, the Bagmati and Narayani Rivers, and traditional drinking water sources from 1987 to 1990 by DiSvi, an Italian NGO, which established a modest DWQ testing laboratory in 1986/87. Dissemination of their

98


findings to concerned agencies and the public created an initial awareness of the need for systematic DWQM.

The Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), a national NGO, was established in 1990 to continue the DWQ program started by DiSvi. Aside from the regular DWQM program, ENPHO started to provide DWQ testing services to agencies such as UNICEF, PLAN International, FINNIDA, and Lutheran World Service for monitoring their water supply schemes. A comprehensive study of physical-chemical and microbiological quality of Terai tubewell schemes in Eastern Nepal was begun under UNICEF sponsorship in 1989/90. It was the first DWQM programme for rural water schemes. PLAN International made DWQ testing of potential sources compulsory before approving any gravity water scheme. Other agencies began to consider the need for DWQM around that time. Some even established field-based laboratories for chemical and microbiological DWQM for their programs. DWQ testing laboratories were also upgraded and established in government agencies such as NWSC, DWSS, Department of Hydrology and Meteorology; and the Royal Nepal Academy for Science and Technology (RONAST). Several private laboratories (e.g., NESS, CEMAT, and Soil Test) were established after 1990.

Though it started more than 10 years ago, DWQM is still not fully institutionalized. Data for many areas are not easily available. For agencies involved in water supply and sanitation, DWQM was limited mostly to microbiological quality and a few non-health related chemical parameters until 1998. In 1999, the different agencies active in the sector realized the possibility of arsenic contamination in shallow groundwater in the Terai and have subsequently been undertaking DWQM for facilities developed by them. Water agencies have now become concerned about DWQ, resulting in better coordination among related agencies. Although DWQ data compilation at District and VDC levels has yet to be done, data collected in Hill and Terai have shown:

• Gravity scheme water is often bacteriologically contaminated. Chemical parameters are within WHO limits. Exceptions are calcinations in Western and Far Western mid-hill areas & low pH in schemes like Sarangkot and Pokhara).

• Water from most city water supply schemes is microbiologically unsafe. • Protected spring sources are comparatively better, but unsafe microbiologically. • In monsoon, many gravity schemes carry silt and organic matter, and water is very turbid. • Most water supply schemes have poor operation and maintenance, so even where treatment

facilities for gravity water supply systems exist, they may not function as designed. • Almost all dug wells are highly contaminated with coliform (more than 50% in some tests),

and some wells contain high levels of nitrate or ammonia. • Since microbial contamination is due to poor sanitation, improper installation of pit latrines

and lack of maintenance, remedial measures should be included in DWQ improvement plans. • Most stone spout systems have high nitrates and bacteriological contamination. • Tubewell bacteriological quality was good in the past, but now many show the presence of

coliform. • High iron and manganese content is found in most tubewells. • Fluoride levels are so far within WHO limits, but the sample size is small. • Arsenic is now being detected in some of Terai districts at alarming levels.

99


• There are already suspected arsenicosis sufferers in some districts.

The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) has been working on DWQ standards formulation since 1994, when it prepared the first DWQM document. It reviewed existing DWQ documentation in Nepal and recommended nine parameters for drinking water standards. In 2000, DWSS formulated a National Task Force and appointed a consultant to prepare a document establishing DWQ criteria and standards as well as a DWQ monitoring and surveillance program. The consultant reviewed existing DWQ data, proposed a two-phase implementation program, outlined organizational arrangements for monitoring and surveillance, and estimated national costs to meet the proposed standards. WHO prepared a report on Nepal’s trial of proposed WHO processes to prioritize chemicals for risk management in drinking water in February 2002. This study carried out a rapid assessment of probable chemicals in drinking water, and produced a list of eight chemicals (arsenic, fluoride, manganese, iron, nitrate, chlorine, and ammonia) that may exist in drinking water sources in Nepal.

From these studies, the National Task Force on Drinking Water Quality Standards prepared a report on National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) in February 2002. This work has been on-going and the final version of was presented to the Steering Committee in September 2004. In summary, sufficient work has already been done over the last two years to establish DWQ standards. The report summarized major DWQ problems, and stressed the need for Standard and Guidelines for drinking DWQ since the two terms have different meanings. It proposed that larger systems adopt standards for bacteriological parameters, colour, turbidity, pH, ammonia, nitrate/nitrite, residual chlorine, arsenic, and fluoride. For all systems (large or small), it proposed adopting guidelines for taste, hardness, TDS, chloride, iron, manganese, hydrogen sulphides, and other parameters included in the standards. The report also listed the other chemical parameters for guidelines as future low priority.

The proposed revised parameters and concentration limits have been presented in the Table 4.8 and action is underway for phase-wise enforcement and implementation of the NDWQS.

Table 4.8 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits Category Parameters Units Concentration

Limits Remark

Turbidity NTU 5 (10) PH 6.5-8.5 Color TCU 5 (15) Taste and Odor non-

objectionable

TDS mg/l 1000

Physical

Electrical Conductivity

micro-mhos/cm

1500

Iron mg/l 0.3 (3) Manganese mg/l 0.2 Arsenic mg/l 0.05 Cadmium mg/l 0.003 Chromium mg/l 0.05

Chemical

Cyanide mg/l 0.07

100


Category Parameters Units Concentration Limits

Remark

Fluoride mg/l 0.5 - 1.5 (The limit depends upon ambient temperature and water intake)

Lead mg/l 0.01 Ammonia mg/l 1.5 Chloride mg/l 250 Sulphate mg/l 250 Nitrate mg/l 50 Copper mg/l 1 Total Hardness mg/l as CaCO3 500 Zinc mg/l 3 Mercury mg/l 0.001 Aluminum mg/l 0.2

Chlorine mg/l 0.1 – 0.2 For chlorinated water E Coli MPN/100 ml 0

Microbiological Total Coliform MPN/100 ml 0 in 95 % samples

Source: Report of the Task Force for NDWQS titled "A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal", March 2005. (Limits for some of the parameters have been modified after approval from the Steering Committee.)

Table 4.9 List of Parameters and Concentration Limits (Comparative Chart) Concentration Limits

Parameters Units Nepal WHO (Guideline values)

China

India Sri Lanka

Bangladesh Thailand

Electrical conductivity

μS/cm - - 400 - 750 (3500)

- -

Calcium mg/l - - 100 75 (200) - - - TDS mg/l 1000 1000 1000 - 1000 - pH 6.5-8.5 - 6.5-

8.5 6.5-8.5 (0.2)

6.5-9.0 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.003 0.003 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.005 0.01 Chromium mg/l 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 Cyanide (CN) mg/l 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.2 Fluoride (F) mg/l 0.5-1.5 1.5 1.0 0.6-1.2

(1.5) 0.6 (1.5) 0.1 0.05

Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 Nitrate (NO3) mg/l 50 50 88 45 45 45 45 Total Organix Corbon (TOC)

mg/l - - 5 - - - -

Total coliform MPN/ 100 ml

0 in 98% samples

Nil - nil nil - 2.2

E Coli MPN/ 100 ml

0 Nil - nil nil - none

Ammonia (NH3)

mg/l 1.5 1.5 0.5 - 0.06 0.5 -

Sulphate (SO4) mg/l 250 250 250 150 (400) 200 - 200 (250)

101


(400) Chloride mg/l 250 250 250 250

(1000) 200 (1200)

150-600 250 (600)

Color TCU 5 (15) 15 <15 10(50) 30 15 5 (15) Copper mg/l 1 1.0 1.0 0.05 (1.5) 0.05(1.5) 1.0 1.0 (1.5) Iron mg/l 0.3 (3) 0.3 0.3 0.3(1) 0.3(1) 0.3 0.5 (1) Manganese mg/l 0.2 - - - - - 0.5 Odour and taste

non objection able

non-objectionable

none - none - none

Total hardness mg/l 500 - 250 300 (600) 250 (600)

10 -

Turbidity NTU 5 (10) 5 <3 10 (25) 2 (8) - 5 (20) Zinc mg/l 3 3 1 5 5 (15) 5 5 (15) Mercury mg/l 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 Aluminum mg/l 0.2 0.2 - - 0.2 0.2 - Residual Chlorine

mg/l 0.1-0.2 - 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 -

Note: The figures within parentheses indicate maximum permissible values. Source: Report of the Task Force for NDWQS titled "A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal", March 2005

Solid Waste Management • Implementation of the Solid Waste Management Project from 1980 • Establishment of the solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Centre • Establishment of compost plant in Teku and landfill site in Gokarna, which has now been

abandoned and new landfill sites being developed outside the Kathmandu Valley in Okharpaua of neighboring Nuwakot district

• Adoption of the Solid Waste National Policy 1996 • Enactment of the Local Self Governance Act 1999 making municipalities totally responsible

for solid waste management • Initiatives to involve the private sector in solid waste management in cities like Kathmandu

and Biratnagar.

Biodiversity

The issue of ecological sound water use needs to be addressed in the context of ensuring provision of clean water for multi-purpose uses; restoring and maintaining fish habitats; ensuring provision of water for sustainable use including the preservation of key features of wetlands; and protection of the aquatic environment in future. Planned activities are guided by various international conventions and protocols, including the Convention on Biodiversity, Ramsar Convention, Framework Convention on Climate Change, and Convention on Combating Desertification. The main obligations that have to be fulfilled pertain to the following:

• Water pollution and control • Water management for fisheries • Water management for ecologically sensitive areas • Supporting appropriate and adequate environmental measures

102


• Implementing the required institutional reforms • Institutional strengthening and capacity building to achieve the above.

Soil Degradation • Establishment of the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management in 1974 • Enactment of the Soil and Conservation Act 1982 and its Rules in 1984 • Implementation of the community forest initiative with more than 650,000 ha of public

forests converted into community managed forests • Formulation and implementation of the Agricultural Perspective Plan • Signatory to the United Nations Conventions to Combat desertification

Salient Features of the National Water Plan

HMGN has since approved the NWP 2005. Action Plans have been proposed for all the ten strategic outputs identified in the NWRS 2002. The set targets and the programs for these outputs have been listed below.

Water Induced Disaster (WID)

Targets:

• by 2007, potential disaster zones are identified by type and are located on district maps; • by 2007, emergency relief materials are available in all five regions; • by 2017, infrastructure for mitigation predictable disasters are put into place in 20 districts; • by 2017, warning systems are established and functional, encompassing the whole country,

and • by 2027, social and economic losses due to water induced disaster reduced to the levels

experienced in other developed countries.

Action Programs:

• Water Related Disaster Management Policy and Program; • Risk/Vulnerability Mapping and Zoning Program; • Disaster Networking and Information System Improvement Program; • Community level disaster preparedness program; • Program for Relief and Rehabilitation Measures; • Activation of Inundation Committee; and • Flood, Drought, Landslides/Debris Flow, GLOF and avalanches mitigation Program;

Twenty six activity elements have been proposed under these programs.

Environmental Action Plan on Management of Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems

Targets:

• by 2007, management plan for pilot watershed and aquatic system prepared and initiated; • by 2007, water quality and wastewater quality standards developed and enforced;

103


• by 2017, full scale environmental protection and management projects implemented in all priority watersheds and aquatic ecosystems;

• by 2017, stakeholders participation in environmental protection and management; • by 2027, quality of watersheds increased by 80% in all regions; and • by 2027, adequate water quality attained for aquatic habitat including fish, human

consumption and recreation, in all rivers and lakes.

Action Programs:

• Improve Environmental Database System; • Map Important, Critical and Priority Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems; • Develop Water and Wastewater Quality Standards and Regulations; • Implement Water Conservation Education Program; • Implement Pilot Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems Protection, Rehabilitation and

Management Programs; • Develop Strategic Environmental Assessment in Water Resources Management; • Ensure Compliance of EIA; • Promote Community Participation in the Management of Watersheds and Aquatic

Ecosystems; • Enhance Institutional Capacity and Coordination.

Drinking Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene

Targets:

Taking into consideration the Mid-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) of the National Planning Commission and the growing constraints on resources, the targets set in the Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 have been revised.

By 2007 - 80% of the total population to have access to water supply - 80% of the population to have medium or high water Supply service level; - 80% of the population to be provided with basic sanitation facilities. By 2012 - 90% of the population to have access to water supply - 15% of the population to have medium or high water supply service level; - 90% of the population to have access to basic sanitation facilities. By 2017 - 100% of the population to have access to water supply; - 27% of the population to have medium or high water supply service level; - 100% of the population to have access to basic sanitation facilities. By 2027 - 50% of the population to have medium or high water supply service level.

Action Programs:

• Accelerated Stand-Alone Sanitation Improvement Program (ASASIP); • Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program (RWSSP); • Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Program (STWSSP); • Kathmandu Valley Water Supply and Sanitation Program (KVWSSP); • Major Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Program (MTWSSP); and • Water Supply and Sanitation Institutional Strengthening Program (WSSISP).

Forty five (45) activity elements have been proposed under these programs.

104


Irrigation for Agriculture

Targets:

Taking into view the availability of human and financial resources as well as the trends of progress achieved during past periodic plans, the NWP targets for the irrigation sub-sector have been revised based on the objective of attaining the food security during the respective plan periods.

