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ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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Present Simple Present continuousPast Simple Past ContinuousPresent Perfect Past PerfectFuture Simple Going toQuestion Words ComparativesSuperlatives Subject questionsModal verbs Love, like, enjoyPassive Voice Indirect speechSAY / TELL Relative clausesConditionals Used toTime clauses Too/enoughIndefinite pronouns Question tagsBoth... and, neither... Irregular verbs

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Present Simple Presente Simple

Analize the examples and read the explanations carefully.

1. PRESENTATIONI really like adventure sports. Many people in Wellington cycle to work.The kiwi bird lives in protected areas in New Zealand.Waitangi Day is the most important public holiday in New Zealand.We don't know the exact origins of the Maori.New Zealand doesn't have a very long history.Do many sports teams wear the silver fern? Does Auckland have a mild climate?

2. FORMThe Present Simple is formed with the base form of the verb (infinitive without to). You only have to add an -s to the 3rd person singular (he/she/it).  El Present Simple se forma con la forma base del verbo (infinitivo sin to). Solo tienes que añadir una -s a la 3ª persona del singular (he/she/it).For the negative form, we put the auxiliary verb do and the negative particle not (do + not => don't; does + not => doesn't) before the base form of the verb.Para la forma negativa, colocamos el verbo auxiliar do y la partícula negativa not (do + not => don't; does + not => doesn't) delante de la forma base del verbo. For the interrogative form, we only move the auxiliary do/does before the subject.Para la forma interrogativa, solo hay que mover do/does y colocarlo antes del sujeto.Infinitive: to workBase form: work 

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I work I don't work Do I work?

You work You don't work Do you work?

He/she/it works He/she/it doesn't work Does he/she/it work?

We work We don't work Do we work?

You work You don't work Do you work?

They work They don't work Do they work?

For certain verbs there is a spelling change before the -s.Ciertos verbos tienen una ortografía especial antes de la -s- Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch ,x ,o add -es:I watch, He watchesI go, She goes

- Verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the -y and add -ies:

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You try, She triesWe study, He studies 

Remember that the verbs to be and to have are irregular. To be = I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, you are, they are (short forms 'm, 're, 's)To have = I/you/we/they have, he/she/it has (short forms 've, 's)

3. USES- Routines: Actions that happen with a certain frequency. It is used with adverbs of frequency. These adverbs are placed before the main verb but after the verb to be (always, sometimes, never,...)Rutinas: Acciones que ocurren con una cierta frecuencia. Se usa con los adverbios de frecuencia. Estos adverbios se colocan antes del verbo principal, pero después del verbo to be (always, sometimes, never,...)

She always travels to New Zealand with her cousin.They are never bored on holidays. - Facts and truths: things that are generally true (actions or situations) and universal truths. Hechos y verdades: cosas que generalmente son verdad (acciones o situaciones) y verdades universales.Most of the population live in the North Island.The antipodes are opposite points on the planet. - Schedules: with actions set by a timetable or schedule, this tense may have a future meaning.Horarios: con las acciones fijadas por un horario o programa, este tiempo verbal puede tener un significado de futuro.We have English lessons three days a week.The plane leaves at 8 pm. - Narrations: to describe actions taking place one after another, for example when we are narrating something.Narraciones: para describir acciones que tienen lugar una después de otra, por ejemplo cuando estamos narrando algo.When I go jogging, I run for half an hour and stretch for 10 minutes. - First conditional: we use the Present Simple to express a condition in this type of sentences.Primer condicional: usamos el Presente Simple para expresar condiciones en este tipo de oraciones.If I find the keys, I'll let you know. 4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSAdverbs of frequency: always, usually, often, generally, sometimes, rarely, seldom, hardly ever, never.Adverbios de frecuencia: always, usually, often, generally, sometimes, rarely, seldom, hardly ever, never.Every day/week/month/summer/year

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Every two weeksOnce/twice/three times a weekDaily/weekly/yearlyAll the time

Present continuous Presente Continuo1. PRESENTATIONHe's learning English and travelling throughout New Zealand at the same time. They are filming The Hobbit in New Zealand at the moment.What are you reading? I'm reading The Chronicles of Narnia.She isn't coming to the party tonight.How are we travelling to the South Island?Is Harriett staying with you this month?I'm living in Wellington for a few months. They aren't sleeping much these days. 2. FORMThe Present Continuous is formed with the present simple of to be (am, is, are) and the verb in the -ing form.El Present Continuous se forma con el present simple del verbo to be (am, is, are) y el verbo en la forma -ing. For the negative form, we put the negative particle not after to be ('m not, isn't, aren't) and then add the verb in the -ing form. Para la forma negativa, ponemos la partícula negativa not detrás del verbo to be ('m not, isn't, aren't) y luego añadimos el verbo en la forma -ing.For the interrogative form, we only move the verb to be before the subject. Para la forma interrogativa, solo hay que mover el verbo to be delante del sujeto

Infinitive: to work-ing form: working

  Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I'm working I'm not working Am I working?

You're working You aren't working Are you working?

He/she/it's working He/she/it isn't working Is he/she/it working?

We're working We aren't working Are we working?

You're working You aren't working Are you working?

They're working They aren't working Are they working? 

