Revolutions of 1848 Revolutions of 1848 Barricade on the rue Soufflot, [1][2] an 1848 painting by Horace Vernet. The Panthéon is shown in the background. Other names Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples, Year of Revolution Participants People of France, the German states, the Austrian Empire, the Italian states, Denmark, Wallachia, Poland, and others Location Western and Central Europe Date 23 February 1848-early 1849 Result Little overall structural change Significant overall social and cultural change 1848 painting titled Germania, by Philipp Veit The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples [3] or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It was the first (and only) Europe-wide collapse of traditional authority, but within a year reactionary forces had won out and the revolutions collapsed. This revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but there was no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Five factors were involved: the widespread dissatisfaction with the political leadership; the demand for more participation and democracy; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based in the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants. [4] The uprisings were led by shaky ad-hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, but it could not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed and many more forced into exile. The only significant lasting reforms were the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary and the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark. The revolutions were most important in France, Germany, Italy, and Austria, and did not reach Russia, Great Britain, Spain, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire. [5]
Transcript
Revolutions of 1848 1
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
Barricade on the rue Soufflot,[1][2] an 1848 painting by Horace Vernet. The Panthéon is shown in the background.Other names Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples, Year of Revolution
Participants People of France, the German states, the Austrian Empire, the Italian states, Denmark, Wallachia, Poland, and others
Location Western and Central Europe
Date 23 February 1848-early 1849
Result Little overall structural changeSignificant overall social and cultural change
1848 painting titled Germania, by Philipp Veit
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries asthe Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples[3] or the Yearof Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughoutEurope in 1848. It was the first (and only) Europe-wide collapse oftraditional authority, but within a year reactionary forces had wonout and the revolutions collapsed. This revolutionary wave beganin France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europeand parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, butthere was no coordination or cooperation among therevolutionaries in different countries. Five factors were involved:the widespread dissatisfaction with the political leadership; thedemand for more participation and democracy; the demands of theworking classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, theregrouping of the reactionary forces based in the royalty, thearistocracy, the army, and the peasants.[4] The uprisings were ledby shaky ad-hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes andworkers, but it could not hold together for long. Tens of thousandsof people were killed and many more forced into exile. The onlysignificant lasting reforms were the abolition of serfdom in Austriaand Hungary and the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark. Therevolutions were most important in France, Germany, Italy, andAustria, and did not reach Russia, Great Britain, Spain, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire.[5]
Revolutions of 1848 2
OriginsThese revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from acoherent movement or social phenomenon. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughoutthe first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments.Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended politicalawareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to spring up. Somehistorians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants andthe working urban poor.
Galician slaughter (Polish: Rzeź galicyjska) by JanLewicki (1795–1871), depicting the massacre of Polish
nobles by Polish peasants in Galicia in 1846
Large swathes of the nobility were discontented with royalabsolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846 there had been an uprisingof Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only counteredwhen peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles.[6] Additionally,an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia occurred inGreater Poland.
Next the middle classes began to agitate. Working class objectivestended to fall in line with those of the middle class. Although KarlMarx and Friedrich Engels had written at the request of theCommunist League in London (an organization consistingprincipally of German workers) The Communist Manifesto(published in German in London on February 21, 1848), once theybegan agitating in Germany following the March insurrection inBerlin, their demands were considerably reduced. They issued their "Demands of the Communist Party inGermany"[7] from Paris in March; the pamphlet only urged unification of Germany, universal suffrage, abolition offeudal duties, and similar middle class goals.
The middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Theirparticipations in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the impetus came from the middle classes, muchof the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities.
Urban workersThe population in French rural areas had rapidly risen, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many inthe bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure ofindustrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Marx built up a following.[8]
The situation in the German states was similar. Parts of Prussia were beginning to industrialize. During the decade ofthe 1840s, mechanized production in the textile industry brought about inexpensive clothing that undercut thehandmade products of German tailors.[9] Reforms ameliorated the most unpopular features of rural feudalism, whileindustrial workers remained dissatisfied with these and pressed for greater change.Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on food, which consisted of bread and potatoes. As aresult of harvest failures, food prices soared through the roof and the demand for manufactured goods decreased,causing an increase in unemployment. During the revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshopswere organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up workshops for women when they feltthey were excluded. Artisans and unemployed workers destroyed industrialized machines when their social demandswere neglected. [10]
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Rural areasRural population growth had led to food shortages, land pressure, and migration, both within Europe and out fromEurope, especially to North America. In the years 1845 and 1846, a potato blight caused a subsistence crisis inNorthern Europe. The effects of the blight were most severely manifested in the Great Irish Famine,[11] but alsocaused famine-like conditions in the Scottish Highlands and throughout Continental Europe.Aristocratic wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farm lands and effectivecontrol over the peasants. Peasant grievances exploded during the revolutionary year of 1848.