By 2007

• Year round irrigation to be provided to 49% of irrigated area (present level estimated at below 30%)

• Average cereal yield in irrigated area to be increased by 15% over 2001 level • Average cropping intensity exceeds 140% in year round irrigated area. • Average cropping intensity of cereal crops exceeds 126% and overall cropping intensity

including other crops will exceed 160% • 40% of irrigated area has market access • 71% of the potential irrigable area served by irrigation system • Irrigation efficiency increased to 35% • Irrigation service contribution collection increased by 30% of O&M cost.

By 2017

• Year round irrigation to be provided to 64% of irrigated area. • Average cereal yield in irrigated area increased by 28% over 2001 level. • Average cropping intensity exceeds 164% in year round irrigated area. • Average cropping intensity of cereal crops exceeds 134% and overall cropping intensity

including other corps will exceed 170% • 85% of the potential irrigable area served by irrigation system. • Irrigation efficiency increased to 45% • Irrigation service contribution collection increased by 45% of O&M cost.

By 2007

• Year round irrigation to be provided to 67% of irrigated area. • Average cereal yield in irrigated areas increased to 44% over 2001 level. • Average cropping intensity exceeds 193% in year round irrigated area • Average cropping intensity of cereal crops exceeds 143% with respect to entire cultivated

area and overall cropping intensity including other crops will exceed 200% • 97% percent of the potential irrigable area served by irrigation system. • Irrigation efficiency increased to 50% • 60% of irrigated area has market access • Irrigation service contribution collection increased by 75% of O&M cost.

Action Programs:

• Integrated program for irrigated agriculture

105


• Improved management of existing irrigation schemes • Improved planning and implementation of new irrigation systems • Strengthening and capacity building of local level institutions in planning and project

implementations • National capacity building of farmers.

Hydropower

Targets:

By 2007 - Develop up to 700 MW hydropower-generating capacities to meet the projected domestic demand at base case scenario without export

- Enact legislation making national contractors/consultants participation mandatory in all types of projects

- 35% of households to be supplied with INPS electricity, 8% by isolated (micro and small) hydro system and 2% by alternate energy

- per capita electricity consumption of 100 kWh achieved. By 2017 - 2100 MW hydropower electricity developed to meet the project domestic demand at base

case scenario excluding export; - 50% of households to be supplied with INPS electricity, 12% by isolated (micro and

small) hydro system and 3% by alternate energy; - Per capita electricity consumption of 160 KWh achieved; - NEA corporatized By 2027 - Develop up to 4000 MW hydropower to meet the projected domestic demand at base case

scenario excluding export; - 75% of households to be supplied with INPS electricity, 20% by isolated (micro and

small) hydro system and 5% by alternate energy; - Per capita electricity consumption of over 400 KWh achieved; - Nepal exporting substantial amounts of electricity to earn national revenue; and - NEA unbundled and privatized.

Action programs:

• Program to develop cost-effective micro, small and medium hydropower' • Program to enhance Rural Electrification; • Program to improve Power System Planning; • Program to encourage private investment in hydropower development and electric power

distribution; and • Program for Power Sector Reform and Development:

A total of 27 activity elements have been proposed.

Industries, Tourism, Fisheries and Navigational Uses

Targets:

Industry

• Facilitate initiatives to develop sustainable standard of practice of water for industrial purposes and industrial wastewater effluents practices;

• Regulate downstream water pollution, mandatory provisions will be made to treat industrial effluents and compliance with water quality standards will be maintained.

106


• Encourage expansion of bottling of spring water for domestic use as will as export

Tourism

• Facilitate initiatives to develop water based cultural, recreational and eco-tourism related activities; and

• Conduct studies in water tourism like white water rafting and Kayaking and to identify stretches of river.

Fisheries

By 2007 - Fish production from aquaculture will be increased to 28,500 MT. - Fish production with improved management of open water bodies increased to 20,000

MT. By 2017 - Fish productions from aquaculture will be increased to 59,000 MT. - Fish production with improved management of open water bodies increased to 30,000

MT. By 2027 - Fish productions from aquaculture will be increased to 87,000 MT. - Fish production with improved management of open water bodies increased to 68,000

MT.

107


Action Programs:

Aquaculture

• Encourage poly-culture and integrated pond culture with low cost and higher productivity technology;

• Encourage private sector participation in fish breeding to meet the national demand of fish seed for pond culture;

• Ensure wider application of Multiple Harvest System (MHS) among private growers to meet the demand of larger size fingerlings for pond culture to increase the productivity;

• Establish mandatory coordination mechanisms in fishery research and development to cultivate synergy in implementation of planned activities;

• Encourage policy reforms and amend related clauses in DDD and VDC Acts for prolonging the leasing out village ponds to local communities;

• Design appropriate incentive structures to encourage and facilitate private sector to take up cold water fish culture including trout fishing.

Open Water Fisheries

• Exploit full potential of natural water bodies (rivers, lake reservoirs and other wetlands) to obtain sustainable fish production;

• Protect aquatic environment and conserve biodiversity of fish species and other aquatic life of natural water bodies;

• Protect fishery resources and provide fish migration route where rivers are used for other purposes (viz. hydropower, irrigation etc.);

• Install community ownership of open water bodies for fishery development; • Develop sites for eco-tourism sport fishing; and • Enforce fisheries related Acts and Regulations effectively for sustainable fisheries

development.

Navigation

• Conduct feasibility study for a dedicated navigational cum irrigation canal from Chatara to Kursela in Ganges River in relation to the proposed Koshi high dam.

• Make mandatory provisions to study navigational aspect in large high dam projects.

Water Related Information System and River Basin Management

Targets:

By 2007 - Rehabilitate and equip the existing DHM stations and allocate appropriate human and financial resources to retreieve quality data;

- Extend existing 47 hydrometric stations in central and eastern Nepal to 75 well equipped and properly run stations;

- Review the existing sediment sampling stations to enhance capabilities to collect river bed samples;

- Increase the number of rainfall stations to 370 stations; - Equip sufficient number of stations with telemetry facility to assist weather and flood

forecasting; - Initiate and create meta data of all relevant water resources data at WECS on river basin

basis; and

108


- Train human resources to manage the information system. By 2017 - Extend DHM station network to meet WMO standards - Improve dissemination of quality data. By 2027 - Well equipped hydrological and meteorological stations increased meet Nepal's

requirement.

Action Programs:

Water Resources Information System

• Management of existing hydrological and meteorological network; • Extend hydrological and meteorological networks; • Funding and management including upgrading of hydro-meteorological network.

River Basin Management Tools

• Mainstreaming IWRM and River Basin Concept; • Develop River Basin Plans; • Develop and Implement Decision Support System (DSS) in Water resources programs; • Establish as well as strengthen institution for River Basin Planning.

Regional Co-operation

Targets:

By 2007 - Existing water sharing treaties are monitored with effective mechanism for compliance; - Some multipurpose projects (such as Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project) agreed and

being implemented; - Power trade agreement with India ratified or amended; - Hydropower exchange with India in the tune of 150 MW achieved; and - 'SAARC' encouraged to form regional committee in water resource management. By 2017 - Expected benefits from the treaties and multipurpose project achieved; - Riparian issues between neighboring nations resolved; - Bilateral agreements for equitable water sharing signed are found to be in effect; - Regional institution established and functioning properly; and - Power exchange/export to the tune of 400 MW achieved. By 2027 - Several joint/multi-country water resources development projects implemented and

functioning satisfactory; - Regional cooperation mechanism established and functioning; and - Substantial amount of hydropower export/exchange achieved.

Action programs:

• Program to appraise and understand the water-related needs of neighboring countries; • Program to pursue confidence building measure with neighbours; • Programs to implement mutually beneficial development activities.

A total of fifteen (15) activity elements have been prepared.

Legal Framework

Targets:

109


By 2007 - Integrated Water Resources Policy approved; - Water Resources Act/Regulations are amended a enacted; - Sub-sector Policies, Acts, Regulations reviewed; - Conflicting water related laws are amended; - Water use rights established; and - People are made aware of water rights and obligations By 2017 - Water laws are reviewed an amended to change circumstances; - Compliance with acts and Regulations achieved; - Conflict resolution mechanism developed and 90 percent of conflicts resolved within 3

months; and - All water use rights registered/reviewed. By 2027 - WRA/Regulations reviewed and amended to changing circumstances; - Water related conflicts are decreased and those remaining are resolved faster.

Action Programs:

Legislations needing review and revision

• Water Resources Act, 2049 (1992AD)/Regulations • Enactment to new Water Resources Act/Regulations • Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997AD)/Regulations • Local-Self Governance Act, 2055 (1998AD)/Regulations • Soil and Water shed Conservation Act, 2039 (1979 AD)/Regulations • Country Codes (Muluki Ain), 2020 (1963 AD) • Forestry Act, 2049 (1993AD) • Wildlife and National Park Conservation Act, 2042 (1973AD) • King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation Act, 2039 (1979 AD) • Aquatic Animals Protection Act, 2017 (1961 AD) • Industrial Enterprise Act, 2048 (1991 AD) • Nepal Agriculture Research Council Act, 2048 (1991)

Institutional Mechanism

Targets:

By 2007 - WEC(S) designated and empowered to coordinate national level planning for the entire water sector;

- Rights and duties of all relevant institutions at all levels clearly defined and available, and their accountability demonstrated;

- 25% of local level projects planned, implemented and managed at the local level; - River basin planning concept agreed to and approved by HMG; By 2017 - WEC(S) is fulfilling its new mandate and has adequate resources; - 75% of local level projects planned, implemented and managed by local level agencies

with competent staff; and - Three major river basin planning units established and addressing river basin water

issues; By 2027 - 100% of local level projects satisfactorily planned, implemented and managed by local

level agencies; - All major and medium river basin planning units functioning well by addressing water

issues.

Action programs:

110


• Maintain clear Separation of Roles between Policy, Operation and Regulation • Set up Institutional Framework for Coordinated and Integrated development at the Basin level

In summary, some of the noteworthy responses covering policies and strategies, legal instruments, actions plans and programmes are the following:

• Enactment of the Water Resources Act 1992 as the umbrella Act and its Rules 1993

• Formulation of the Irrigation and Drinking Water Rules under the umbrella Act

• Enactment of

- Environmental Protection Act 1996 and its Rules 1997

- Solid Waste Management Act 1987 and its Rules 1989

- Electricity Act 1992 and its Rules 1993

- Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982

- Aquatic animals Protection Act 1965

- Patent, Design and Trademark Act 1965

• On-going efforts to develop water quality standards and industrial effluent standards

• Policy statements dealing with the environment, drinking water and sanitation

• Adoption of the Nepal water Resources Strategy 2002

• Approval of the National Water Plan 2005

• Wastewater management efforts in the Kathmandu Valley

• Signatory to a number of broader international conventions and treaties like the Ramsar Convention, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific, and Convention on Biodiversity


Existing Policies

Water Resources

Though water is common to hydropower, irrigation and drinking water, an integrated and comprehensive water resources policy has not yet been formulated. This has resulted in conflicts in uses of water resources and conflicting legislation and regulations. Traditional water rights have not been recognized. The relevant policy documents are the following:

National Water Resources Strategy 2002

Based on the policy framework, strategies have been formulated using a participatory log-frame approach with a clearly defined hierarchy of objectives. This approach involved formulating a strategic goal, as well as setting out purposes to contribute to that goal. To

111


satisfy the goal, it is recognized that other sectors must provide tangible benefits towards the improvement of Nepalese living standards.

The national goal has been defined as “living conditions of Nepali people are significantly improved in a sustainable manner”. It is envisaged that the Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 outputs will contribute to this goal through the achievement of short, medium- and long-term purposes. These purposes have been defined as follows:

Short-term (5-year) Purpose: Implementation of the comprehensive Water Resources Strategy provides tangible benefits to people in line with basic needs fulfillment, supported and managed by capable institutions of all stakeholders.

Medium-term (15-year) Purpose: Water Resources Strategy is operationalized to provide substantial benefits to people for basic needs fulfillment as well as other increased benefits related to sustainable water use.

Long-term (25-year) Purpose: Benefits from water resources are maximized in Nepal in a sustainable manner.

To achieve these purposes, the NWRS 2002 has identified the following ten strategic outputs:

• Effective measures to manage and mitigate water-induced disasters are functional. • Sustainable management of watersheds and aquatic ecosystems achieved. • Adequate supply of and access to potable water and sanitation & hygiene awareness provided. • Appropriate & efficient irrigation available to support optimal, sustainable use of irrigable

land. • Cost-effective hydropower developed in a sustainable manner. • Economic uses of water by industries and water bodies by tourism, fisheries & navigation

optimized. • Enhanced water-related information systems are functional. • Appropriate legal frameworks are functional. • Regional cooperation for substantial mutual benefits achieved. • Appropriate institutional mechanisms for water sector management are functional.