Certain verbs have a spelling change in the -ing form.Algunos verbos cambian la ortografía en la forma -ing- Verbs ending in -e, drop the -e and add -ing.give => givinghave => having

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- One syllable verbs ending in consonant + vowel + consonant double the final consonant and add -ing:stop => stoppingcut => cutting- Verbs ending in -ie change it for -y and then add -ing.lie => lyingdie => dying 3. USES- Present actions: actions that are happening at the moment of speaking or around a present time.Acciones en el presente: acciones que están ocurriendo en el momento del habla o alrededor de un momento presente.I'm phoning my aunt in Auckland right now.My brother is learning English and French this year. - Temporary situations: actions that are happening at present but we feel they won't last for long.Situaciones temporales: acciones que están ocurriendo en el presente pero que sabemos que no van a durar mucho tiempo.Sheila is working in London until she finds a good job in Spain. - Future arrangements: actions that we have arranged to do in a near future (plans). We need a future time expression to give this future meaning to the sentence.Planes futuros: acciones que hemos planeado hacer en un futuro cercano (planes). Necesitamos una expresión de tiempo futuro para dar este significado de futuro a la oración.Many people in Christchurch are going to the rugby match next weekend.My friend is taking me to a concert tomorrow night. 

There are a series of verbs are not normally used in the continuous tenses. We call them stative verbs.Hay una serie de verbos que normalmente no se usan en tiempos continuos. Se les llama stative verbs.STATIVE VERBSVerbs of thinking: understand, believe, know, remember.Verbs of emotion: like, love, prefer, hate, want, need.Verbs of possession: have, own, want, belong.Verbs of senses: see, hear, smell, taste, seem. 4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSPresent time expressions: now, right now, at the moment, in this moment, at presenttoday, this week/month/year, these days ...Future time expressions: tonight, tomorrow, next weekend, next Friday ...Expresiones de tiempo presente: now, right now, at the moment, in this moment, at presenttoday, this week/month/year, these days ...Expresiones de tiempo futuro: tonight, tomorrow, next weekend, next Friday ...

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Past Simple Pasado Simple

1. PRESENTATIONMaori people arrived by boat from some Polynesian islands. New Zealand became part of the British Empire in 1840.New Zealand was the perfect setting for Tolkien's Middle Earth.Taranaki didn't win the battle against Tongariro.We didn't climb Mount Cook last year.There weren't any mammals in New Zealand before humans arrived.Did you know that they speak English in such a remote part of the Earth? Was Michael at home last night?  2. FORMThe general rule states that the Past Simple is formed by adding -ed to the base form of the verb.La regla general establece que el Past Simple se forma añadiendo -ed a la forma base del verbo.

However, there are some irregular verbs, which have special forms for the Past Simple, and we have to learn them by heart and with practice. Sin embargo, hay algunos verbos irregulares, que tiene formas especiales para el Past Simple, y tenemos que aprenderlos de memoria y con la práctica. For the negative form (both regular and irregular verbs), we put the auxiliary verb did and the negative particle not (did + not => didn't) before the base form of the verb. Para la forma negativa (verbos regulares e irregulares), colocamos el verbo auxiliar did y la partícula negativa not (did + not => didn't) delante de la forma base del verbo.For the interrogative form (both regular and irregular verbs), we move the auxiliary did before the subject.Para la forma interrogativa (verbos regulares e irregulares), movemos el auxiliar did delante del sujeto.

  Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I worked I didn't work Did I work?

You worked You didn't work Did you work?

He/she/it worked He/she/it didn't work Did he/she/it work?

We worked We didn't work Did we work?

You worked You didn't work Did you work?

They worked They didn't work Did they work? 

For certain verbs there is a spelling change before -ed.Ciertos verbos cambian su ortografía delante de -ed

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- Verbs ending in -e only add -d.live => livedshave => shaved- One syllable verbs ending in consonant + vowel + consonant double the final consonant and add -ed: stop => stoppedplan => planned- Verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the -y and add -ied:try => triedstudy => studied 

The –ed ending has different pronunciations: La terminación –ed tiene diferentes pronunciaciones

/d/ when the sound before -ed is voiced. => loved, died/t/ when the sound before -ed is voiceless. => looked, watched/it/ when the verb ends in t or d. => visited, decided

3. USES- Past actions: finished actions that happened in the past. Acciones pasadas: acciones terminadas ocurridas en el pasadoHe lived in Christchurch for three years.J.R.R.Tolkien wrote The Lord of the Rings trilogy between 1937 and 1949. - Series of actions in the past: events that happened in the past, one after the other. Serie de acciones en el pasado: sucesos que ocurrieron en el pasado, uno después de otroThe Maori arrived in New Zealand by boat, developed their own language and created a unique culture. - Second conditional: we use the Past Simple to express a condition in this type of sentences.Segundo condicional: usamos el Past Simple para expresar una condición en este tipo de oraciones.If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. 4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSYesterday, last week/month/winter/yearOn Monday, on 25 January, two weeks ago, in 2001In the past, the other day

Past Continuous Pasado Continuo1. PRESENTATIONHe was telling an old Maori legend. I was studying English while my brother was doing his homework.The native birds were singing in the bush.Diana wasn't waiting for me when I arrived.

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The students weren't listening to the teacher.Was it snowing when you came home last night? Were Mel and Dave cooking dinner at 6 pm? 2. FORMThe Past Continuous is formed with the past simple of to be (was, were) and the verb in the -ing form. El Past Continuous se forma con el past simple del verbo to be (was, were) y el verbo en la forma -ing.For the negative form, we put the negative particle not after to be (wasn't, weren't) and then add the verb in the -ing form.  Para la forma negativa, colocamos la partícula negativa not detrás del verbo to be (wasn't, weren't) y luego añadimos el verbo en la forma -ing.For the interrogative form, we only move the verb to be before the subject. Para la forma interrogativa, movemos el verbo to be y lo colocamos delante del sujeto.

Infinitive: to work-ing form: working 

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I was working I wasn't working Was I working?

You were working You weren't working Were you working?

He/she/it was working He/she/it wasn't working Was he/she/it working?

We were working We weren't working Were we working?