Role of ideasDespite forceful and often violent efforts of established and reactionary powers to keep them down, disruptive ideasgained popularity: democracy, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism.[12]
In the language of the 1840s, democracy meant universal male suffrage. Liberalism fundamentally meant consent ofthe governed and the restriction of church and state power, republican government, freedom of the press and theindividual. Nationalism believed in uniting people bound by (some mix of) common languages, culture, religion,shared history, and of course immediate geography; there were also irredentist movements. At this time, what arenow Germany and Italy were collections of small states. Socialism in the 1840s was a term without a consensusdefinition, meaning different things to different people, but was typically used within a context of more power forworkers in a system based on worker ownership of the means of production.
Events
Italian statesAlthough little noticed at the time, the first major outbreak came in Sicily, starting in January 1848. There had beenseveral previous revolts against Bourbon rule; this one produced an independent state that lasted only 16 monthsbefore the Bourbons came back. During those months the constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberaldemocratic terms, as was the proposal of an Italian confederation of states. The failed revolt was reversed a dozenyears later as the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies collapsed in 1860–61 with the Risorgimento.
France
la Barricade de la rue Soufflot, Paris, Feb 1848,by Horace Vernet.
The "February Revolution" in France was sparked by the suppressionof the campagne des banquets. This revolution was driven bynationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, whobelieved that the people should rule themselves. It ended theconstitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation ofthe French Second Republic. This government was headed byLouis-Napoleon, who, after only four years, returned France to amonarchy with the establishment of the Second French Empire in1852.
Alexis de Tocqueville remarked in his Recollections of the period that"society was cut in two: those who had nothing united in commonenvy, and those who had anything united in common terror."[13]
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German states
Cheering revolutionaries after fighting in March 1848
The "March Revolution" in the German states tookplace in the south and the west of Germany, with largepopular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led bywell educated students and intellectuals,[14] theydemanded German national unity, freedom of thepress, and freedom of assembly. The uprisings werenot well coordinated but had in common a rejection oftraditional, autocratic political structures in thethirty-nine independent states of the GermanConfederation. The middle class and working classcomponents of the Revolution split, and in the end theconservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing manyliberals into exile.[15]
Denmark
Denmark had been governed by a system of absolute monarchy since the seventeenth century. King Christian VIII, amoderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January 1848 during a period of rising opposition from farmers andliberals. The demands for constitutional monarchy, led by the National Liberals, ended with a popular march toChristiansborg on March 21. The new king, Frederick VII, met the liberals' demands and installed a new Cabinet thatincluded prominent leaders of the National Liberal Party. The national-liberal movement wanted to abolishabsolutism but retain a strongly centralized state. The king accepted a new constitution agreeing to share power witha bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag. Although army officers were dissatisfied, they accepted the newarrangement which, in contrast to the rest of Europe, was not overturned by reactionaries.[16] The liberal constitutiondid not extend to Schleswig, leaving the Schleswig-Holstein Question unanswered.
Danish soldiers return victorious
Schleswig
Schleswig, a region containing bothDanes and Germans, was a part of theDanish monarchy but remained aduchy separate from the Kingdom ofDenmark. Spurred by pan-Germansentiment, Germans of Schleswig tookup arms to protest a new policyannounced by Denmark's NationalLiberal government, which would havefully integrated the duchy intoDenmark. The German population inSchleswig and Holstein revolted,inspired by the Protestant clergy. TheGerman states sent in an army butDanish victories in 1849 led to theTreaty of Berlin (1850) and theLondon Protocols (1852). They reaffirmed the sovereignty of the King of Denmark, while prohibiting union withDenmark. The violation of the latter provision led to renewed warfare in 1863 and the Prussian victory in 1864.
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Habsburg Empire
Proclamation of Serbian Vojvodina in SremskiKarlovci
From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg AustrianEmpire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which oftenhad a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from Vienna,included Austrian Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs,Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians/Ruthenians, Romanians, Serbs andItalians, all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution toeither achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony overother nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicatedby the simultaneous events in the German states, which movedtoward greater German national unity.