The strategic outputs were derived based on an analysis of issues and problems, undertaken professionally and in consultation with many stakeholders, including politicians. Each output requires the successful implementation of a set of activities encompassing physical, managerial, economic and institutional aspects. Each strategic output has been categorized with reference to one of three water resource aspects:

• Security (Outputs 1 and 2) – security from water and security of water; • Uses (Outputs 3 to 6) – types of water use (e.g., domestic water supply and sanitation;

irrigation; hydropower; and other economic uses of water such as for industry, tourism, fisheries and navigation); and

• Mechanisms (Outputs 7 to 10) – mechanisms that enable the benefits of sustainable water use to be realized, enhanced and maximized. These mechanisms include regional cooperation,

112


water-related information systems, appropriate legal frameworks and appropriate institutional support.

Together, these outputs will advance the long-term purpose of the Water Resources Strategy, to maximize benefits through sustainable management of the resource and thereby contribute to the significant improvement of Nepalese living conditions.

Hydro-power Development Policy 2002

The objective of the Hydropower Development Policy 2002 is the promotion of hydropower development, extension of standard electricity service throughout the country and export abroad. This policy also provides for the sharing of benefit in the local level and promotes involvement of community/cooperative organizations, local bodies and private sector in the production, distribution and transmission of electricity. Among others, it also provides functional policy related to the environmental flow, investment, rural electrification and benefit sharing (Royalty sharing), transfer of project, electricity purchase, license, institutional reform, etc. Provision has also been made for amenity flow in rivers – a minimum discharge of 10 percent of the mean monthly flow in the river should be maintained at all times. This is twice the volume required as amenity flow by the 1991 amendment to the Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961.

Irrigation Policy 2003

The policy on irrigation is contained in the Irrigation Policy 2003 which states its objective as effective use of water resource for irrigation, institutional development of Water Users Association (WUA) for the sustainable management of the irrigation system and promotion of knowledge, skill and functional efficiency of technical manpower, users and NGOs which are related to the development of the irrigation sector. The policy stresses on the participatory management approach by way of direct involvement and investment of users for maintenance, repair and operation of irrigation system. The policy contains provision relating to study, identification, selection, implementation procedure of the project; WUA, resource mobilization and public participation; irrigation system management, etc. and much more focus is given to involvement of WUA in every stage of project development. HMG has amended some of the important provisions of the Irrigation Regulation 2000 in tune with the policy guidelines.

This has made several provisions relating to the involvement of beneficiaries in irrigation development. The main features of the policy objectives are: (i) expand the role of the private sector in irrigation development; (ii) carry out institutional reforms; (iii) emphasize the need for improvement of agriculture support services in irrigated areas; (iv) decentralize the lead agency’s operations and other responsibilities; (v) develop an effective monitoring and evaluation system; and (vi) define roles and responsibilities of Water Users Associations in irrigation schemes.

The main provisions of this policy are provision for the promotion of non-conventional irrigation systems; provision for the declaration of irrigated areas; potentiality for the conjunctive use of water to be the basis for project selection; provision for the preparation of

113


a local plan for irrigation based on the district irrigation inventory in collaboration with the beneficiaries and local government units; provision for contribution based on land size; provision for evaluation of cost of land and compensation for canal land; fixation of an irrigation service charge; privatization of irrigation systems; etc.

National Water Supply Sector Policy 1999

This is a sound document and is quite exhaustive. The policy guidelines to achieve the stated objectives may be summarized as follows:

• Integrate water supply to other components of water resources development, where feasible • Advocate demand management and supply management • HMGN to play the role of supporter and facilitator only • Water Users’ Committees to be made fully responsible • Gender mainstreaming to be encouraged through women’s participation in all phases of

development • Institutional arrangement envisages ownership by municipalities, WUCs, independent public

sector ownership and private sector involvement, as deemed appropriate • Full cost recovery mechanism considering life-line rates for low-income groups in rural

systems, adequate to meet O & M costs in rural systems, and penalties/higher tariffs for excessive consumption

• IEE and EIA guidelines specific to WSSP to be applied, as deemed appropriate

National Sanitation Policy 2002

The earlier policy document released in 1998 went through major changes in 2002. The latter version has not been officially approved and is in the process of being updated. The provisions therein, however, have been serving as the guidelines for the subsequent sanitation programs. The main provisions are:

• Sanitation is an everyday part of human life and is a basic right and responsibility of every citizen, to be treated as an essential service

• Partnerships between communities, users groups, private parties, NGOs, educational institutions, and local authorities will constitute the framework for effective sanitation facilities/services

• HMGN will promote the provision of sanitation facilities/services together with increased participation from the private sector, local authorities, social/cultural groups, NGOs and other related sectors

• Ensure commitment at all levels • Ensure effective advocacy/communication/health and hygiene education strategies • Ensure participatory approach for problem identification/analysis, promotion,

implementation, monitoring and evaluation of sanitation programs • Encourage and facilitate local level action plans • Ensure gender balance and sensitivity • Integrate sanitation in all community based development programs • Progressively upgrade sanitation service levels through acceptable and affordable sanitation

technologies

Kathmandu Valley Strategy on Water Supply and Sanitation 2001

114


This was adopted to facilitate private sector participation in the Kathmandu Valley urban water supply and wastewater utilities and for the development plus long-term sustainability of adequate and affordable WSS facilities. The strategies cover the following aspects:

• Sector planning and infrastructure development emphasizes need for improvements in WS services, groundwater management and sanitation services

• Mission is to provide reliable services to the people at an affordable price through sustained utility systems and protecting the environment

• Sector planning and infrastructure improvement envisaged through water supply from the Melamchi valley, water demand management, groundwater management and improved sanitation

• Service delivery standards ensuring 24-hour supply at adequate pressure and of required quality complying to national water quality and wastewater effluent standards available to all

• Institutional set-up clearly defining policy function role to MPPW, planning and development of assets to KVWA, implementation of new works, rehabilitation, improvement and management responsibilities to the private operator, and follow up including regulation by a national regulatory agency

• Tariffs to be based on principles of full cost recovery, services to the poor, affordability and demand management (basic domestic use at a flat rate and large users to pay more)

• Access to services for the economically disadvantaged (some form of incentive/subsidy will need to be considered)

Some New Policy and Strategy Initiatives

In addition to the above, HMGN has recently prepared the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy 2004, the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy 2004 and the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sectoral Strategic Action Plan 2004. These policy and strategy documents recognize that all people have a right to access to basic water supply and sanitation services and that these services are necessary for socio-economic development and to combat waterborne diseases. It is noteworthy that sanitation is addressed together with drinking water as an essential component of safe and clean drinking water. This document is consistent with Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and its key principles are:

• Provision of water supply and sanitation services will be demand driven and community managed, and service standards to correspond with affordability and willingness to pay. The Government has subsidized the basic service level (15 minutes round trip to fetch water at 45 lpcd, users to pay for the incremental costs for better service)

• Capacity building, health and hygiene will be integrated with water supply and sanitation • Service delivery to be participatory involving women and assets to be owned by the

community • Addressing social exclusion of gender, caste and ethnic groups • Decentralizing responsibility of service delivery to local bodies • Government’s role will be limited to financing and allocation of sectoral investments, and

formulating policies and legislation • Establishing a sector monitoring and evaluation unit in MPPW to support the poverty

reduction strategy in poverty monitoring. • Improving policy implementation and monitoring according to the policies of the

government.

115


Environment

The Environment Policy 1993 encourages the management of natural and physical resources of the country in an efficient and sustainable manner as part of the overall balanced development efforts for the fulfillment of the basic needs of the people. Safeguards for national heritage and minimizing environmental impacts due to development and human activities have also been addressed. It is also intended to give impetus for integrating the environment and development through appropriate institutions, adequate legislation, economic incentives and mobilization of public resources.

Aquatic Ecosystem

This is currently covered by the overall watershed management policy. There is no specific policy framework for the management of aquatic ecosystems. The general policy ensures the multiple uses of land and water to fulfill the diverse needs of the people through rational land use planning. The policy promotes the implementation of integrated package programs to tackle erosion problems adopting the sub-watershed area as the planning and management unit. People’s participation has been emphasized through appropriate technology development and expansion of conservation, extension, education, demonstration and networking with other related sectors. The need to adopt appropriate mitigation measures to address adverse impacts of infrastructure development works has also been highlighted.

Industries

Amongst other provisions in the industrial policy, there is specific mention of the requirement for permission for the extension and diversification of environmentally sensitive industries. Provision has also been made for financial incentives for industrial enterprises that minimize harmful effects on the environment.

Agriculture

The long-term Agriculture Perspective Plan (1995) lays out the overall policies and strategies for the sector. The major aim is to (i) accelerate growth in agriculture to achieve improvements in standards of living; (ii) increase employment opportunities; and (iii) transform subsistence into commercial agriculture. The key strategies that have been spelt out emphasize (1) a green technology revolution; (ii) high value commodities in agriculture; (iii) high employment growth; (iv) an investment focus on human capital, institutional and physical infrastructure; (v) recognition of ecological zones; and (vi) region-based approaches explicitly requiring the participation of women.



116


The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 guarantees the right to life and property. It provides for the acquisition of property under certain circumstances and for compensation. The State is under an obligation to pursue policies, which mobilize the country’s natural resources and heritage in ways that are beneficial to the interest of the Nation. There are further provisions whereby the State is required to adopt the necessary policies for the protection of the environment as well as promote, protect and conserve the natural resources and the environment for the benefit of the country.

Legal Instruments

Water-related legislation in Nepal with respect to drinking water, sanitation, irrigation and hydropower all make provisions for the prevention and control of water pollution. Water Resources Act 1992 (WRA 1992) is the umbrella legislation governing water resource management. It declares the order of priority of water use and vests the ownership of the entire water resources in the State. Amongst others, it provides for the formation of water users associations, a system of licensing, and prohibits water pollution. The priority given to the different uses of water is as follows:

• drinking water and domestic use • irrigation • agricultural use such as animal husbandry, fisheries, etc. • hydroelectricity • cottage industry (e.g. water mill or grinder), other industrial enterprises and mining • navigation • recreational use • other uses

There are three separate regulations under the WRA 1992 to regulate the use of water for irrigation, drinking water and other uses. These and related legislations are as follows:

• Electricity Act 1992 and Electricity Regulation 1993 • Environmental Protection Act 1996 and Environmental Protection Regulation 1997 • Local Self Governance Act 1999 and Local Self Governance Regulation 1999 • Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 1989 • Drinking Water Regulation 1998 • Industrial Enterprises Act 1992 • Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1962 • Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Center Act 1987 and Solid Waste

Management and Resource Mobilization Regulation 1989 • Irrigation Regulation 2003

Before going on to discuss some of the more pertinent pieces of legislation, brief overviews of the relevant laws of the land have been provided in the following table. A total of seventeen pieces of legislation have been identified and these are presented in a chronological order in the table below.

Table 4.10 Summary of Relevant Nepali Laws in Chronological Order Act or Regulation Areas Addressed

Essential Commodity • Deems drinking water an essential commodity and strictly

117


Act or Regulation Areas Addressed Protection Act 1955 (2012 BS)

protects drinking water. • Prohibits any unauthorised use or misuse, stealing, damaging etc.

of drinking water. Muluki Ain (Civil Code) 1963 (2020 BS)

• Sets out the order of priority of use of water for irrigation. • Regulates traditional farmer managed irrigation systems.

Solid Waste (Management and Resource Mobilization) Center Act 1987 (2044 BS)

• Establishes the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Center as the responsible authority for the management of solid waste.

• Deals with the pollution of water by solid waste. Solid Waste (Management and Resource Mobilization) Regulation 1989 (2046 BS)

• • Deals with the collection, transportation and disposal of solid

waste. • Deals with the provision of public toilets and bath houses.

Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 1989 (2046 BS)

• Establishes the Nepal Water Supply Corporation as the perpetual, autonomous government controlled corporation responsible for the supply of drinking water.

• Prohibits certain acts and provides penalties/punishment for violation.

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 (2047 BS)

• Guarantees the right to life and property. • Provides for the acquisition of property under certain

circumstances and for compensation. Water Resource Act 1992 (2049 BS)

• The umbrella Act governing water resource management. • Declares the order of priority of water use. • Vests ownership of water in the State. • Provides for the formation of water user associations and

establishes a system of licensing. • Prohibits water pollution.

Electricity Act 1992 (2049 BS)

• Governs the use of water for hydropower production. • Establishes a system of licensing. • Sets out the powers, functions and duties of a license holder. • Provides certain financial incentives for license holders. • Sets out the powers of the government.

Industrial Enterprises Act 1992 (2049 BS)

• Requires permission for the extension and diversification of environmentally sensitive industries.

• Provides financial incentives for industrial enterprises that minimize harmful effects on the environment.

Water Resource Regulation 1993 (2050 BS)

• The umbrella Regulation governing water resource management. • Sets out the procedure to register a Water User Association and

to obtain a license. • Establishes the District Water Resource Committee. • Sets out the rights and obligations of Water User Associations

and licence holders. • Deals with the acquisition of house and land and compensation.

Electricity Regulation 1993 (2050 BS)

• Sets out the procedure for obtaining a license. • Deals with the acquisition of house and land and compensation. • Sets out the powers, functions and duties of licence holders.

Environment Protection Act 1996 (2053 BS)

• Requires certain persons/bodies to conduct an EIA or IEE. • Deals with the prevention and control of pollution.

Environment Protection Regulation 1997 (2054

• Lists the water related projects required to conduct an EIA or IEE.