You were working You weren't working Were you working?

They were working They weren't working Were they working? 

Certain verbs have a spelling change in the -ing form.Algunos verbos cambian la ortografía en la forma -ing- Verbs ending in -e, drop the -e and add -ing.give => givinghave => having

- One syllable verbs ending in consonant + vowel + consonant double the final consonant and add -ing:stop => stoppingcut => cutting- Verbs ending in -ie change it for -y and then add -ing.lie => lyingdie => dying 3. USES

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- Action in progress: an action in progress (not finished) in the past is interrupted by a specific time.Acción en progreso: una acción en progreso (no terminada) en el pasado es interrumpida por un tiempo específicoYesterday at 3 o'clock I was swimming. - Simultaneous actions: two actions that were happe ning at the same time in the past. Acciones simultáneas: dos acciones que estaban ocurriendo al mismo tiempo en el pasado

My father was driving home while I was watching a DVD in the backseat. - Interrupted action in the past: a longer past action in progress (not finished) is expressed by the Past Continuous and the shorter action that interrupts is expressed in the Past Simple.Acción interrumpida en el pasado: una acción más larga en progreso (no terminada) en el pasado se expresa con el Past Continuous y la acción más corta que la interrumpe se expresa en Past SimpleWhile I was having breakfast, my grandmother rang. 

There are a series of verbs that are not normally used in the continuous tenses. We call them stative verbs.Hay una serie de verbos que normalmente no se usan en tiempos continuos. Se les llama stative verbsSTATIVE VERBSVerbs of thinking: understand, believe, know, remember.Verbs of emotion: like, love, prefer, hate, want, need.Verbs of possession: have, own, want, belong.Verbs of senses: see, hear, smell, taste, seem. 4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSWhile, when

Present Perfect Pretérito Perfecto

1. PRESENTATIONI have been to New Zealand once.The hei-tiki and the silver fern have become icons of New Zealand.For millions of years, New Zealand has evolved in isolation. We have already had lunch.They haven't seen The Chronicles of Narnia films.She hasn't met my Kiwi friends yet.Have you ever wondered how they see the world from New Zealand?  2. FORMThe Present Perfect is formed with the present simple of have (have/has) and the verb in the past participle (-ed). El Present Perfect se forma con el present simple del verbo have (have/has) y el verbo en participio pasado (-ed).

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Remember that there are irregular verbs, which have special forms in the past participle. We have to learn them by heart and with practice. Recuerda que hay verbos irregulares, que tienen formas especiales en participio pasado. Hay que aprenderlos de memoria y con la práctica. For the negative form, we need the verb have and the negative particle not (have + not => haven't; has + not => hasn't).Para la forma negativa, necesitamos el verbo have y la partícula negativa not (have + not => haven't; has + not => hasn't).For the interrogative form, we only move the verb have/has before the subject.Para la forma interrogativa, colocamos el verbo have/has delante del sujeto.

Infinitive: to work/to seePast participle: worked/seen 

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I have worked I haven't worked Have I worked?

You have worked You haven't worked Have you worked?

He/she/it has worked He/she/it hasn't worked Has he/she/it worked?

We have worked We haven't worked Have we worked?

You have worked You haven't worked Have you worked?

They have worked They haven't worked Have they worked? 3. USES- Unfinished actions: actions that have not finished. They started in the past and continue up to the present. They usually answer the question 'How long...' and include the particles for and since. Acciones inacabadas: acciones que no han terminado. Empezaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente. Normalmente responden a la pregunta 'How long...' e incluyen las partículas for y since.

Jack has lived in Auckland all his life. (= He still lives in Auckland at present)My mother has worked in a bank for five years. (= She still works in a bank) - Experiences: describes an experience in your life, without saying the specific time when it took place, or to inform of a recent event (usually with the particle just). We use the expression Have you ever ...? to know if you have experienced something in your life.Experiencias: describe una experiencia en tu vida, sin decir el momento exacto en que tuvo lugar, o informa de un evento reciente (normalmente con la partícula just.). Usamos la expresión Have you ever...? para saber si has experimentado algo en la vidaI have seen the film King Kong twice.They have just repaired my car.Have you ever been to New Zealand?

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- Actions with a present result: past actions that have a consequence in the present. Accciones con un resultado presente: acciones pasadas que tienen una consecuencia en el presenteI can´t find my credit card. I've lost it. - Already/yet: We use already in affirmative sentences to indicate that something has happened earlier than expected. It goes between have and the past participle. Usamos already en oraciones afirmativas para indicar que algo ha ocurrido antes de lo esperado. Se coloca entre have y el participio pasado.

We have already planned our trip to the South Island.We use yet in negative and interrogative sentences to say that an action we expected hasn't happened. It goes at the end of the sentence.Usamos yet en oraciones negativas e interrogativas para decir que una acción que esperábamos no ha ocurrido. Se coloca al final de la oración.

They haven't visited Te Papa Museum yet.Has he written the email yet? 

- For/since: We use for to talk about the duration of an action. Usamos for para hablar de la duración de una acción

I have lived in Almería for eight years.We use since to specify the moment when an action started.Usamos since para especificar el momento en que comenzó una acción

I have lived in Almería since 2003. 

4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSAlready, yet, just, for, since, never, ever, all my life, how long?, once, twice ..., lately, recently

Past Perfect Pretérito pluscuamperfecto1. PRESENTATIONI moved to Wellington after I had studied English.Had you eaten kiwifruit before you came to New Zealand?She had learnt to drive by then. They hadn't seen such an amazing landscape before.When he got home, the film had already started. By the time she finished her homework, all her friends had already gone.  2. FORMThe Past Perfect is formed with the past simple of have (had) and the verb in the past participle (-ed). El Past Perfect se forma con el past simple del verbo have (had) y el verbo en participio pasado (-ed).

