Benchmark 3 Study Guide

Prokaryotic- organisms without a nucleus. BACTERIA Eukaryotic- organisms with a nucleus. PLANTS, ANIMALS, PROTISTS, FUNGI Cell parts & functions

o Mitochondria- powerhouse of cell. Where energy is made. Where cellular respiration takes placeo Chloroplast- contains GREEN chlorophyll. Where photosynthesis takes placeo Nucleus- controls the cello Lysosomes- clean up worn out parts of the cello Ribosomes- where proteins are madeo ER- Site of protein synthesiso Golgi- packages and modifies proteinso Centrioles- organelle involved in cellular divisiono Nucleolus- makes ribosomeso Cytoplasm- fluid in the cell surrounding the organelleso Vacuole- stores water and wasteso Cell Membrane- boarder for cell around material in and out the cello Cell Wall- supports structure outside the cell membraneo Nuclear Membrane- boarder for the nucleus

What is homeostasis? Maintaining stable internal environment. What are some examples of how it can occur? Maintaining temperature and body fluids

Characteristics of Lifeo Homeostasis- maintain stable internal environment (sweating to cool body)o Reproduce (sexually using gametes; asexually without gametes)o Adapt (allows an organism to survive better in their environment) & Evolve (change over time)o Have cellso Respond to stimulio Grow & developo Obtain and use energy (photosynthesis & cellular respiration)

Active transporto Requires energyo Movement of particles (molecules) from low to high concentration

Passive transporto Doesn’t require energyo Movement of particles (molecules) from high to low concentrationo Diffusion-particles move through a membraneo Osmosis- movement of water through a membrane

Hypertonic- a cell shrinks if put in a hypertonic solution Hypotonic- a cell swells if put in a hypotonic solution Macromolecules

o Nucleic acids (store genetic information) DNA- double helix (twisted ladder shape). Has C,G,T,A and deoxyribose RNA- Single strand. Has C,G, U, A and ribose

o Carbohydrates (Quick source of energy) Starches & Sugars (cellulose, lactose, glucose, chitin)

o Protein Help build muscle Enzymes- speed up the rate of reactions Long chains of amino acids

o Lipids Fats, Waxes, Oils (olive oil, butter, lard, Crisco, candles) Long term storage of energy

Replication- When DNA copies itself in the S-phase of Interphase during the cell cycleo TTACGCTAA strand would make a complimentary DNA strand like this AATGCGATT

Transcription- When DNA is used to make mRNAo TTACGCTAA strand would transcribe a mRNA strand like this AAUGCGAUU

Translation- When mRNA is translated at the ribosome to make a proteino Final Product?o AAUGCGAUU would be translated into a strand of amino acids like this (use the chart to find the names

of the amino acids) Asparagine—Alanine—Isoleucine

Mutation- A mistake or change in the DNA Dominant Traits- shown as a capital letter. Dominant traits hide recessive traits Recessive Traits- shown as a lower-case letter. Recessive traits are hidden by dominant traits Homozygous- two of the same type of alleles (both dominant or both recessive) TT, RR, tt, rr Heterozygous- two different alleles (one dominant and one recessive) Tt, Rr Punnett Square- diagram used to predict traits in offspring

o Cross TT x Tt (monohybrid cross shows one trait. Dihybrid cross shows TWO traits TTrr x TtRr)o T=Tall and t=short (how many of the offspring would be tall and how many would be short?)

How many traits are in a monohybrid cross? What is an example? _____ X ______ How many traits are in a dihybrid cross? What is an example? ________ X ________ Allele- Gamete- Somatic Cell- Mitosis- the production of body (somatic) cells…..blood cells, bone cells, skin cells…

o What are the steps? PMATo When are chromosomes first seen? Mitosis, Prophaseo It produces TWO GENETICALLY IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS

o Haploid or Diplod? Diploid Meiosis- the production of gametes (sex cells)…..sperm & eggs

o What are the steps? PMAT1, PMAT2o It produces FOUR GENETICALLY DIFFERENT DAUGHTER CELLS o Haploid or Diploid? haploido Crossing Over (occurs in prophase I of Meiosis) – when homologous chromosomes exchange parts of

themselves. This provides genetic diversity.o What does crossing over provide?