118


Act or Regulation Areas Addressed BS)

• Deals with the control of water pollution and pollution control certificate

Drinking Water Regulation 1998 (2055 BS)

• Regulates the use of drinking water. • Provides for the formation of Drinking • Water User Associations and sets out the procedure for

registration. • Deals with licensing of use drinking water. • Deals with the control of water pollution and maintenance of

quality standards for drinking water. • Sets out the conditions of service utilization by consumers. • Provides for the acquisition of house and land and compensation.

Local Self Governance Act 1999 (2055 BS)

• Establishes a decentralised governance structure • Sets out the powers, functions and duties of the VDC,

Municipality and DDC in relation to water and sanitation. • Sets out which natural resources are assets of local bodies and

empowers local bodies to levy a natural resource tax. Local Self Governance Regulation 1999 (2056 BS)

• Sets out the powers, functions and duties of VDC, Municipality and DDC in relation to water and sanitation.

• Establishes the procedure for the formulation of water related plan and project implementation.

Irrigation Regulation 2000 (2056 BS)

• Deals with Irrigation Water User Associations and the transfer of projects to Irrigation Water User Associations.

• Provides for a joint management system by HMGN and Irrigation Water User Association.

• Deals with Irrigation and River Control Committee • Sets out the conditions of service utilisation. • Sets out the obligations of user of irrigation and provides for

service charges. • Deals with the protection, repair and maintenance of irrigation

systems. Source: Water Laws in Nepal – Laws Relating to Drinking Water, Sanitation, Irrigation, Hydropower and Water Pollution, WaterAid Nepal, February 2005


The WRA 1992 contains provisions for the prevention and control of pollution of water resources. It provides that no one shall pollute water resources by placing litter, industrial waste, poisons, chemicals or other toxicants to the effect that it exceeds the pollution tolerance limit. The “pollution tolerance limit” for water resources shall be prescribed by HMGN, by way of a public notice published in the Nepal Gazette. The prescribed officer may examine, or cause to examine, a water resource in order to determine whether or not the water resource has been polluted and if pollution tolerance limit has been exceeded.

The Water Resource Act 1992 further provides that, in utilizing water resources, the user must ensure that there is no substantial adverse effect on the environment such as soil erosion, flood, landslide or other effect; that any person or corporation polluting water resources will incur a fine of up to NRs.5 000 and must pay compensation to any person sustaining a loss as a result of the pollution.

119


The Local Self-Governance Act 1999 establishes environment protection and water resource conservation (including the preservation of water sources) as an important duty of Local bodies. In particular it allows local bodies to impose a fine of up to NRs.15 000 for the dumping of solid waste in a water body (other than in a designated place) plus expenses incurred in removing the waste.

Pollution of Drinking Water

The Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 1989 and the Drinking Water Regulation1998 contain provisions for the prevention and control of pollution of drinking water. The former Act prohibits (a) the pollution of drinking water; (b) provides a penalty of up to NRs.10 000 for violation thereof; and (c) creates a duty in the Nepal Water Supply Corporation to control the pollution of drinking water.

Drinking Water Regulation 1998 also prohibits a drinking water supplier from doing any work or constructing any structure which will pollute the source of the water resource or have a substantial adverse impact on the environment and imposes a duty on a water supplier to maintain a determined quality of water supplied.

Pollution by Irrigation

The Irrigation Regulation 2000 relates to the protection of an irrigation structure and prohibits all people including irrigation service users from the pollution of water resources in the irrigation structure.

Pollution by Hydropower

The Electricity Act 1992 prohibits any substantial adverse effect on the environment by way of soil erosion, flood, landslide or air pollution, etc. while generating, transmitting or distributing electricity.

120


Water and Environment Pollution Control

The Environmental Protection Act 1996 and Environmental Protection Regulation 1997 are the umbrella legislation for all kinds of pollution.

According to the Environment Protection Act 1996, no one is allowed to produce and pollute the natural resources beyond set standards, which could have significant adverse impact on environment or public health and civic life. This substantiates the need to improve control pollution mechanisms for natural resources such as water sources, but they are still lacking. In 1998, the erstwhile Ministry of Population and Environment hired four consultants to develop national environment quality standards, but WQ standards have not still been established in Nepal.

Prohibition on Environmental Pollution

This is mainly governed by the above two pieces of legislation. It is stipulated that nobody shall create pollution in a manner that has a significant adverse impact on the environment, or is likely to be hazardous to life and health of people, or dispose of, or cause to be disposed, sound, heat, radioactive rays and waste from any mechanical device, industrial enterprises, or other place contrary to the prescribed standards.

Further provisions that have been made are: (a) for carrying out of specified acts contrary to the legal provisions and which result in significant adverse impact to the environment, the concerned agency may prescribe necessary terms in regard thereto or may prohibit the carrying out of such an act; and (b) for the use of any substance, fuel, tool or device which appears to have caused, or is likely to cause, significant adverse impact on the environment, the Ministry of Population and Environment may, by a notification in the Nepal Gazette, forbid the use of such substance, fuel, tool or device.

The Local Self Governance Act 1999 also establishes environment protection as a duty of local bodies, in particular it is the duty of the VDC and Municipality to develop and implement various programs on environmental protection and the role of the DDC to protect and promote the environment.

Pollution of Water by Solid Waste

The Solid Waste (Management and Resource Mobilization) Act 1987 contains provisions, which control the adverse impact on the environment caused by solid waste pollution. The Act establishes the SWMRMC as the body responsible for the collection, transportation and disposal of municipal solid waste in safe and environmental friendly manner. In addition, the Local Self-Governance Act 1999 and Regulation 1999 gives the local municipality full responsibility for the management and handling of the solid waste in the municipality.

The Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act 1987 provides that in case of the air, soil or water pollution resulting from solid wastes affects, or is likely to adversely

121


affect, human beings, birds, animals, plants and other living creatures in any area or public place or any inhabited area, necessary arrangements for the eradication of such pollution. The Act also prohibits - (a) throwing, leaving or dumping gas or liquid of any kind in other than pots, containers or places prescribed for the solid waste; (b) allowing the spill over from the septic tanks to escape carelessly; and (c) Throwing, leaving or releasing carelessly waste from an industrial establishment in any street or public place. In addition, orders nay be issued prohibiting the disposal of solid waste including keeping, throwing, burning, burying or otherwise storing, disposing of, or destroying harmful solid waste in any public or any private place considering the welfare and convenience of the public.

Aquatic Ecosystems

The umbrella Environment Protection Act 1996 and the Environment Protection Regulation 1997 clearly recognizes the interdependence between developmental activities and the environment and the need to maintain a clean and healthy environment by minimizing the impacts of environmental degradation. Great emphasis has been given to the proper use and management of the natural resources, including the proper understanding of the assimilative capacities of ecosystems. Provisions have also been made for carrying out Initial Environment Examination and Environment Impact Assessment prior to taking up a project.

The Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961 is the pertinent Act regarding the preservation of the aquatic habitat and provides for an early recognition of the valuable wetlands and aquatic life. The Act provides for punishment to persons using explosives in or poisoning any water source with the intention of catching or killing aquatic life. The Act also empowers the Government to prohibit catching, killing and harming endangered aquatic species.

The 1999 amendment to the Act proposes a minimum of 5 per cent of amenity flow be provided in the river in case of all projects diverting water from rivers and all such projects shall provide fish ladders wherever feasible.

Industries

Prohibition of Industrial Pollution

Pollution generally, including industrial pollution is managed by the Environment Protection Act 1996, the Environment Protection Regulation 1997 and the Industrial Enterprises Act 1992. The former Act and Regulation prohibit industrial pollution. It has been provided that no person shall emit, or cause the emission of noise, heat, radio-active material and waste from any mechanical means, industrial establishment or any other place in contravention of the prescribed standards set by the Ministry by notice published in the Nepal Gazette.


The administration and management of water resources currently is patterned along sub-sector uses in the public sector. Till recently, development rather than management has been

122


the overall approach of water administration, although integrated water resources management on a river basin basis has been the policy thrust of the government since the sixth National Plan.

After enactment of Water Resources Act and related regulations as well as Local Self-Governance Act, there is a definite shift toward community participation in service delivery, greater reliance on the private sector, and planning, regulations as well as management by local government bodies for the water resources development. The government is moving toward pluralistic system of management to conduct the affairs of the State.

Irrigation Policy 1997 has, among others, provided mechanisms for maintaining coordination between agriculture and irrigation at various levels. Similarly, National Water Supply Sector Policy of 1998 visualizes a shift from the traditional role of service provider or implementer to a supporter or facilitators’ role. Overall management of drinking water supply will eventually be handed over to users’ committee and/or private sector management. In the same vein, the Hydropower Policy encourages private sector involvement following the overall economic liberalization policy of the government.

The organizational structure of water administration has three levels, viz., coordination and policy, implementation and operational, and regulatory. At the level of Coordination and Policy, following organizations are in place:

a) National Development Council (NDC) b) National Planning commission (NPC) c) National Water Resources Development Council (NWRDC) d) Water and Energy Commission (WEC) e) Environment Protection Council (EPC)

In the government machinery, the following Ministries by and large are involved in coordination and policy formulation:

a) Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR); b) Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW) c) Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MOEST) d) Ministry of Local Development (MOLD) e) Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MOFSC) f) Water & Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)

At the implementation and operational level, following government departments are involved:

a) Department of Irrigation (DOI) b) Department of Electricity Development (DOED) c) Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention (DWIDP) d) Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (DWSS) e) Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) f) Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DOLIDAR) g) Department of Forest (DOF)

123


h) Department of Soil conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM) i) Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC)

Similarly, at the operational level, there are few para-statal organizations like Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) besides the regional and district offices of the government, and especially constituted boards like the Melamchi Water Supply and Development Board (MWSDB) and Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Board (RWSFDB).

The local Government bodies like District Development Committees (DDCs), Village Development Committees (VDCs) and Municipalities as well as NGOs and Community-based Organizations (CBOs) like Water Users’ Committees and Associations also operate at the operational level.

The policy shift to community participation and private sector involvement has necessitated behavioural changes in government institutions and strengthening of relevant non-governmental institutions. Operationalization of this policy thrust is moving too slowly and needs to be addressed, as a matter of urgency. Appropriately trained senior officers capable of bringing about the required institutional changes and other necessary supporting resources need to be mobilized as a matter of top priority. The targets that have been set out in the recently approved NWP 2005 and adopted by the Government for phase-wise implementation are generally in conformity with the NWRS 2002. The emphasis will be on the following initiatives:

• The focus of the institutional mechanism program, during the short-term (Tenth Plan 2002 – 2007), will be to streamline the governance system by restructuring and empowering the central level institutions including WECS. Similarly focus will be given in to empower and make effective the district level institution including DWRC.

• The IWRM and river basin planning concept will be institutionalized in different levels of water administration.

• NEA will be restructured and corporatization will be made more effective with concrete steps taken to unbundle its various units.

• In the mid-term plan covering the following ten years (from 2007 – 2017), WECS will be fulfilling its mandate with adequate human and financial resources. Major river basin planning units will be established and made functional. Implementation capacities of local level institutions will be considerably enhanced in the spirit of decentralization by establishing and strengthening sub-basin committees with the help of effective DWRC. A separate autonomous rural electrification agency will be established and will be functioning satisfactorily, while the electricity sector in general will be operating in a truly competitive mode with several private sector operators.

• By the end of the long-term plan covering the next ten-year period (from 2017 - 2027), most of the water related institutions will be functioning efficiently in tune with the changing circumstances.

The organogram presented as Figure 4.3 illustrates the relationships that exist between the main government ministries and agencies and their inter-relationships.

Regulatory Mechanism

124


Though regulation is an important function of the government, there are no permanent and full time regulatory bodies as such in place. However, there are Committees and Commission that have been given this responsibility. Amongst others, mention needs to be made of bodies like the District Water Resources Committee (DWRC), the Water Resources Utilization Investigation Committee, the Water Source Dispute Resolution Committee and Electricity Tariff Fixation Commission (ETFC), which have been established under different Acts, to regulate tariff fixation and for dispute resolutions in the water sector. These agencies have not been able to function effectively on the whole and there is the need for a clear separation of roles of implementer and regulator.

The Drinking Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission Ordinance 2005 was promulgated in April 2005 to provide reliable and quality water supply and sanitation services to consumers at reasonable cost and to protect the interest of the consumers. The Ministry of Physical Planning and Works is currently in the process of setting up the Commission concurrently with major institutional reforms that are being introduced in the Nepal Water Supply Corporation.

Figure 4.3 Organogram of Government Ministries and Organizations

Role of NGOs

The institutionalization of civil society in Nepal is relatively recent, but has seen dramatic growth in relatively short period of time. The PRSP values their contribution in the socio-economic development of Nepal, and has placed a significant emphasis on their enhanced participation in the planning, management and monitoring of development activities.

Nepal’s Foreign Aid Policy-2002, which forms an integral part of the overall policy for mobilizing external resources for development, calls for donors, INGO and NGOs for

125


enhanced transparency and realignment of their resources with the national and local government priorities.

The emphasis of the policy is to:

• Foster a spirit of mutual understanding and partnership that will lead to improved development impact,

• Reduce compartmentalization and improve integration, consistency and compatibility, • Encourage INGOs and NGOs to contribute to and strengthen the national development

process rather than functioning independently and outside of government priorities. The external resources channel through INGOs will thus be closely monitored, and their use will be made more transparent to the public.