Remember that there are irregular verbs, which have special forms in the past participle. We have to learn them by heart and with practice. Recuerda que hay verbos irregulares, que tienen formas especiales en el participio pasado. Tenemos que aprenderlos de memoria y con la práctica.

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For the negative form, we need had and the negative particle not (had + not => hadn't).Para la forma negativa, necesitamos had y la partícula interrogativa not (had + not => hadn't).For the interrogative form, we only move had before the subject.Para la forma interrogativa, colocamos had delante del sujeto

Infinitive: to work/to seePast participle: worked/seen 

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I had worked I hadn't worked Had I worked?

You had worked You hadn't worked Had you worked?

He/she/it had worked He/she/it hadn't worked Had he/she/it worked?

We had worked We hadn't worked Had we worked?

You had worked You hadn't worked Had you worked?

They had worked They hadn't worked Had they worked? 3. USES- Completed actions before a specific time: events that happened before a specific time in the past.Acciones completas antes de un momento específico: hechos que ocurrieron antes de un momento específico del pasado

I had never visited New Zealand before my trip in 2009.By ten o'clock last night, I had finished my project.

- Completed action before another past action: describes something that happened before another past action (expressed in the Past Simple).Acción completa anterior a otra acción pasada: describe algo que ocurrió antes de otra acción pasada (expresada en Past Simple).

Jane knew Auckland very well because she had visited the city many times. 

4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSBefore, after, by then, by the end of the month, by the time ...

Future Simple Futuro Simple1. PRESENTATIONNew Zealand will host 2011 Rugby World Cup. Many people will visit New Zealand this year.The kiwi bird will become extinct if we don't protect it.A: The phone is ringing. B: I'll get it. There won't be any native trees in the future if we continue cutting them.

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Will she arrive soon? Will you post this letter for me, please?  2. FORMThe Future Simple is formed with will (short form 'll) and the base form of the verb (infinitive without to).  El Future Simple se forma con will (forma contraída 'll) y la forma base del verbo (infinitivo sin to).For the negative form, we need will and the negative particle not (will + not => won't). Para la forma negativa, necesitamos will y la partícula negativa not (will + not => won't)For the interrogative form, we only move will before the subject.Para la forma interrogativa, colocamos will delante del sujeto

Infinitive: to workBase form: work 

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I will work I won't work Will I work?

You will work You won't work Will you work?

He/she/it will work He/she/it won't work Will he/she/it work?

We will work We won't work Will we work?

You will work You won't work Will you work?

They will work They won't work Will they work? 3. USES- Predictions: we express what we think will happen in the future, making general predictions or guesses. We don't have any control over these future events.Predicciones: expresamos lo que creemos que va a ocurrir en el futuro, haciendo predicciones generales o conjeturas. No tenemos ningún control sobre estos hechos futurosThis will be the hottest summer in 100 years.Cutting greenhouse gasses won't stop climate change.  - Decisions, promises and offers: we express a decision taken at the moment of speaking, a promise or an offer, usually with the short form 'll.Decisiones, promesas y ofrecimientos: expresamos una decisión tomada en el momento del habla, una promesa o un ofrecimiento, normalmente con la forma contraída 'llDon't worry, I'll help you with your science project. (=> offer)A: It's very hot in here.B: I'll open the window. (=> decision taken at the moment of speaking)I promise I won't tell anyone your secret. (=> promise) - First conditional: we use the Future Simple to express the result of a condition in this type of sentences.Primer condicional: usamos el Future Simple para expresar el resultado de una condición en este tipo de oraciones

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If you come to New Zealand, you won't regret it.  4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSFuture time expressions: in 2020, next summer, ...

Going to1. PRESENTATIONI'm going to spend my holidays in the Coromandel Peninsula. We're going to meet our friends at 8 pm.He isn't going to invite Martha to his party.You aren't going to buy that new videogame. Are we going to go to the beach this weekend? What are they going to do tomorrow night?Who's going to take you home? 2. FORM'Going to' is formed with the present simple of to be (am, is are), going to and the base form of the verb.'Going to' se forma con el presente simple del verbo to be (am, is are), going to y la forma base del verbo. For the negative form, we put the negative particle not after to be ('m not, aren't, isn't) and then going to and the base form of the verb. Para la forma negativa, colocamos la partícula negativa not detrás del verbo to be ('m not, aren't, isn't) y luego going to y la forma base del verbo.For the interrogative form, we only move to be (am, is, are) before the subject. Para la forma interrogativa, colocamos el verbo to be (am, is, are) delante del sujeto

Infinitive: to work Base form: work

  Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I 'm going to work I'm not going to work Am I going to work?

You're going to work You arent' going to work Are you going to work?

He/she/it 's going to work He/she/it isn't going to work Is he/she/it going to work?

We 're going to work We aren't going to work Are we going to work?

You're going to work You aren't going to work Are you going to work?

They're going to work They aren't going to work Are they going to work? 3. USES- Future plans and intentions: we express plans and intentions for the future, realistic or non-realistic.Planes e intenciones futuros: expresamos planes e intenciones para el futuro, realistas o no realistas

I'm going to be an astronaut when I grow up.My best friend is going to move to Queenstown in September.

 

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- Predictions based on evidence: we predict what is going to happen because we have present evidence of it.Predicciones basadas en evidencias: predecimos lo que va a ocurrir porque tenemos evidencias presentes o pruebas de ello

Look at those dark clouds! It's going to rain.Be careful! You're going to fall down.