Hungary
March 15, 1848 was the day that a group of Magyar nationalists rioted in Pest-Buda (today Budapest) demandingpolitical autonomy for Hungary from Austria. This resulted in Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian prince andforeign minister, resigning. In turn, Emperor Ferdinand promised Hungary a constitution, an elected parliament, andthe end of censorship. The new government, led by ministers Széchenyi and Kossuth, imposed the Magyar languageon all the other nationalities in Hungary. This angered many people, and uprisings followed. Austria took backHungary after one and a half years of fighting when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched into Hungary with over300,000 troops. Hungary was thus placed under brutal martial law, with the Austrian government restored to itsoriginal position.[17]
SwitzerlandSwitzerland, already an alliance of republics, also saw major internal struggle. The creation of the Sonderbund led toa short Swiss civil war in November 1847. In 1848, a new constitution ended the almost-complete independence ofthe cantons and transformed Switzerland into a federal state.
Greater PolandPolish people mounted a military insurrection in the Grand Duchy of Poznań (or the Greater Poland region) againstthe occupying Prussian forces.
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Wallachia
People in Bucharest during the 1848 events,carrying the Romanian tricolor
A Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising began in Junein the principality of Wallachia. Closely connected with the 1848unsuccessful revolution in Moldavia, it sought to overturn theadministration imposed by Imperial Russian authorities under theRegulamentul Organic regime, and, through many of its leaders,demanded the abolition of boyar privilege. Led by a group of youngintellectuals and officers in the Wallachian military forces, themovement succeeded in toppling the ruling Prince GheorgheBibescu, whom it replaced with a Provisional Government and aRegency, and in passing a series of major liberal reforms, firstannounced in the Proclamation of Islaz.
Belgium
In Belgium, the uprisings were local and concentrated in theindustrial basins of the Provinces of Liège and Hainaut. A more orless greater threat was coming from France, where among theseasonal workers Communism was spread by the small Communistclique of Belgium, basically the people were brought into a Belgian Legion, with the promise of a free ride home andmoney. The Belgian Legion would 'invade' Belgium by train and travel to Brussels where the government andmonarchy had to be overthrown. Several smaller groups managed to infiltrate Belgium, but the reinforced Belgianbordertroops was successful in splitting up the larger groups of the Legion, and the invasion eventually came tonothing.[18]
IrelandThe Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 was a small, failed rebellion which broke out in Ballingarry, Co. Tipperary.It was led by the Young Ireland movement, inspired by famine conditions in Ireland and the 1848 rebellionsthroughout Europe.
Other English-speaking lands
Chartist meeting on Kennington Common 10April 1848.
Elsewhere in Britain, the middle classes had been pacified by generalenfranchisement in the Reform Act 1832; the consequent agitations,violence, and petitions of the Chartist movement came to a head withtheir peaceful petition to Parliament of 1848. The repeal in 1846 of theprotectionist agricultural tariffs – called the "Corn Laws" – haddefused some proletarian fervour.[19]
The Revolution had little impact in British colonies or the UnitedStates.
New Grenada
In Spanish Latin America, the Revolution of 1848 appeared in New Grenada, where Colombian students, liberalsand intellectuals demanded the election of General José Hilario López. He took power in 1849 and launched major
reforms, abolishing slavery and the death penalty, and providing freedom of the press and of religion. The resulting turmoil in Colombia lasted four decades; from 1851 to 1885 the country was ravaged by four general civil wars and
Revolutions of 1848 7
fifty local revolutions.[20]
BrazilIn Brazil, the "Praieira revolt" was a movement in Pernambuco that lasted from November 1848 to 1852. Unresolvedconflicts left over from the period of the Regency and local resistance to the consolidation of the Brazilian Empirethat had been proclaimed in 1822 helped to plant the seeds of the revolution.