Although there are many NGOs active in social development, human rights and advocacy activities, very few of them work exclusively on water, sanitation and hygiene promotion at the national level. These national level NGOs engage local civil society groups to deliver water supply and sanitation projects. Because of their community focus, NGOs are found to be more effective in the implementation and software aspects of water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WSH) programme delivery. Not all NGOs are capable, however. With proper capacity building support, NGOs have proved to be good partners in assisting the communities to develop and implement WSH. Remote and poorer districts have limited number of NGOs and have capacity constraints. It will, therefore, be necessary to strengthen their capacity.

Some of the larger INGOs that have a long record of involvement in water, sanitation and hygiene are WaterAid /UK, DISVI International/Italy, Winrock International/USA, PLAN International, Action Aid/UK, HELVETAS and the Red Cross Society of Japan. Local national level NGOs that deserve mention are WaterAid Nepal, Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH), Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation, Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha (Water Resources Development Organization – functioning as the country partner of Global Water Partnership), SAPPROS, National Federation of Irrigation Water Users Associations of Nepal (NFIWUAN), Action Aid Nepal and Lumanti Support Group for Shelter (LUMANTI).


This section deals specifically with the gaps and inconsistencies that exist in the present legal regime with respective to water resources development and conservation. The lack of a comprehensive integrated policy and conflicting legislation has led to conflicts in usage of water resources. Though the main thrust of both the NWRS 2002 and the NWP 2005 is to follow the principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM), this has not been fully implemented. The following aspects are lacking:

• accepting and mainstreaming the principles IWRM and river basin concepts in all water policies and water resources development activities;

• implementing an appropriate Decision Support System in relevant water planning agencies; • developing river basin plans for all the basins; and

126


• establishing appropriate institutions for river basin planning.

The legal issues that have not been adequately addressed are:

• non-specificity of water rights and ownership; • lack of sub-ordinate enabling legislation; • lack of harmony amongst related legislations; and • lack of adequate legal provisions to encourage private sector participation in multi-purpose

projects.

A review of the existing legislation has also shown that there exist inconsistencies in the Water Resources Act (WRA) and the various regulations that have been formulated there-under. Conflicting provisions exist in the WRA and the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) regarding the right over water resources. Similarly, customary water rights have been ensured by the Country Codes (Mulki Ain) which is again in conflict with the WRA.

Gaps also exist in the policies and legal provisions with respect to aquatic ecosystem management as broader issues have not been encompassed. Conflicting provisions and lack of clear jurisdiction also exist. Furthermore, timely amendments and improvements have not kept pace with the country’s demand and the international scenario.

Issues Relating to Institutional Reforms

The water policy framework has suggested the need to develop the resource in an integrated and sustainable manner involving stakeholders in all water management initiatives. From the review of the existing government organizations in the water sector, the absence of an appropriate institutional framework for an integrated management becomes apparent. There is also a need to create new organizations, redefine functions of some of the existing organizations, rationalization of organizational structure, and restructure some organizations to achieve the stated objectives enumerated in the Water Resources Strategy. Problems relating to institutional framework and mechanism, which were identified in the NWRS 2002, still persist and are:

• Absence of an effective central planning organization (despite mandating WECS as central water planning body);

• Blurred responsibilities between policy, implementation, operational and regulatory institutions;

• Absence of an institutional framework for coordinated and integrated development; • Jurisdictional overlaps and the challenges of maintaining coordination between public and

local bodies; and • Absence of an effective mechanism for an institutional cooperation for the development of

tansboundary and Boundary Rivers.

The most remarkable gap may be said to be the lack of an effective regulatory mechanism. The existing legislation does make provisions for regulation with respect to various requirements. There are also overlaps and inconsistencies in the functions and duties of the different implementing regulating agencies. There is an absence of clear-cut divisions of responsibilities.

127


In the case of the water supply and sanitation sector, it can be said that drinking water quality standards, effluent standards, and other quality standards have not been effectively enforced and monitored. Additionally, tariffs are not being fixed rationally and sector performance is not being systematically monitored and regulated.


The gaps that exist in the legal provisions that have been with respect to water resources, in general, and the aquatic ecosystem of rivers, with specific reference to river water quality, have been discussed above. An attempt has also been made to identify the major driving forces, pressures and impacts in the overall environmental and socio-economic context.

The intervening period has also seen some noteworthy responses to these forces, pressures and impacts. Realizing that water resources must be addressed from the point of view of its importance ecologically, economically and socially, government and other organizations have initiated actions towards the adoption of appropriate sector reforms and related development programmes. But much still remains to be done in view of the policy and the information gaps that exist in solid waste management. Similarly, with respect to water quality and pollution control, many industries still do not have treatment plants, discharge of untreated domestic sewage direct into rivers is still prevalent, water disputes between agricultural and drinking water needs still continue and the practice of trade off between the two still needs to be imbibed. Finally, as already highlighted above, the policy and legal provisions for managing both the urban and the aquatic environment encompassing the many inter-related sectors continue to be most crucial.

In the light of the preceding discussions on the various issues, the major actions that need to be taken urgently have been recommended below.

• Remove conflicting provisions between the Water Resources Act and the Local Self Governance Act, the Country Codes (Mulki Ain) and other Acts which relate to water resources use and management

• Initiate actions for processing the proposed National Water Resources Development Policy (2004) and the draft Water Resources Act and Regulations (2004) that have been formulated and proposed for consideration in the National Water Plan 2005

• Improve environmental database system • Establish meteorological and hydrological data systems and study their impacts on the critical

and prioritized watersheds and ecosystems • Prepare pollution status database for the major aquatic resources • Ensure mainstreaming of integrated water resources management and river basin planning

concepts • Prepare plans and progammes in line with the Solid Waste Management Policy of 1993 and

refine/improve upon existing legislation to also include hazardous wastes • Establish regulatory mechanisms for effective monitoring and evaluation • Introduce a water quality monitoring programme at the national and regional levels • Adopt and enforce industrial effluent standards

128


• Define hazardous wastes and formulate appropriate policies, legislation and guidelines for their management

• Strengthen the implementation capacity at the national, regional, district and local levels.

In conclusion, a conscious effort needs to be made towards integrating environmental planning to development planning if the overall national goal of sustainable development is to be attained.

4.8 References

Bajracharya, K. (2004) Water Quality Issues and Status in Nepal. Paper presented in the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality held in Kathmandu, Nepal from June 29–July 2, 2004.

Devkota, S.R. and Neupane, C.P. (1994) Industrial Pollution Inventory of the Kathmandu Valley and Nepal. Kathmandu: Industrial Pollution Control Management Project, HMG/MOI/UNIDO/91029

DHM (2002) Water Quality of Rivers of Nepal. Kathmandu: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

DWSS (2001) Establishing National Drinking Water Standards and Programs for Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal (under WHO Country Program NEP PHE 001, 2001/01)

DWSS (2002) DWSS National Drinking Water Quality Standards. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, National Task Force on Drinking Water Quality Standards.

ENPHO (2000) Ground Water Arsenic Contamination in Terai Tubewells. Kathmandu: Nepal Red Cross Society/Environment & Public Health Organization (ENPHO)

GWRDP (2000) Surface Water Monitoring in Kathmandu Valley – Monsoon Report. Kathmandu: Ground Water Resources Development Project (for Melamchi Water Supply Development Board)

HMGN (1990) Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1992) Electricity Act (1992). Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1993) Electricity Regulation (1993). Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1996) Environment Protection Act 1996. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

129


HMGN (1997) Drinking Water Regulations. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1997) Environment Protection Regulations 1997. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1999) Local Self Governance Act 1999. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (1999) Local Self Governance Regulations 1999. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (2000) Irrigation Regulations 2000. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal

HMGN (2001) Nepal Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu: Ministry of Population & Health/Family Health Division

HMGN; UNDP (2002) Progress Report 2002 - Millennium Development Goals. Kathmandu: His Majesty’s Government of Nepal and United Nations Development Program

NDWQS (2005) A Brief Introduction on the Final Version of NDWQS in Nepal. Kathmandu: Task Force for National Drinking Water Quality Standards

NWP (2005) National Water Plan, Water Resources Strategy Formulation Phase III. Kathmandu: MWR/WECS

NWP (2004) National Water Plan – Background Papers on Irrigation, Hydropower, Water Supply and Sanitation, Other Economic Uses of Water, Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems, and Policy and Legal Framework. Kathmandu: MWR/WECS

NWRS (2002) Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002. Kathmandu: MWR/WECS

Shrestha, R.R.; Shrestha, J.; and Manandhar, A. (2004) Monitoring of Transboundary Rivers – Bagmati and Narayani (May 2002-April 2004). Status paper presented in the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality held in Kathmandu, Nepal from June 29– July 2, 2004.

UNDP (2004) Human Development Report 2004 – Empowerment of Women. Kathmandu: United Nations Development Programme

UNEP (2001) State of the Environment Nepal 2001. Kathmandu: MOPE, ICIMOD, SACEP, NORAD

UNICEF (2004) UNICEF – Nepal – Statistics (www.unicef.org/infobycountry/nepal_nepal_statistics.html)

WAN (2005) Water Laws in Nepal – Laws Relating to Drinking Water, Sanitation, Irrigation, Hydropower and Water Pollution. Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal

130

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/nepal_nepal_statistics.html


WAN (2005a) Draft Country Strategy: 2005/06 – 2009/10. Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal

WRA (1992) Water Resources Act 1992. Kathmandu: HMGN/MWR

131

Deliverable 6 – Volume II: Country Reports - Pakistan

5 Pakistan Country Report

5.1 River System

The water resources of Pakistan consist of surface flows from glaciers snow melt, rainfall and groundwater. The surface water resources depend on the Indus River and its five major tributaries joining from eastern sides – the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. After the Indus Basin Treaty between India and Pakistan in 1960, the availability of water to Pakistan has become limited to the three western rivers of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab, while India is entitled to divert flows of Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The mean annual rainfall distribution in Pakistan has a broad regional variation and ranges between 125 mm in Balochistan (Southeast) to 750 mm in the Northwest. About 70 percent of the annual rainfall occurs in the months of July to September (monsoon period) thus causing loss of most of the run-off in the lower Indus plains to the sea without any significant economic benefit to the country.

The three western rivers bring in about 171 billion cubic meter (BCM) of water annually. The Indus River alone provides 64% of the total river flows, while the share of Jhelum and Chenab is 17% and 19% respectively. Most of the groundwater resources exist in 1600 km long Indus plain extending from Himalayan foothills to the Arabian Sea over an area of 21 million hectare. This aquifer with a potential of about 62 BCM is being exploited to an extent of about 47 BCM. The Indus River basin has been shown in the Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Major Rivers of Pakistan

133


Out of the total developed water resources, agriculture sector, which utilizes 96%, is the major user of water. The urban and rural sectors use less than 3% of average river inflows to meet domestic water requirements. However, problem of scarcity of water is steadily rising mainly due to population growth, urbanization and industrialization.

At the time of independence, Pakistan was a water-rich country with per capita annual water availability of 5600 m3 but now the country has become water deficit with per capita annual water availability of less than 1200 m3. In 2004, Pakistan stated a population growth rate of 1.9% while the projected figures reached 173 million by 2010 and 221 million by 2025. These estimates suggest that the country would slip below the limit of 1000 m3 per capita per year from 2010 onwards. Total requirements for domestic (urban and rural), commercial, industrial and livestock are estimated to be 12.34 BCM by the year 2010, and 19.7 BCM by 2020. However, more than 80 percent of domestic, municipal and industrial diversions return to the system with degraded quality.

5.2 Socio-Economic Status and Indicators

Socio-Economic Status

The total arable land of Pakistan is estimated at 28% with permanent crop cover of about 1% (approximately 22 million hectares) and others at 71%. Of the country's total area 24% is

134


cultivated of which about 80% is irrigated. Forests and grazing lands cover about 4% about 31% is not suitable for agriculture and approximately 2% is under urban cover.

Pakistan's population in mid-2004 was estimated at 148.72 million – about 2% higher than previous year. Though the growth rate has decelerated from 3.06% in 1981 to 1.9% in 2004, the population is likely to exceed 200 million by 2010.

Pakistan's economy has made significant progress over the last 5 years. Wide ranging structural reforms, prudent macroeconomic policies, financial discipline and a consistency and continuity in policies has transformed Pakistan into a stable and resurgent economy. The economic profile is shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Economic Profile Annual Per Capita Income Rs. 28,933 ( US$ 492 approximately) GDP 5.1% Imports Industrial equipment, chemicals, vehicles, steel, iron ore, petroleum,

edible oil, pulses Exports Cotton, textile goods, rice, leather, carpets, sports goods, handicrafts,

fish, fruit Agricultural Growth 23.3% Major Crops Cotton, Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane Industry Growth Rates 23.5% Major Industries Textiles, Cement, Fertilizer, Steel, Sugar, Electric goods, Shipbuilding Services 53.2% Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2003-04, Government of Pakistan

135



Pakistan's performance in social indicators (health, literacy, water and sanitation, contraceptive prevalence) does not compare well with the average performance of middle-income countries. The access to and quality of rural service and infrastructure is far below those available in urban area. Pakistan's development experience has fallen considerably short of the existing criteria of sustainable human development with severely adverse consequences for the environment. Some of the results are manifested in the form of roughly 38% of Pakistan's irrigated land has become water logged and 14 % saline.