 4. TYPICAL TIME EXPRESSIONSFuture time expressions: next weekend, tonight, when I grow up ...

Question Words Partículas interrogativas

Question words are always placed at the beginning of the interrogative sentence. This is why in English we have to put the preposition at the end of the question. Las partículas interrogativas se colocan siempre al principio de la oración interrogativa. Por eso, en inglés tenemos que poner la preposición al final de la pregunta

Where are you from? => ¿De dónde eres? The question words what and how can combine with different nouns, adjectives and adverbs to form more complex question words. Here is a list of the most common question words:Las partículas interrogativas what and how pueden combinarse con diferentes sustantivos, adjetivos y adverbios para formar partículas interrogativas más complejas. Aquí tienes una lista con las partículas interrogativas más frecuentes:

English Spanish

What? ¿Qué?

Which? ¿Cuál? ¿Cuáles?

Who? ¿Quién? ¿Quiénes?

Where? ¿Dónde?

When? ¿Cuándo?

How? ¿Cómo? (salud, ánimo)

How much/many? ¿Cuánto? ¿Cuántos?

Why? ¿Por qué?

Whose? ¿De quién?

What time? ¿A qué hora?

What ... like? ¿Cómo? (descripción)

What kind/type of? ¿Qué tipo de?

How often? ¿Con qué frecuencia?

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How long? ¿Cuánto tiempo?

How old? ¿Qué edad?

How far? ¿A qué distancia? 

There are two types of questions in English: Hay dos tipos de preguntas en inglés: Yes/no questions: They don't have a question word, and their answer is always yes or no. Preguntas yes/no: No llevan partícula interrogativa, y se responden siempre con yes o no

Do you like jazz? Yes, I do.  Wh- questions: They start with a question word, and their answer is a whole sentence with new information.

Preguntas wh-: Empiezan con una partícula interrogativa, y la respuesta es una oración completa con información nueva.Who is your favourite actress? My favourite actress is Meryl Streep.What time does the train leave? It leaves at 4 pm.

Comparatives Comparativos

Adjectives have special forms when we are comparing two or more things, people or places. Los adjetivos tienen formas especiales cuando comparamos dos o más cosas, personas o lugaresAuckland is bigger than Wellington.Stewart is much older than his wife.The South Island is colder than the North Island.The big swimming pool is deeper than the one for children.This programme is more complex than the previous one.My sister is more intelligent than me.New Zealand is further from Spain than China. Lisa is better at Science than me. The general rule for the comparative degree of adjectives is to add -er to the adjective. However, there are spelling changes in some cases. Study the following table.  La regla general para el grado comparativo de los adjetivos es añadir -er al adjetivo. Sin embargo, hay cambios ortográficos en algunos casos. Estudia la siguiente tabla.

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Type of adjective Adjective Comparative

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1. One-syllable adj. old older

  new newer

  young younger

     

2. One-syllable adj. ending in -e fine finer

  wide wider

  strange stranger

     3. One-syllable adj. ending in cons+vow+cons hot hotter

  big bigger

  thin thinner

     

4. Two-syllable adj. ending in -y heavy heavier

  dirty dirtier

  happy happier

     

5. Two-syllable adj. ending in -er, -ow, -le clever cleverer

  narrow narrower

  gentle gentler

     

6. Two or more syllable adj. special more special

  amazing more amazing

  colourful more colourful

     

7. Irregular adjectives good better

  bad worse

  far further 

Superlatives Superlativos

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Adjectives also have special forms when we want to indicate an extreme in the comparison of a group of things, people or places. The quality of the adjective in the case of superlatives is greater than the rest of the things in the comparison. Los adjetivos también tienen formas especiales cuando queremos indicar un extremo en la comparación de un grupo de cosas, personas o lugares. La cualidad del adjetivo en el caso de los superlativos es mayor que las del resto de cosas en la comparaciónAuckland is the biggest city in New Zealand.Stewart is the oldest man in his family.The South Island is the coldest place in New Zealand.The big swimming pool is the deepest I've ever seen.This programme is the most complex he has ever used.My sister is the most intelligent person in my family.New Zealand is the furthest country from Spain.Lisa is the best student at Science. The general rule for the superlative degree of adjectives is to add -est to the adjective. However, there are spelling changes in some cases. Study the following table.  La regla general para el grado superlativo de los adjetivos es añadir -est al adjetivo. Sin embargo, hay cambios ortográficos en algunos casos. Estudia la siguiente tabla.

Type of adjective Adjective Superlative

1. One-syllable adj. old oldest

  new newest

  young youngest

     

2. One-syllable adj. ending in -e fine finest

  wide widest

  strange strangest

     3. One-syllable adj. ending in cons+vow+cons hot hottest

  big biggest

  thin thinnest

     

4. Two-syllable adj. ending in -y heavy heaviest

  dirty dirtiest

  happy happiest

     

5. Two-syllable adj. ending in -er, -ow, -le clever cleverest

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  narrow narrowest

  gentle gentlest

     

6. Two or more syllable adj. special most special

  amazing most amazing

  colourful most colourful

     

7. Irregular adjectives good best

  bad worst

  far furthest 

Subject questions Preguntas de sujeto

The majority of questions in English ask about the object of a sentence. These are called object questions. The structure of the object question is: wh- + aux + S + verb? La mayor parte de las preguntas en inglés preguntan por el objeto de una oración. Se llaman preguntas de objeto. La estructura de la pregunta de objeto es: wh- + aux + S + verbo?

What are you reading? I'm reading The Hobbit. (Object = The Hobbit) There are another type of questions, called subject questions. We ask them to find out the subject of the sentence. The question words (wh- words) in subject questions are what, which, who, and how much/many.The structure of the subject question is: wh- + verb? Hay otro tipo de preguntas, llamadas preguntas de sujeto. Preguntamos para averiguar el sujeto de una oración. Las partículas interrogativas (palabras wh-) en las preguntas de sujeto son what, which, who, y how much/many.La estructura de la pregunta de sujeto es: wh- + verbo?