What is sexual reproduction? Gametes, genetic exchange What is asexual reproduction? No gametes, binary fission, budding What is the main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction? Gametes DNA Fingerprint- is a test to identify and evaluate the genetic information. Recombinant DNA-  molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic

recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms.

Cloning- is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually.

Gene therapy- is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. 

Gel Electrophoresis- A lab tool that separates DNA segments. Every person has a different DNA pattern. DNA segments move from NEGATIVE end to POSITIVE end. Shorter segments move faster than larger segments.

ATP- molecule that stores energyo How is energy released? A phosphate is broken offo What is the difference between ATP and ADP? ATP contains 3 phosphates, ADP contains 2 phosphateso How is ATP made? Through the process of cellular respiration (Gycolysis- 2 ATP, Kreb’s Cycle- 2 ATP,

Electron Transport Chain- 32 ATP)

Photosynthesis- uses sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to make glucose and oxygen. o Equation? 6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2

o Where does it take place? Takes place in the chloroplast, using the pigment chlorophyllo What are the steps? Light Dependent Reaction (Thylakoid) and Calvin Cycle (Stroma)o Reactant? Products? Reactant- Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water (H2o), Product- Glucose (C6H12O6) and

Oxygen (O2)o Who does it? Autotrophso What is the purpose? To produce high energy sugars

Cellular Respiration- uses glucose (food) and oxygen to make energy (ATP), water and carbon dioxide

o Equation? C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATPo What are the steps? Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, ETCo Where do they occur? Glycolysis (Cytoplasm), Kreb’s Cycle (Mitochondria), ETC (Mitochondria)o Reactants? Products? Reactant- Glucose (C6H12O6) and Oxygen (O2), Products- Carbon Dioxide (CO2),

Water (H2O) and Energy (ATP)o Who does it? Heterotrophso What is the purpose? To produce energy

Taxonomy- A system of classifying living thingso 3-Domains

Bacteria- Do not have a nucleus (common bacteria) Archae- Do not have a nucleus (extreme bacteria) Eukarya- DO have a nucleus (plants, animals, protists, fungi)

o 6-Kingdoms and characteristics Archaebacteria –live in extreme environments, prokaryotic Eubacteria – live everywhere, prokaryotic Plantae – all multicellular, autotrophs with cell wall of cellulose Fungi – live in moist environments, decomposers Animalia- all multicellular heterotrophs, no cell wall Protista- live everywhere, autotrophic and heterotrophic

Viruses- NONLIVING particles made of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat (capsid). They use energy from a host cell to reproduce. They can change over time (evolve) but are not considered living things.

o Living or nonliving? Nonlivingo Draw and label a virus?

o Where or how do they get energy? Do they use energy? Do they produce their own? They must use the energy that is from the hose cell in order to reproduce because they do not create their own

o What is the lytic cycle? Process in which a virus enters a cell, make a copy of itself, and causes the cell to burst

o What is the lysogenic cycle? Process by which a virus embeds its DNA into the DNA of a host cell and is replicated along with the DNA of the host cell

o Ecology- the study of the interaction of organisms with their environment

o Species- one particular kind of living thingo Population- the same species living together in the same place at the same timeo Community- several different species living together in the same place at the same timeo Ecosystem- several communities plus the abiotic (non-living) factors in the environment like

temperature and precipitationo Biome- several ecosystems of the same type in the same area of the worldo Biosphere- all the biomes together make up the biosphere=world

The Carbon Cycle- how Carbon moves through the environmento How is carbon put into the atmosphere? Cellular Respiration, volcanic activity, burning fossil fuelso How is carbon removed from the atmosphere? Photosynthesis, forming of fossil fuels