Health impact of air, water pollution and productivity losses from deforestation and soil erosion were valued at US$ 1.71 billion i.e. 3.3% of GNP in the early 1990s.

Some relevant socio-economic indicators obtained from UNICEF 2004 are presented in the Table 5.2. It may be noted that the statistical data shown below may be different to the information quoted elsewhere. The UNICEF data have been adopted for uniformity with those for other countries of the Region for more meaningful comparison as presented in Volume I Synthesis Report.

Table 5.2 Some Selected Socio-Economic Indicators Socio-economic Parameter Indicator

Population (2003) Urban Rural

153,578,000 29% 71%


90% 95% 87%


54% 92% 35%


57% 28%

Source: UNICEF 2004

5.3 Most Relevant Socio-Economic Pressures and Impacts

Scarcity together with increasing competition between the multiple users has adversely affected quality of water. This situation has been further aggravated due to the recent prolonged drought throughout the country. The main cause of problem of water is improper and untreated disposal of sewerage, industrial wastes and saline drainage effluents in freshwater bodies, lack of treatment facilities, contamination through extensive use of agro-

136


chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), saline water intrusion in fresh aquifers. Each is discussed in following sections.

Water Quality Status

Surface Water Quality

The first national study on the quality of water was carried out by Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) in 21 cities, 6 rivers and 10 reservoirs and lakes. Bacterial contamination is very frequent in the country, particularly with the pressure of coliform bacteria. In 17 cities, bacterial contamination is greater than 50% and in 4 of these cities, 100% of the samples were considered as unsuitable for human consumption. The inorganic contamination is also very high, particularly with fluorides, iron, sulphur and sulphates. A second study was launched in 2004 and preliminary results indicated that no appreciable improvement has been made in the above-described conditions.

Table 5.3: Seasonal Water Quality of Major Rivers in Pakistan TDS (mg/l) Major River Sampling Location

Summer Winter Indus Darband 94-200 140-217 Kabul Nowshera 112-290 170-416 Jhelum Mangla 88-170 100-250 Chenab Alexandria Bridge 84-175 116-300 Ravi Shahdara 116-226 130-210 Sutlej Sulaimanki 100-276 125-340

Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

The situation is even more critical in areas where, in 113 out of 120 districts, less than half the population has access to proper drinking water and in 30 districts the figure is less than 10%, the most critical situation is found in Punjab (16 districts). It is estimated that 40 million residents depend on irrigation water for their domestic use, especially in areas where the groundwater was brackish. The contamination of irrigation water by coliform bacteria exceeds the limits set by WHO for unlimited irrigation and, therefore, exceeds the limits for drinking water.

Contamination by arsenic is becoming a serious problem. In Punjab and Sindh approximately 36% of population is exposed to level so contamination higher than 10 ppb and 16% is exposed to contamination of 50 ppb.

Groundwater Quality

The ground water quality varies vertically and horizontally ranging from fresh with TDS less than 1000 mg/l to extremely hazardous exceeding 3000 mg/l. Zuberi 1999 reported that about 57% and 50% of Indus Plain is underlain by useable groundwater up to a depth of 38 m (Table 5.4) and 106 m (Table 5.5) respectively. Groundwater is fresh in strips along the rivers and it deteriorates towards the center of Doabs (area between two rivers). The ground water quality in NWFP is generally better as compared to Punjab and Sindh provinces.

137


Table 5.4 Area in Percentage with Different Groundwater Quality (depth 38 m) % Area with Different TDS (mg/l) Level Province Gross Area

(million ha) <1000 1000-1500 1500-3000 >3000 NWFP 0.4 82.4 5.2 12.4 0.0 Sindh & Balochistan

6.3 17.2 6.6 13.8 62.4

Total 16.5 47.5 9.9 11.4 31.2 Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

Table 5.5 Area in Percentage with Different Groundwater Quality (depth 106 m) % Area with Different TDS (mg/l) Level Province Gross Area

(million ha) <1000 1000-1500 1500-3000 >3000 Punjab 9.8 55.7 13.8 13.5 17.0 NWFP 0.4 82.4 5.2 12.4 0.0 Sindh & Balochistan 6.3 9.8 5.3 8.8 76.1 Total 16.5 38.9 10.4 11.9 38.8 Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects Monitoring Organization (SMO) of Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) monitors changes in water quality of deep discharge tube wells installed in selected Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) during 1960s-1980s (SMO, 1994). With the passage of time, the water quality in various SCARPs except in Larkana Pilot Project deteriorated due to heavy pumpage (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Changes in Tubewells Water Quality with Time Water Quality (%) SCARP Year Tubewells

Tested (No.) Useable Marginal

Hazardous

Punjab 1962-63 1720 38 40 22 SCARP-I 1984-85 1687 37 39 24 1975-76 1685 62 28 10 SCARP-II (Fresh Zone) 1986-88 1762 59 29 12 1980-81 632 53 15 32 SCARP-II (Saline Zone) 1986-88 490 43 15 42 1976-78 101 87 10 3 Shor Kot-Kamalia Pilot

Project 1985-86 87 81 18 1 1979-80 184 70 15 15 Minchinabad 1987-88 179 48 26 26

Sindh 1965-66 478 58 13 29 Khairpur 1987-88 240 54 19 27 1977-78 662 77 17 6 North Rohri 1987-88 665 71 22 7 1976-77 33 88 12 0 Larkana Pilot Project 1987-88 19 95 5 0 1978-79 335 93 6 1 Sukkur R.B 1987-88 308 94 5 1

NWFP 1975-80 156 89 10 1 Peshawar 1987-88 138 93 6 1

138


Water Quality (%) SCARP Year Tubewells Tested (No.) Useable Margina

l Hazardou

s 1978-83 173 65 27 8 Banu 1987-88 165 59 25 16 1979-81 62 95 5 0 Yar Hussain Sharif 1987-88 62 97 3 0 1975-76 7 29 29 42 Khanwand 1984-85 4 50 25 25


Contrary to the other provinces, the quality in NWFP was improved except in Banu SCARP where slight deterioration was observed.

Domestic Sewage and Industrial Wastes

The surface water quality is deteriorating in urban as well as in rural areas mainly due to disposal of untreated sewage wastewater and industrial effluents directly or indirectly to the freshwater bodies. Ahmed and Ali (1999) indicated that annually about 2.48 billion m3 of sewage water is available from major cities of Pakistan (Table 5.7). On the basis of projected population of 208 millions in year 2025, the total domestic water requirement would be about 10 Bm3 and the annual sewerage flow would be about 8 billion m3. Lahore puts much of its untreated municipal sewage into the River Ravi, which is used for irrigation and potable supply further downstream. In Quetta, municipal wastewater is conveyed to a watercourse from which it is pumped for irrigating the vegetables.

Dumping of untreated municipal and industrial wastes have caused contamination of surface and groundwater sources and threatened the aquatic life (GOP, 2000). Since the groundwater is the main source of water in most of the cities, there is great stress on this source and its excessive use has seriously affected its quality and incidences of water-borne diseases.

Table 5.7 Annual Generation of Industrial and Domestic Effluent of Major Cities (billion m3) City Industrial Domestic TotalKarachi 0.36 0.76 1.12 Hyderabad - 0.03 0.03 Quetta - 0.01 0.01 Multan 0.08 0.08 0.16 Faisalabad 0.11 0.09 0.20 Kasur 0.02 - 0.02 Lahore 0.13 0.55 0.68 Rawalpindi/Islamabad 0.02 0.10 0.12 Attock 0.04 0.01 0.05 Mianwali 0.00 0.00 0.01 Bhakkar 0.00 0.00 0.00 Eiah 0.00 0.00 0.01 D.G.Khan 0.01 0.01 0.01 Peshawar 0.01 0.04 0.05

139


Total 0.78 1.69 2.48 Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

140


Lack of Treatment Facilities

Presently, most of the large cities in Pakistan have no waste treatment facilities. Ahmed (2002) cited that sewage treatment plants have only been built at Karachi, Islamabad and Hyderabad but treatment is intermittent and partial (Table 5.8). In Karachi, treatment capacity is available for only 0.2 of the 1.3 million cubic meters per day of effluent produced. Very few industries have wastewater treatment facilities, which are also either not functioning or not working up to their design levels (FFC, 2004).

Table 5.8 Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment Facilities City Flow

MCM BOD Load T/d

Treatment Type Disposal Remarks

Karachi 2.497 770 Trickling filters TP-I & II Aerated Lagoons

Sea Sea

Inadequate Treatment Working Properly

Islamabad 0.318 75 Activated sludge Nullah Lei

Performance not to the desired level

Hyderabad 0.714 28 WSPs Indus Working Inadequate Lahore 1.816 440 Anaerobic WSPs Ravi Planning stage Faisalabad 0.318 100 WSPs Chenab To be started shortly Peshawat 0.136 40 Activated & WSPs Kabul Only for Hayatabad Multan 0.272 62 WSPS Chenab Planning Stage Quetta 0.023 6 WSPS Soil Planning stage Total 5.494 1,521 --- --- ---


Disposal of Hospital Wastes

Hospital wastes include infectious wastes, like cultures from laboratories, surgery and autopsies of infected patients, infected animals, pathological waste tissues, organs, body parts, blood, used needles, syringes, genotoxic wastes, cytotoxic drugs and unused pharmaceutical products. The city-wise hospital-waste generated is given in Table 5.9 As per standards, though only 20% of the total hospital-waste is infectious, it has been found that in cities all the non-infectious waste is mixed together during its collection at the patient-bed, operation-theaters, etc. Therefore, all the waste becomes infectious, hazardous and risky (Ahmed 2002).

Table 5.9 Hospital Wastes Generated in Major Cities Cities Total Beds

(No.) Hospital Wastes*

(kg/d) Infectious Wastes

(%) Karachi 30000 42000 20 Lahore 19000 26600 22 Hyderabad 9000 12600 12 Gujranwala 2000 2800 6 Faisalabad 2000 2800 10 Peshwar 1000 1400 4 *The figure is based on average collection of wastes at 1.40Kg/bed/day


141


Disposal of Saline Drainage Effluent

Disposal of saline drainage effluent has been a problem in the country due to socio-political and unfavorable geo-hydrological conditions. The lower part of the Indus Basin has an access to the sea and effluent from this area is disposed off through the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) and Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD). In the northern half of Pakistan, however, disposal presents a real problem. Haider (2000) reported that drainage effluent of about 13.45 billion m3 with various qualities being generated from completed SCARPs (Table 5.10). Currently, most of the effluent is being discharged directly into canals, rivers or evaporation ponds, which are not environmentally safe.

Table 5.10 Disposal of Saline Drainage Effluent (billion m3) Disposal Province Quantity

Canals Rivers Ponds Sea A. Existing Punjab 1.88 0.48 0.79 0.61 - Sindh/Balochastan 1.17 0.63 0.54 - - Total 3.05 1.11 1.33 0.61 - B. Total Anticipated (including existing) Punjab 3.63 0.75 1.51 1.37 - Sindh/Balochastan 9.82 0.92 1.46 0.03 7.41 Total 13.45 1.67 2.97 1.40 7.41


Contamination through Use of Agro-Chemicals

Pollution of soil and water source is likely to increase with excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Figures 5.2 and 5.3 depict the consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides over the period in Pakistan. The consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has increased to above 100 and 500% respectively since 1985 (MINFAL 2004). Almost 76% of all pesticides in Pakistan are used on cotton crops to kill the vector of cotton-leaf curl virus (white fly). Some of the hazardous pesticides used in the country are given in Table 3.11.

Figure 5.2 Consumption of Fertilizers in Pakistan


142


Figure 5.3 Consumption of Pesticides in Pakistan


Table 5.11 Hazardous Pesticides in use in Pakistan Generic Name LD*50 (mg/Kg)

Aldicarb, Azinphos-methyl 35.42 Brodifacoum 19 Captatol, Carbofuran, Chlor-Fenvinphos 16,41,24 Dischlorvas, disrotophos, dieldrin, disulfoton 36,54,12,25 Fenthion,flucythrinate 30,34 Isothioate, Isoxatheon 19,18 Mephosfolan, Methomidophos, Methidathion, Methomyl, Mevimphos

17,16,15,17

Oxydemeton-methyl 21 Parathion-methyl Phosphamidon, Prothoate 20,39,15 Sodium Cyanide 16 Thiofanox, Thiometon, Trizophos 18,19,22 Vamidothion 35 Sinc Phosphate 16 *LD 50 (mg/kg). It is a statistical estimate; the number of mg of toxicant 1 per kg of body weight requires to kill 50% of a large population of test animals. Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

Groundwater contamination from fertilizer is the result of nutrient losses from the soil. These losses occur due to either leaching of NO3-N or erosion of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The surface water resources are being contaminated runoff from the agricultural fields. SAF 1997 indicated pesticide residues in fruits, vegetables and cows’ milk, fodder and cattle drinking water.