Who is coming next weekend? My cousin is coming. (Subject = My cousin)Which horse is faster? The black one is faster. (Subject = The black one)What type of food gives you energy? Apples give you a good energy boost. (Subject = Apples)How many students came to class yesterday? Ten students came to class. (Subject = Ten students) 

Note that the structure in subject questions is the same as in affirmative sentences, since the wh- word is the subject of the question. For this reason, we never

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use the auxiliary (e.g. subject questions in the past simple don't use did but the main verb directly in the past simple form). Observe que la estructura de las preguntas de sujeto es la misma que la de las oraciones afirmativas, ya que la palabra wh- es el sujeto de la pregunta. For esta razón, nunca usamos el auxiliar (por ejemplo, las preguntas de sujeto en past simple no usan did sino que el verbo principal va directamente en past simple).

Who called last night? My grandparents called.Which band played better at the festival? Massive Attack played better.

Modal verbs Verbos Modales

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verbs that are used to express modality, for example permission, obligation or ability. Modal verbs are special, they don't behave like the rest of verbs. These special characteristics are: Los verbos modales son un tipo de verbos auxiliares que se usan para expresar modalidad, por ejemplo permiso, obligación o habilidad. Los verbos modales son especiales, no se comportan como el resto de los verbos. Estas características especiales son:

- They don't add -s to the 3rd person singular in the Present Simple.- They make questions by changing position with the subject (inversion).- They are directly followed by another verb in the base form (infinitive without to).- The negative form is modal verb + notNo añaden -s a la 3ª persona singular del Present Simple.- Hacen las preguntas cambiando de posición con el sujeto (inversión).- Van directamente seguidos por otro verbo en forma base (infinitivo sin to).- La forma negativa es verbo modal + not

Some of the verbs in the list below are semi-modals (have to, don't have to). They share some characteristics with modal verbs, but not all of them: they need an auxiliary in the negative and interrogative forms, and they add -s to the 3rd person singular in the Present Simple. Algunos verbos en la lista siguiente son semi-modales (have to, don't have to). Comparten algunas características con los verbos modales, pero no todas: necesitan un auxiliar en las formas negativa e interrogativa, y añaden -s a la 3ª persona singular del Present Simple.

Modal verb Use Example

can Ability She can drive a car.

  Ask for/Give permission Can I go to the toilet, please?

can't Lack of ability They can't speak French.

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  Refuse permission You can't go out tonight.

could Ability in the past I could walk when I was one.

Polite request for permission Could I borrow your book?

Possibility It could rain tonight.

couldn't Lack of ability in the past I couldn't speak when I was two.

must Obligation (strong) You must study harder.

mustn't Prohibition You mustn't speak in the library.

have to Obligation I have to go to the doctor.

don't have to Lack of obligation I don't have to study in summer.

may Possibility He may arrive late.

  Ask for/Give permission (polite) You may not go to that party.

might Possibility I think it might snow today.

should Advice You should take it easy.

shouldn't Negative advice You shouldn't eat so much.

ought to Advice (less common) You ought to do some exercise.

shall Offer/Suggestion Shall we go dancing tonight?

will Prediction The temperatures will rise.

Request Will you help me with this exercise?

Promise/Offer/Instant decision I'll open the door for you.

would Past habit I would always cry when I was a child.

 Love, like, enjoy, hate + -ing Love, like, enjoy, hate + -ing

The verbs love, like, enjoy and hate are verbs which express likes and dislikes. They are usually followed by a gerund (verb + -ing) when the meaning is general. Los verbos love, like, enjoy y hate son verbos que expresan gustos y preferencias. Normalmente van seguidos de un gerundio (verbo + -ing) cuando el significado es general.I like getting up early in the summer.My brother Sean loves skydiving.We enjoy spending our Christmas holidays in the Southern Alps.They hate watching horror films. However, when we refer to a particular occasion or situation, these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive.

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 Sin embargo, cuando nos referimos a una ocasión o situación particular, estos verbos van seguidos de un infinitivo con to.

I hate to tell you that you have not passed the test.I really love to see you so happy. 

Note that if we want to use the expressions would love to, would like to, etc. we need the to-infinitive. I would love to visit New Zealand.Would you like to dance?

Passive Voice Voz Pasiva

When we talk about 'voice', we talk about a grammatical construction which focuses on different elements of a sentence. In the active voice, the focus is on the subject, who is the agent of the action (the subject does the action). When a sentence is in the passive voice, the subject is the recipient of the action (the subject receives the action). The focus in the passive voice is on the action itself, and not on who performs the action. Cuando hablamos de 'voz'', hablamos de una construcción gramatical que centra la atención en diferentes elementos de la oración. En la voz activa, el centro de atención es el sujeto, que es el agente de la acción (el sujeto realiza la acción). Cuando una oración está en voz pasiva, el sujeto es el receptor de la acción (el sujeto recibe la acción). El centro de atención en la voz pasiva está en la acción misma, y no en quien realiza la acción

Active => My little brother broke the expensive vase.Passive => The expensive vase was broken by my little brother. 

USESThe passive voice is used or preferred in the following cases:1. When the person who does the action (the agent) is unknown, or it is obvious from the context.La voz pasiva se usa o prefiere en los siguientes casos:1. Cuando la persona que realiza la acción (el agente) es desconocida, o es obvia por el contexto

Some cars were stolen last night. (unknown agent)The dangerous criminals have been arrested. (by the police => obvious) 

2. When we want to focus on the action (the action is more important) and not on the performer of the action (the agent).2. Cuando queremos centrar la atención en la acción (la acción es más importante) y no en el que realiza la acción (el agente).