Legacy and memory. . . We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned, disarmed and gagged. The fate ofEuropean democracy has slipped from our hands.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, [21]
Caricature by Ferdinand Schröder on the defeat ofthe revolutions of 1848/49 in Europe (published
in Düsseldorfer Monatshefte, August 1849)
There were multiple memories of the Revolution. Democrats looked to1848, as a democratic revolution, which in the long run insured liberty,equality, and fraternity. Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal ofworking-class ideals by a bourgeoisie that was indifferent to thelegitimate demands of the proletariat. For nationalists, 1848, was thespringtime of hope when newly emerging nationalities rejected the oldmultinational empires. They were all bitterly disappointed in the shortrun. 1848, at best, was a glimmer of future hope, and at worst, it was adeadweight that strengthened the reactionaries and delayed furtherprogress.[22]
In the post-revolutionary decade after 1848, little had visibly changed,and most historians considered the revolutions a failure, given theseeming lack of permanent structural changes.Nevertheless, there were a few immediate successes for some revolutionary movements, notably in the Habsburglands. Austria and Prussia eliminated feudalism by 1850, improving the lot of the peasants. European middle classesmade political and economic gains over the next twenty years; France retained universal male suffrage. Russia wouldlater free the serfs on February 19, 1861. The Habsburgs finally had to give the Hungarians more self-determinationin the Ausgleich of 1867. The revolutions inspired lasting reform in Denmark as well as the Netherlands.
ExceptionsGreat Britain, the Netherlands, the Russian Empire (including Congress Poland), and the Ottoman Empire were theonly major European states to go without a national revolution over this period. Sweden and Norway were littleaffected. Serbia, though formally unaffected by the revolt, actively supported the Serbian revolution in the HabsburgEmpire.[23]
Russia's relative stability was attributed to the revolutionary groups' inability to communicate with each other. In theKingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, uprisings took place in 1830–31 (the November Uprising)and 1846 (the Kraków Uprising). A final revolt took place in 1863–65 (the January Uprising), but none occurred in1848.Switzerland and Portugal were also spared in 1848, though both had gone through civil wars in the preceding years (the Sonderbund war in Switzerland and the Liberal Wars in Portugal). The introduction of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848 was a revolution of sorts, laying the foundation of Swiss society as it is today. In the Netherlands no major unrests appeared because the king Willem II decided to alter the constitution to reform elections and effectively reduce the power of the monarchy. While there were no major political upheavals in the
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Ottoman Empire as such, political unrest did occur in some of its vassal states. In Serbia, feudalism was finallyabolished in 1838 and power of the Serbian prince was reduced with the Turkish constitution.
References[1] 1848-06-24: "Battle at Soufflot barricades-1848" Location:Rue Soufflot, Paris48°50′48″N 2°20′37″E[2] Mike Rapport (2009). 1848: Year of Revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mRBYlHSKpjsC& pg=PA201& lpg=PA201). Basic
Books. p. 201. ISBN 9780465014361. . "The first deaths can at noon on 23 June."[3][3] Merriman, John, A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the Present, 1996, p 715[4] R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp v, 4[5][5] Nor did it reach Spain, Belgium, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire. Evans and Strandmann (2000) p 2[6] Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0-415-1611-8. p. 295 – 296.[7] Demands of the Communist Party in Germany (http:/ / marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1848/ 03/ 24. htm), Marx-Engels Collected
Works, vol 7, pp. 3ff (Progress Publishers: 1975–2005)[8] Merriman, John (1996). A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 718.[9][9] Merriman, 1996, p. 724[10] Breuilly, John ed. Parker, David (2000). Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition. New York: Routledge. p. 114.[11] Helen Litton, The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Wolfhound Press, 1995, ISBN 0 86327-912-0[12] Charles Breunig, The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (1977)[13][13] Tocqueville, Alexis de. "Recollections," 1893[14] Louis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1964)[15] Theodote S. Hamerow, Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1825–1870 (1958) focuses mainly on
artisans and peasants lalalallala[16] Weibull, Jörgen. "Scandinavia, History of." Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed., Vol. 16, 324.[17] The Making of the West: Volume C, Lynn Hunt, Pages 683–684[18] Belgium in 1848 – Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions (http:/ / www. ohio. edu/ chastain/ ac/ belgium. htm)[19] Henry Weisser, "Chartism in 1848: Reflections on a Non-Revolution," Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies Vol. 13,
No. 1 (Spring, 1981), pp. 12–26 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 4049111)[20] J. Fred Rippy, Latin America: A Modern History (1958) pp 253–4[21] Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)[22] Robert Gildea, "1848 in European Collective Memory," in Evans and Strandmann, eds. The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849 pp 207–235[23] http:/ / www. ohiou. edu/ ~Chastain/ rz/ serbvio. htm
Bibliography
Surveys• Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)• Chastain, James, ed. (2005) Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848 online from Ohio State U. (http:/ / www. ohio.