Saline Water Intrusion

Both the public and private sectors began unplanned pumping of groundwater, which has rapidly increased from 3 to 50 billion m3 during the last 40 years. As a result of uncontrolled or uneven and unbalanced groundwater abstraction, water level has dropped in freshwater areas. Due to this difference in water level, the saline water has started moving towards fresh groundwater areas. The boundaries of freshwater and saline water have now shifted to new place from their old position. This is more likely to happen at those places where transition

143


from saline groundwater is rather abrupt and interface between fresh and saline groundwater is steep.

Impact

The high pollution level of rivers and groundwater lead to different environmental consequences such as reduction of biodiversity, increase in water related diseases and decrease in agricultural productivity. In addition, mismanagement of water resources has strong socio-economic repercussions, especially on food security and health. Impact on health due to agricultural pollution on water resources is not yet properly investigated.

Due to water shortage and accompanying pollution and deforestation, many wild animals, plants, aquatic species, birds and other forms of flora and fauna are affected and many of these may be annihilated. Therefore, the biodiversity in Sindh is at risk as biotic potential of many species is starting to be diminished and many of them may be lost for ever if the environmental devastation due to water shortage is not reversed or properly controlled.

It is estimated that 30% of all the reported cases of illness and 40% of deaths in Pakistan are attributable to water born diseases.

The poor quality of water, especially which, which is commonly consumed, has major socio-economic consequences for Pakistan. A study carried out by UNICEF has revealed that 20 to 40% of the hospital beds were occupied by patients suffering from water related diseases. Diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery and hepatitis are responsible for 33% of deaths. In addition to this, there are many other illness related to toxic substances being disposed off in industrial effluents.

Irrigation water does not satisfy the quality standard which leads to contamination of vegetables cultivated in certain regions further increasing the risk of human health.

With the reduction in Indus water flows, most of the rural Sindh is in a grip of severe economic downturn. People are unable to cultivate their lands due to lack of water and have started to use groundwater resources where feasible. As a result, the water table has been depressed up to twice as much as it used to be from the ground level. Tubewells of many landowners became inoperable and they had to spend more money to deepen the wells. The situation is so bad that people are quitting cultivation altogether as it is not profitable anymore. It has been estimated that about 1.01 million ha of land is close to being devastated after remaining uncultivated.

Uncontrolled extraction of groundwater has caused its depletion outside the Indus basin and drying up of some of the sources. The water table has dropped mainly due to extended dry periods of drought. The drying up of wells has important social consequences, particularly on the women and children responsible for water collection. The Indus basin water table is dropping in certain areas due to rates of extraction exceeding the rate of replenishments. As in Islamabad where the drop has been 50 feet between 1986 and 2001 while in Lahore the drop has been about 20 feet between 1993 and 2001. In Peshawar the drop rate has been n a

144


lesser extent however estimates show that without an artificial recharging, groundwater in sub basin of Quetta would be exhausted by 2016.

The canal system lacks waterproof lining which results in colossal amount of water wastage. It is estimated that losses in transportation of water in the canals amount to 52% while inappropriate irrigation practices result in an additional 25% water losses. The total efficiency of irrigation therefore is a mere 35%.

The gentle slope of Indus basin limits effective natural drainage resulting in a rise in water table in several parts of the basin causing partial waterlogging. In 2004, the area affected by disastrous level of waterlogging was estimated at 1.97 million ha. Due to water logging the salts present in the soil rise up to the surface making it unusable for any vegetation and agriculture. This problem has reached severe extremes in area where groundwater is already brackish.

At preset, 70% of the water flowing in the rivers is diverted to the irrigation canals. With the construction of dams and reservoirs, the flow in the rivers is greatly reduced downstream. This presents a problem of rapid sedimentation in the reservoirs. This has also disrupted the environmental equilibrium in Indus delta. Prior to dams, the sediments carried by the Indus gradually extended the delta. After the construction of dams and the irrigation networks, the water flow and volume of sediments at the delta have decreased greatly, the two results of this being the intrusion of sea 25 km into the delta during the dry season and coastal erosion. The salinity in the delta has changed due to the shortages of fresh water. The mangrove forest is being depleted at an alarming rate of 2% per year thus endangering biodiversity in the area. On the other hand, intrusion of sea into the delta contributes to rising of soil salinity, which reduces soil fertility and leads to a rural exodus towards urban centers.

Past and Current Efforts in Water Quality Monitoring

Past Efforts

Surface Water Hydrology Directorate of WAPDA initiated water quality monitoring during 1960s. But these activities were restricted to periodic collection and analysis of water samples from a few sites on major rivers. Once it was ensured that chemical quality of river water was better, the monitoring of river water quality was suspended by the Directorate. During 1970s and 1980s, Central Monitoring Organization (CMO) of WAPDA monitored changes in groundwater quality of the selected SCARPs only. Moreover, some studies on individual basis have also been conducted for specific rivers like Ravi River. The fore-going discussions on water quality monitoring are based on the data being monitored by these two organizations.

Current Efforts

Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR), which was formally known as the Irrigation Drainage and Flood Control Research Council (IDFCRC0, has been actively

145


engaged in conducting, coordinating and promoting research and development activates in all fields of water resources including water quality since 1985 under administrative control of Ministry of Science and Technology. PCRWR has established and strengthened its six research Centers across the country. These centers have fully equipped with latest water analyses capabilities. In addition to these, PCRWR has also taken following eight initiatives to address various water quality emerging issues:

• National Water Quality Monitoring Programme • Water Quality Monitoring in Rural Areas of Pakistan • Demarcation of Groundwater Quality Zones • Quality Analysis of Bottled Mineral Water • Development of low Cost Arsenic Removal Technologies • Development of Low Cost Water Testing Kit • Testing of Fluoride and Nitrate in Selected Cities of Pakistan • Development of Low Cost Arsenic Testing Kit • Development of Low Cost Chlorinators for Improving Quality of Drinking Water in Flood

Prone Areas of Sindh and Balochistan

National Water Quality Monitoring Programme was started in 2001 with the objectives to establish a permanent water quality-monitoring network across the country:

• to monitor changes in surface and ground water quality, and ground water levels; • to set up a national water quality data bank; • to prepare national water quality map; and • to suggest remedial measures for improving the water quality.

A permanent water quality-monitoring network has been established comprising 21 major cities, 6 rivers, 8 reservoirs and lakes (Table 5.12).

Table 5.12 Water Quality Monitoring Network Monitoring

Centres Cities Reservoirs Rivers, Lakes and

Drains Islamabad Islamabad, Rawalpindi &

Gujrat Simly, Rawal,Khanpur,Tarbela, Mangala & Chashma

Jhelum & Chenab

Lahora Lahore, Sialkot, Sheikhupura, Gujranwala, Faisalabad & Kasur

- Ravi

Bahawalpur Bahawalpur & Multan - Sutlej Tandojam Hyderabad, Karachi & Sukkar Hub Indus, LBOD,

RBOD, Manchhar & Hamal

Quetta Quetta, Khuzdar, Loralai & Ziarat

- Hanna

Peshawar Peshawar, Mardan & Mangora

- Indus & Kabul

Total 21 7 11 Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

146


A permanent water quality monitoring network in rural areas is proposed to be established during 2004/05.

PCRWR (2002, 2003, and 2004) has published three reports containing huge water quality data on various parameters and the same have been circulated among policy makers, planners, researchers, water supply agencies, user community, etc. Data is also available on website of PCRWR (www.pcrwr.gov.pk). The reports suggested protective and remedial measures for safe supply of drinking water. The results show that bacteriological quality of water is generally poor (Table 5.13).

147

http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/


Table 5.13 Bacterial Contamination (% of Sample) City 2001 2002 2003

Islamabad 74 40 65 Faisalabad 79 38 38 Bahawalpur 76 68 52 Gujranwala 57 71 43 Gujrat 100 78 78 Kasur 70 40 50 Lahore 13 56 44 Multan 87 56 31 Rawalpindi 87 64 73 Sheikhupura 64 28 36 Sialkot 40 40 70 Hyderabad 73 100 100 Karachi 61 82 97 Sukkur 84 83 75 Khuzdar 100 63 82 Loralai 100 90 100 Quetta 50 49 52 Ziarat 100 100 100 Mangora 60 56 40 Mardan 84 75 75 Peshawar 69 46 31


Studies have also been undertaken on fluoride and iron concentrations in surface and groundwater. The extent of contamination has been presented in the following two figures. However, chemical quality varies from city to city, reservoir to reservoir, and river to river. In some districts of Punjab and Sindh, nitrate and fluoride traces have been found which is dangerous for human health. The following two tables illustrate fluoride and iron contaminations (Figure 5.4 and 5.5).

Figure 5.4 Presence of Fluoride in Water

148


Source: Khan 2004

Figure 5.5 Presence of Iron in Water

Source: Khan 2004

PCRWR has been undertaking a programme to monitor arsenic contamination in collaboration with UNICEF since 1999. As a result, the presence of arsenic contamination has been recognized (Figure 5.6) and consequently arsenic mitigation programmes have been launched by PCRWR and UNICEF. All these monitoring and remedial activities will contribute in improving quality of water as well as environmental conditions that are safe for human health and favourable for economic growth.

Figure 5.6 Presence of Arsenic in Water

Source: Khan 2004

149


Water Quality Standards and Application

The so-called potable water being supplied is far from meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) or other standards for potable water; hence the need for boiling and other types of domestic treatments adopted by many consumers in Pakistan. Measures have to be adopted to eliminate contamination of surface water bodies and groundwater aquifers from industrial and domestic wastewater and pollutants, agrochemicals and urban sewage, all of which adversely affect water quality, natural ecosystems and public health. Although the WHO guidelines for drinking water are based on scientific research and epidemiological findings, the values of water quality parameters are the general guidelines and advisory in nature. That is why Pakistan needs to establish its own water quality standards to meet national priorities taking into account economic, technical, social, cultural, and political requirements. The Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority (PSQCA) and PCRWR have drafted drinking water quality standards. However, the enforcement of these standards is still pending. This matter needs to be addressed on top priority basis.

Standard Drafted by PSQCA

Drinking water quality standards drafted by PSQCA for chemical and microbiological contaminate are provided in Tables 5.14.

Table 5.14 Chemical Requirements for Drinking Water Characteristic Chemical Requirements

Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 Cadmium (mg/l) 0.003 Chromium (mg/l) 0.05 Copper (mg/l) 1.0 Cyanide (mg/l) 0.07 Fluoride (mg/l) 1.5 Lead (mg/l) 0.01 Manganese (mg/l) 0.50 Mercury (mg/l) 0.001 Nickel (mg/l) 0.02 Nitrate (mg/l) 10.0 Nitrite (mg/l) 0.02 Selenium (mg/l) 0.01


Standard Drafted by PCRWR

Drinking water quality standards drafted by PCRWR for physical, chemical, and bacteriological contaminates are provided in Tables 5.15 and 5.16.

Table 5.15 Physical and Chemical Standards for Drinking Water Constituent Unit HDL MPL ** Toxic Effects

Turbidity NTU 2.5 5 Un-aesthetic, decrease in efficiency of disinfections

Colour PCU 5 15 Un-aesthetic Taste & Odour - Unobjectionable Taste & Odour

150


Constituent Unit HDL MPL ** Toxic Effects pH - 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2 Taste, Corrosion Fluoride mg /l 1.000 1.500 Dental fluorosis in children, crippling

skeletal flurosis Nitrate (NO3) mg /l 45.000 45.000 Infantile methaemoglobinaemia Lead mg /l 0.050 0.050 Children susceptible to effects of lead

on central nervous system Mercury mg /l 0.001 0.001 Neurological effects TDS mg /l 500 1500 Fault or salty taste, corrosion or

instruction Iron mg /l 0.1 1.0 Taste, discoloration Manganese mg /l 0.05 0.5 Taste, discoloration Magnesium mg /l 30 150 Stomach disturbances Copper mg /l 0.05 1.5 Taste, corrosion f pipes and utensils

taste Zinc mg /l 5 15.0 Taste Sulfate mg /l 200 400 Corrosion, Laxative effect Chloride mg /l 200 600 Taste, Corrosion Hardness mg /l 200 500 Corrosion or scale formation Phenolic substances

mg /l 0.001 0.002 Taste

*Highest Desirable Level. ** Maximum Permissible Level. Source: Kahlown & Azam 2004

Table 5.16 Bacteriological Standards for Drinking Water Categories Standards

A. Piped Water Supplies A-1 Treated water entering the distribution syste - Faecal Coliform - Coliform organisms A-2 Untreated water entering the distribution system - Faecal Coliform -Coliform organisms A-3 Water in the distribution system - Faecal Coliform - Coliform organisms

0/100 ml 0/100 ml 0/100 ml 3/100 ml 0/100 ml 3/100 ml

B. Unpiped Water Supplies - Faecal Coliform - Coliform organisms

0/100 ml 10/100 ml



Existing Policies and Strategies

Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (PNCS) 1992

The government of Pakistan adopted Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (PNCS) in 1992. The strategic concern taken up in the PNCS provides a national structural policy to deal

151


with environmental problems including water quality management. The main objectives of the policy are to establish and maintain standards for potable/domestic water; ensure that effluent from wastewater is treated before disposal; and preservation of surface and groundwater resources to ensure sustained supply.

Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, 2002

The Pakistan Water Sector Strategy (FFC 2002) has made mention of following necessary steps required to achieve the foregoing policies:

• Make the water quality in rivers, reservoirs, coastal areas and other water bodies including groundwater a national priority for improvement to acceptable standards by 2025 through improved agricultural drainage, municipal, rural and industrial wastewater treatment and effluent disposal.

• Promote measures, as part of all future plans for water resources development that reduce or eliminate contamination of surface water bodies and groundwater aquifers from industrial and domestic emissions of pollutants, over-use of agro-chemicals and urban run-off, all of which adversely affect water quality, natural eco-systems and public health.

• Reduce the incidence of water pollution by regulating disposal of effluent in the municipal, industrial and agricultural sub-sectors.

• Initiate a study to establish and implement a National Water Quality Monitoring Programme which will

- establish water quality standards for potable water and for surface and groundwater;

- develop regulations for effluent disposal;

- develop a comprehensive programme of water quality monitoring; and

- support the development of an Information Management System for data storage and assessment.

National Environmental Policy 2005

The preamble of the National Environmental Policy 2005 states that the Policy provides overarching framework for addressing the environmental issues facing Pakistan. The Policy while recognizing the goals and objectives of the National Conservation Strategy, National Environmental Action Plan and other existing environment related national policies, strategies and action plans, provides broad guidelines to the Federal Governments, Federally Administrated Territories and Local Governments for addressing environmental concerns and ensuring effective management of their environmental resources.

The main objectives of the Policy are:

• Conservation, restoration and efficient management of environmental resources. • Integration of environmental considerations in policy making and planning processes. • Capacity building of government agencies and other stakeholders at all level for better

environmental management. • Meeting international obligations effectively in line with the national aspirations.

152


• Creation of a demand for environmental through mass awareness and community mobilization.

Sectoral guidelines provided in the Policy regarding Water Supply and Management are to provide sustainable access to safe water supply and to effectively manage and conserve the country's water resources. In order to achieve these goals, the government may:

• Develop legal and policy framework for promotion of safe drinking water in Pakistan. • Increase coverage of water supply and water treatment facilities. • Establish a water quality monitoring and surveillance system. • Make installation of water treatment plants as an integral component of all drinking water

supply schemes. • Promote low-cost water treatment technologies at the community and household levels. • Promote appropriate technologies for rain water harvesting in rural as well as urban areas. • Encourage artificial recharge of ground water in arid areas. • Promote metering of water consumption to discourage the indiscriminate use of water for

industrial and municipal purposes. • Enact Water Conservation Act and relevant standards to foster water conservation. • Promote integrated watershed management. • Monitor sustained freshwater flows into marine eco-systems. • Establish standards for classification of surface water bodies. • Launch phased programs for clean up and gradual up-gradation of the quality of water bodies.

Sectoral guidelines provided in the Policy regarding waste management explicitly states that pollution caused by liquid and solid waste in the country would be prevented and reduced. For this purpose, the Government may:

• Strictly enforce the National Environmental Quality Standards and Self-Monitoring and Reporting System.

• Introduce discharge-licensing system for industry. • Make installation of wastewater treatment plants as integral part of all sewerage schemes. • Devise and implement the National Sanitation policy. • Devise and implement master plans for treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater in

urban and rural areas. • Establish cleaner production centers and promote cleaner production techniques and practices. • Encourage reduction, recycling and reuse of municipal and industrial solid and liquid wastes. • Develop and enforce rules and regulations for proper management of municipal, industrial,

hazardous and hospital wastes. • Develop and implement strategies for integrated management of municipal, industrial,

hazardous and hospital waste at national, provincial and local levels. • Develop and enforce regulations to reduce the risk of contamination from underground

storage tanks. • Devise and implement guidelines for sustainable management of mining and oil exploration

interventions as well for rehabilitation of expired mines/exploration sites. • Launch National Oil Spill Contingency Plan. • Adopt measures for mitigation of pollution caused by oil spills. • Establish a Marine Pollution Control Commission.

153


• Frame Pakistan Oil Pollution Act. • Develop environmental risk assessment guidelines for existing industries as well as new

development interventions. • Develop national emergency response and accidents preventions plans to prevent, and

mitigate the effects of, accidents involving pollution of environment. • Provide financial and other incentives (reduction/elimination of tariffs, low-interest loans,

appreciation certificates and awards) for technology upgradation, adoption of cleaner technology and implementation of pollution control measures


The Government of Pakistan has committed with international declarations namely the Declaration of UN Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm 1972 and the Rio Declaration 1992. It has also created legal structures and enacted rules for the implementation of various international environmental agreements.

The Constitution of Pakistan contains provisions for environmental protection and resource conservation. The Constitution mentions “Environmental Pollution and Ecology” as a subject in the Concurrent Legislative List, meaning that both the Federal and Provincial Governments may initiate and make legislation for the purpose. The promulgation of the Environmental Protection Ordinance 1983 was the first codifying legislation on the issue of environmental protection. This was indeed a consolidated enactment to plug the gaps and remove defects/deficiencies in the legislation. Later, the Government passed and promulgated the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997. The Act is fairly comprehensive, providing for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment. It contains concrete action plans and programmes for the prevention of pollution and preservation of clean and healthy environment. The relevant salient features of the law are:

• The Act covers the air, water, soil, marine and noise pollution caused by vehicles. • The Act provides for fixing the National Environment Quality Standards (NEQS) and their

strict enforcement. The Government has been empowered to levy a pollution charge against defaulters.

• The Government has been empowered to issue environmental protection orders so as to effectively deal with and respond to the actual or potential violation of the law leading to environmental degradation.

• The import of hazardous waste into the country has been banned and the transport of hazardous substances and dangerous chemicals or toxic material or explosive substances etc. has been regulated, through licenses, under prescribed rules and procedure.

• A fairly high level body called, Pakistan Environmental Protection Council, headed by the Prime Minister and comprising the Chief Ministers of the provinces, relevant Ministers of the Federal and provincial governments, representative of trade, commerce and industry and members of academia, has been constituted to formulate policy and provide guidelines for enforcing the law.

• For the effective implementation of the provisions of the law, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, headed by a Director General with other staff has been constituted. This Agency is responsible for enforcing the policy and implementing the provisions of the law. On the same pattern, Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies have been created in each province.

154


• The Environmental Tribunals with exclusive jurisdiction to try serious offences have been provided. The law also provides for the appointment of Magistrates to try minor offences. Appeal against an order/judgment of a Magistrate lies before the Court of Session, whose decision is final. Appeal against the judgment of Tribunal lies to the High Court. Stringent punishment through heavy fine and imprisonment has been prescribed.

• The Act also empowers the Federal Government to make rules for the implementation of international environmental agreements and conventions to which Pakistan is a party.

Table 5.17 Summary of Relevant Pakistan Laws Act/Regulation Area Addressed

Constitution of Pakistan containing "Environment Pollution and Ecology" in the Concurrent Legislative List

Federal and provincial governments may initiate and make legislation

WAPDA Act, 1958 Planning, development and management of water resources

Environment Protection Ordinance, 1983 issues of environment protection Indus River System Authority Act, 1992 Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 protection, conservation, rehabilitation and

improvement of the environment Punjab Soil Reclamation Act, 1952 preparation and implementation waterlogging

and salinity control schemes Water User Association Ordinance, 1981 formation and functioning of water user

associations

The requisite rules and regulations have been enacted including National Environmental Quality Standards (Self-monitoring and Reporting by Industries) Rules, 2000. The Federal Government has established two Environmental Tribunals one each in Karachi and Lahore. The Karachi Tribunal has jurisdiction over the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan while the Lahore Tribunal covers the provinces of the Punjab and the NWFP.

Some of the main legal provisions with respect to the environment and water resources sector and the areas addressed have been shown in Table 5.17.


The principal components of the institutional framework are the federal government and its constituent ministries, the four provincial governments and their departments, the five city Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs) and the Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KWSB). The Pakistan Environment Protection Council, headed by the Prime Minister has been constituted to formulate policy and provide guidelines for enforcing the law. The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, headed by the Director General is in place for effective implementation of the provisions of the law. The Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development through its various federal and provincial environment agencies is the relevant ministry regarding development of policies and implementation of environmental regulations. The Ministry of Water and Power carries out the various functions related to water through Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), Indus River System Authority (IRSA) and the Federal Flood Commission (FFC). The Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) under the Ministry of Science and Technology is responsible for research and training activities related to all aspects of water including water

155


quality. The Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Livestock is also responsible for environmental matters regarding agriculture and livestock development. The provincial departments involved are the Departments of Irrigation and Power, Public Health Engineering and the Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs).

Involvement of NGOs and community based organizations has been to a limited extent. Presently the private sector has no formal representation in the framework.

5.6 Identification of Major Gaps Major gaps between the issues and problems regarding water quality and prevalent provisions to address them are as follows:

• Though several laws have been enacted to address specific issues there is lack of harmony and integration between various regulations

• Mechanism of monitoring water quality is weak due to inadequate mechanism for collection and analysis of information

• Disastrous water contamination situations due to uncontrolled, improper and un-treated disposal of municipal, industrial and drainage effluents in fresh water bodies

• Severe levels of water pollution in some areas due to unchecked industrial pollutants • Degrading groundwater quality due to un-planned pumpage of groundwater • Unchecked addition of hazardous chemical effluents by extensive use of agro-chemicals

(fertilizers and pesticides) • Unified national water quality standards have not been implemented yet • Weak mechanism for regular monitoring quality of surface and ground resources • Maintaining water quality is hampered by failure to enforce pollution control at the source

due to inadequacy of sanitation systems, garbage collection and disposal network • Although Environment Protection Act and implementing agencies are in place, actual control

of water pollution is not yet effective.


In order to overcome the gaps identified above and to enhance the water quality monitoring and dissemination capability of the concerned institutions of the government, it is recommended that the following actions be taken:

• Ensure enforcement of environmental regulations for the treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater by the respective agencies;

• Gear up research and development activities for developing on-site low cost saline drainage effluent disposal technologies;

• Make regular monitoring of surface and groundwater quality a permanent feature; • Make the concerned agencies accountable to end-users and public representatives (on the

basis of lessons learned from past experiences); • Enforce unified national water quality standards; • Launch mass awareness campaigns throughout the country in vital areas like water

conservation and water pollution control; • Formulate and enforce a unified water resources development Act and pertinent rules; and

156


• Strengthen regulatory mechanisms through capacity building at all levels for more effective water quality monitoring and pollution control.

5.8 References

Ahmed, K (2002) Addressing Environmental Problems of Pakistan. Journal of S&T Policy and Scientometrics, Vol 1, No 2:43-57

Ahmed, K.; Ali, W. (1999) Evaluation of Water Quality of Rivers in Pakistan. Paper presented at the National Workshop on Water Resources Achievements and Issues in 20th Century and Challenges for the Next Millennium, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR), Islamabad

Ahmed, N. (1993) Water Resources of Pakistan. Lahore

FFC (2000) Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Islamabad: Federal Flood Commission, Ministry of Water and Power

FFC (2004) Promoting Private Investment in Drainage - Final Report. Islamabad: Office of the Chief Engineering Advisor/Chairman, Federal Flood Commission (FFC), Ministry of Water and Power

GOP (1983) Environment Protection Ordinance 1983. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan

GOP (1997) Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan

GOP (2000) National Environmental Quality Standards Rules 2000. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan

GOP (2005) State of Environment - Pakistan (Draft). Islamabad: (Posted in the website www.environment.gov.pk)

Haider, G. (2000) Environmental Impacts of Groundwater Use for Agriculture. Proceedings of Regional Groundwater Management Seminar organized by Pakistan Water Partnership (PWP), October 9-11, 2000, Islamabad

Kahlown, M.A.; Azam , M. (2004) Water Quality Issues and Status in Pakistan. Paper submitted in the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality held in Kathmandu, Nepal from June 29-July2, 2004.

Kahlown, M.A.; Majeed, A. (2004) Water Resources of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Ministry of Science and Technology

Khan, H.N. (2004) Pakistan Water Quality Issues. Presented in the Regional Integrated Workshop on Water Quality, June 29 – July 2, 2004, Kathmandu, Nepal

MINFAL (2004) Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan. Islamabad: Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Livestock (MINFAL), Government of Pakistan

157


PCRWR (2002) Water Quality Status in Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Ministry of Science and Technology



SMO (1994) Summary Evaluation and Monitoring Statistics of SCARPs (1987-88 & 1999-89). SCARPs Monitoring Organization (SMO), WAPDA Publication No. SM 232

UNICEF (2004) UNICEF – Pakistan - Statistics (www.unicef.org/infobycountry/pakistan_pakistan_statistics.html)

Zuberi, F.A. (1999) Integrated Surface and Groundwater Management Programme for Pakistan: Groundwater Resource Study. IWASRI Int. Rep.No 99/7:6-5 to 6-12 (Revised Action Programme 1979 Planning Div., WAPDA)

158

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/pakistan_pakistan_statistics.html

Date post:	06-Aug-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	3 times
Download:	0 times

Volume II: Country Reports · NWRS Nepal Water Resources Strategy 2002 NWSC Nepal Water Supply...

Documents