Most of the computer components are made in Asia. 

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3. In scientific or technical writing and newspaper articles, to give a more impersonal view and the impression of being objective.3. En textos científicos o técnicos y artículos periodísticos, para dar una visión más impersonal y la impresión de ser objetivo.

The aluminum hydroxide was dissolved in water.Three people were badly injured in the accident. 4. In formal writing and polite speech when we don't want to use people, someone or they, or we don't want to say who did the action.4. En escritos formales y en el habla educada cuando no queremos usar people, someone o they, o no queremos decir quién realizó la acción.

The project will be finished by the end of the month.A mistake was made. 

FORM OF THE PASSIVE TENSESWe form the passive tenses with the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb.Formamos los tiempos pasivos con el verbo to be y el participio pasado del verbo principalto be + past participle (PP) We form the past participle adding -ed to the base form of the verb. Remember that there are some irregular verbs, that have special forms in the past participle.  Formamos el participio pasado añadiendo -ed a la forma base del verbo. Recuerda que hay verbos irregulares, que tienen formas especiales en el participio pasado.

PASSIVE TENSESPresent Simple passive: am/is/are + PP => The office is cleaned every day.Present Continuous passive: am/is/are being + PP => Lunch is being served now.Past Simple passive: was/were + PP => The office was cleaned last night.Past Continuous passive: was/were being + PP => Lunch was being served at 2 o'clock.Present Perfect passive: have/has been + PP => The dog has been left outside.Future Simple passive: will be + PP => The hotel will be inaugurated next month. STRUCTURE OF PASSIVE SENTENCES· We can only transform active sentences into passive when there is an object. Take this example, in which many beautiful pictures is the object:Solo se pueden transformar oraciones activas en pasivas cuando hay un objeto. Observa este ejemplo, en el que many beautiful pictures es el objetoActive sentence => My sister has taken many beautiful pictures. The object of the active verb becomes the subject in the passive sentence.El objeto del verbo activo se convierte en el sujeto de la oración pasiva.Passive sentence => Many beautiful pictures have been taken by my sister. · The active verb changes to the passive form by adding to be in the same tense as the active verb, and then adding the PP of the active verb.El verbo activo cambia a la forma pasiva añadiendo to be en el mismo tiempo del verbo activo, y añadiendo luego el PP del verbo activo

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has taken (Present Perfect) => has been (to be in the Present Perfect) + taken (PP of active verb take) · The passive verb has to agree in number with the new subject. El verbo pasivo tiene que concordar en número con el nuevo sujetoSubject of the active sentence => My sister (singular) + has takenSubject of the passive sentence => Many beautiful pictures (plural) + have been taken · If the object of the active verb is an object pronoun, we have to change it to the corresponding subject pronoun.Si el objeto del verbo activo es un pronombre de objeto, tenemos que cambiarlo por el correspondiente pronombre de sujeto.

me => I ; him => he ; her => she ; us => we , them => theyJane invited him to a concert. => He was invited to a concert by Jane. · The subject of the active sentence becomes the agent in the passive sentence. The agent is introduced with by. El sujeto de la oración activa se convierte en el agente en la oración pasiva. El agente se introduce con by.

We don't write the agent if it is not a specific person (they, people, somebody).No escribimos el agente si no es una persona específica (they, people, somebody).

Many beautiful pictures have been taken by my sister.

Indirect speech Estilo indirecto

We use indirect speech (or reported speech) when we want to tell what another person said, normally in the past. We don't use the exact words that person said (direct speech), but we transform the words into indirect speech following some rules. Usamos el estilo indirecto cuando queremos contar lo que otra persona ha dicho, normalmente en el pasado. No utilizamos las palabras exactas que esa persona dijo (estilo directo), sino que transformamos las palabras al estilo indirecto siguiendo unas pautas.Direct speech => 'We all speak English in New Zealand', said my Kiwi friend.Indirect speech => My kiwi friend said that they all spoke English in New Zealand.

 FROM DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH· Tense change = Because of the time change, we have to change the verb tenses used in direct speech, which go one step back into the past (backshift). Cambio de tiempos verbales = Debido al cambio en la perspectiva temporal, tenemos que cambiar los tiempos verbales utilizados en el estilo directo, que darán un salto atrás en el tiempo (salto hacia el pasado).

Direct speech => Harriett said: 'I am going to the South Island in the summer.'Indirect speech => Harriett said that she was going to the South Island in the summer. 

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This is how the backshift is done: Así se realiza el salto hacia el pasado:

Direct speech Indirect speech

Present Simple - I live Past Simple - I lived

Present Continuous - I'm living Past Continuous - I was living

Past Simple - I lived Past Perfect - I had lived

Present Perfect - I have lived Past Perfect - I had lived

Past Perfect - I had lived no change - I had lived

Future simple (will) - I will live would - I would live

can - I can live could - I could live

may - I may live might - I might live

must - I must live had to - I had to live

have to - I have to live had to - I had to live · Time/place change = we also have to change time and place expressions in indirect speech. Cambio en las referencias de tiempo y espacio = también tenemos que cambiar las expresiones de tiempo y lugar en el estilo indirecto.

Direct speech Indirect speech

today that day

yesterday the day before/the previous day

now then

tomorrow the following day/the next day

next Monday/week/year the following Monday/week/year

last Monday/week/year the previous Monday/week/year

ago before

this year that year

here there 

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· Pronoun and adjective change = as the perspective has changed (the speaker is a different person now) we need to change demonstrative and possessive adjectives or pronouns, and personal pronouns.Cambio de adjetivos y pronombres = como la perspectiva ha cambiado (el hablante es una persona diferente ahora) necesitamos cambiar los adjetivos y pronombres demostrativos y posesivos, y los pronombres personales.