edu/ chastain/ contents. htm)• Dowe, Dieter, ed. Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (Berghahn Books, 2000)• Evans, R.J.W., and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform
to Reaction (2000), 10 essays by scholars excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/Revolutions-Europe-1848-1849-Reform-Reaction/ dp/ 0198208405/ )
• Pouthas, Charles. "The Revolutions of 1848" in J. P. T. Bury, ed. New Cambridge Modern History: The zenith ofEuropean power 1830–70 (1960) pp 389–415 online excerpts (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/books?id=jRQ9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PR5& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=3#v=onepage& q& f=false)
• Langer, William. The Revolutions of 1848 (Harper, 1971), standard overview• Rapport, Mike (2009), 1848: Year of Revolution ISBN 978-0465014361 online review (http:/ / www. h-net. org/
reviews/ showrev. php?id=25808), a standard survey• Robertson, Priscilla (1952), Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (ISBN 0-691-00756-X), despite the subtitle
this is a traditional political narrative• Sperber, Jonathan. The European revolutions, 1848–1851 (1994) online edition (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/
• Stearns, Peter N. The Revolutions of 1848 (1974). online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o&d=30508731)
• Weyland, Kurt. "The Diffusion of Revolution: '1848' in Europe and Latin America," International OrganizationVol. 63, No. 3 (Summer, 2009) pp. 391–423 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 40345942)
France• Duveau, Georges. 1848: The Making of a Revolution (1966)• Fasel, George. "The Wrong Revolution: French Republicanism in 1848," French Historical Studies Vol. 8, No. 4
(Autumn, 1974), pp. 654–677 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 285857)• Loubère, Leo. "The Emergence of the Extreme Left in Lower Languedoc, 1848–1851: Social and Economic
Factors in Politics," American Historical Review (1968), v. 73#4 1019–1051 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/stable/ 1847387)
Germany and Austria• Deak, Istvan. The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (1979)• Hahs, Hans J. The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe (2001)• Hewitson, Mark. "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, … Our New Germany is Rebuilding Itself':
Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity during the Revolutions of 1848–49," EnglishHistorical Review, Oct 2010, Vol. 125 Issue 516, pp 1173–1214 online (http:/ / ehr. oxfordjournals. org/ content/CXXV/ 516/ 1173. extract)
• Macartney, C. A. "1848 in the Habsburg Monarchy," European Studies Review, 1977, Vol. 7 Issue 3, pp 285–309online (http:/ / ehq. sagepub. com/ content/ 7/ 3/ 285. extract)
• O'Boyle Lenore. "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848," Journal of Modern History Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec.,1961), pp. 374–383 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1877214)
• Robertson, Priscilla. Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952), pp 105–85 on Germany, pp 187–307 onAustria
• Sked, Alan. The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848 (1979)• Vick, Brian. Defining Germany The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity (Harvard University
Press, 2002) ISBN 978-067400911-0).
Italy• Ginsborg, Paul. "Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848," Historical Journal, Sep 1974,
Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp 503–550 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2638387)• Ginsborg, Paul. Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49 (1979)• Robertson, Priscilla (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952) pp 309–401
Other• Feyzioğlu, Hamiyet Sezer et al. "Revolutions of 1848 and the Ottoman Empire," Bulgarian Historical Review,
2009, Vol. 37 Issue 3/4, pp 196–205
Revolutions of 1848 10
Historiography• Dénes, Iván Zoltán. "Reinterpreting a 'Founding Father': Kossuth Images and Their Contexts, 1848–2009," East
Central Europe, April 2010, Vol. 37 Issue 1, pp 90–117• Hamerow, Theodore S. "History and the German Revolution of 1848," American Historical Review Vol. 60, No.
1 (Oct., 1954), pp. 27–44 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1842744)• Jones, Peter (1981), The 1848 Revolutions (Seminar Studies in History) (ISBN 0-582-06106-7)• Mattheisen, Donald J. "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848," American
Historical Review, Dec 1983, Vol. 88 Issue 5, pp 1219–37 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1904890)• Rothfels, Hans. "1848 – One Hundred Years After," Journal of Modern History, Dec 1948, Vol. 20 Issue 4, pp
291–319 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1871060)
External links• The Revolutions of 1848 begin (http:/ / www. age-of-the-sage. org/ history/ 1848/ revolution_of_1848. html)
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