The Water Cycle- how water moves through the environmento How is water put into the atmosphere? Evaporation, transpiration, condensationo How is water released from the atmosphere? Precipitation

The Nitrogen Cycle- o What is denitrification? Converting nitrate and nitrite to atmospheric nitrogen. o What is nitrogen fixation? Converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. What does it? Bacteria

Herbivores- plant eater Carnivores- meat eater Omnivores- plant and meat eater Biotic- living (bacteria, plants, fungi, animals and protist) Abiotic- non-living (weather, soil, viruses)

Density dependent limiting factors-  Any factor limiting the size of a population whose effect is dependent on the number of individuals in the population. For example, disease will have a greater effect in limiting the growth of a large population, since overcrowding facilitates its spread.

Density independent limiting factors- Any factor limiting the size of a population whose effect is not dependent on the number of individuals in the population. An example of such a factor is an earthquake, which will kill all members of the population regardless of whether the population is small or large.

Primary Succession- is one of two types of biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in an environment in which new substrate devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil, such as a lava flow or area left from retreated glacier.

o Cause- lava, glaciero First organisms present- moss and lichens

Secondary succession- is the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. Examples include areas which have been cleared of existing vegetation (such as after tree-felling in a woodland) and destructive events such as fires.

o Cause- fireo First organisms present- weeds, grass

Pioneer species- first species to inhabit an area after a disturbance (succession). Biomes

o Tundra-o Desert- o Taiga- o Temperate Deciduous Forest- o Tropical Rainforest- o Grasslands-

Renewable resources- is a resource which is replaced naturally and can be used again. 

Nonrenewable resources- resource that cannot be replenished by natural processes. Greenhouse Effect- natural warming of the earth by greenhouse gases (CO2, Methane and water vapor) Global Warming- the unnatural increase of global temperatures. Food Chain – transfer of energy between trophic levels.

o Producers – make their own food/autotrophs.o Primary Consumers- herbivoreso Secondary Consumers- carnivores and omnivores o Tertiary Consumers- carnivores and omnivores

Biomagnification- increase of toxins as you move up the trophic levels. o What happens as it moves up the trophic levels? increases

Biomass Pyramid-o What happens as it moves up the trophic levels? decreases

Numbers pyramid- decreases Energy Flow-

o What happens to the energy as it moves up the trophic levels? decreases Food Web- all the interconnected relationships in an ecosystem. Biological Resistance- Population Growth

o Exponential Growth- o What type of curve? J-curveo What must be present for exponential growth to occur? Unlimited resources.

o Logistic Growth- o What type of curve? S-curveo What causes this type? Carrying capacity

Population Density- amount of organisms in a unit area. Acid Rain- NOX and SO2 pollution combining to form acidic precipitation. Evolution- change in species over time. Natural selection- nature selecting the best traits/organism to survive and reproduce. Fitness- an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce. Charles Darwin- developed the theory of natural selection

o What theory is he credited with developing? Natural selectiono Where did his observations occur? All over the world mostly the Galapagos Islands.

Types of Natural Selectiono Directional Selection- favor one extreme phenotype.

o Disruptive Selection- favors two extreme phenotypes.

o Stabilizing Selection- favors intermediate phenotype.

Adaptation- Any structure of behavior that allow and organism to survive and reproduce. o What are the different types of adaptations? Structural, Behavior and physiological

Cladogram- is a diagram used to show evolutionary relations among organisms.

Radiometric Dating- is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates.

Relative Dating-  is the science of determining the relative order of past events (i.e., the age of an object in comparison to another), without necessarily determining their absolute age.

Pathogen- organism or virus that causes a disease. Antibiotic- chemical that kills bacteria. Biological Resistance- How do bacteria become resistant to antibiotics? Natural selection. Most resistant survive and reproduce.