Note that possessive adjectives or pronouns, and personal pronouns change according to the person who is reporting. Normally they change from the 1st and 2nd persons to the 3rd person. Tenga en cuenta que los adjetivos y pronombres posesivos, y los pronombres personales cambian según la persona que está informando en estilo indirecto. Normalmente cambian de 1ª y 2ª persona a 3ª persona.

Direct speech Indirect speech

this that

these those

that no change

those no change

my/your normally his/her

our/your normally their

his/her/their normally no change

I/you normally he/she

We/you normally they

he/she/it normally no change 

SAY / TELLThese two introductory verbs are the most commonly used to report statements (there are many other verbs). The difference of use depends on the object. If we mention the person that the speaker was talking to in the direct speech (the object of the introductory verb) we use tell. Estos dos verbos introductorios son los más usados para poner aseveraciones en estilo indirecto (hay muchos otros verbos). La diferencia de uso depende del objeto. Si mencionamos la persona a la que se dirigía el hablante en el estilo directo (el objeto del verbo introductorio) usamos tell.

Direct speech => They said to me : 'We want to go home'.Indirect speech => They told me that they wanted to go home. If there is no object, we have to use say.Si no hay objeto, tenemos que usar say.

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Direct speech => They said: 'We want to go home'.Indirect speech => They said that they wanted to go home

Relative clauses Oraciones de relativo

We use relative clauses to give more information about a person, thing or place and we don't want to start another sentence. When we combine sentences by means of a relative clause, the text becomes more fluent and we can avoid repeating certain words.Usamos las oraciones de relativo para dar información sobre una persona, cosa o lugar y no queremos comenzar una frase nueva. Cuando combinamos oraciones por medio de una oración subordinada de relativo, el texto se hace más fluído y podemos evitar la repetición de ciertas palabras.

Stewart likes a girl. She lives next door.Stewart likes a girl who lives next door.  DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSESThere are two types of relative clauses: defining and non-defining. We will concentrate on defining relative clauses.This type of relative clauses give important or detailed information about a person, thing or place (the antecedent). Without this additional information, we wouldn't know exactly which person, thing or place they are talking about. The defining relative clause goes immediately after the antecedent, and it doesn't go between commas.Hay dos tipos de oraciones de relativo: especificativas (defining) y explicativas (non-defining). Nos vamos a concentrar en las oraciones de relativo especificativas.Este tipo de oraciones de relativo aporta información importante o detallada sobre una persona, cosa o lugar (el antecedente). Sin esta información adicional no podríamos saber exactamente sobre qué persona, cosa o lugar se está hablando. La oración de relativo especificativa va inmediatamente detrás del antecedente, y no va entre comas.

Rose met a man. He rides horses.Rose met a man who rides horses. (antecedent = a man)I don't like the book. I read it last weekend.I don't like the book which I read last weekend. (antecedent = the book)I live in a house. I was born there.I live in the house where I was born. (antecedent = the house)  This type of relative clauses is often used in definitions.Este tipo de oraciones de relativo se usa a menudo en las definiciones.

An architect is a person who designs buildings. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBSDefining relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns and adverbs. Las oraciones de relativo especificativas se introducen por medio de pronombres y adverbios relativos

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Relative pronoun Use Example

Who refers to people The woman who you met is my teacher.

Which refers to things This is the dress which I prefer.

That refers to people and things These are the children that you will look after.

Whose refers to possessions The girl whose laptop is on the desk is my friend.

     

Relative adverb Use Example

When refers to time The day when I arrived here is important to me.

Where refers to a place The place where I met him is very special.

Why refers to a reason The reason why I came here is to learn English.

 OMISSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNSThe relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of the defining relative sentence. We can omit the relative pronoun only when it is the object.El pronombre relativo puede ser el sujeto o el objeto de la oración de relativo especificativa. Podemos omitir el pronombre relativo solo cuando es el objetoThe woman who is waiting for me is my aunt. (who is the subject of the relative clause => someone is waiting, who?). In this case, we can't omit the relative pronoun.The woman (who) I'm waiting for is my aunt. (who is the object of the relative clause => I is the subject of the verb am waiting). In this case, we can omit the relative pronoun.

Conditionals Condicionales

We use conditional sentences to express that the action in the main clause (the result) can only happen if the action in the if-clause (the condition) is satisfied. Usamos las oraciones condicionales para expresar que la acción de la oración principal (el resultado) solo puede ocurrir si la acción de la oración con if (la condición) se cumpleIf you break something, your mother will get angry. The main clause can also go at the beginning. In this case, we don't use a comma.La oración principal también puede ir al principio. En ese caso, no usamos la coma.

Your mother will get angry if you break something. There are three types of conditional sentences: first, second and third conditionals. We will concentrate on the First and Second Conditionals. Hay tres tipos de oraciones condicionales: primer, segundo y tercer condicional. Vamos a concentrarnos en el Primer y Segundo Condicional.

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FIRST CONDITIONALIn this type of conditional sentences, we talk about conditions which are probable or likely to happen in the future. This is the most common structure:En este tipo de oraciones condicionales, hablamos sobre condiciones que es probable que ocurran en el futuro. Esta es la estructura más habitual:

If + Present Simple, will + base form If she doesn't get up early, she will miss the bus. But we can also use the imperative or a modal verb instead of will. Pero también podemos utilizar el imperativo o un verbo modal en lugar de willIf you are late for class, say sorry. => ImperativeIf she misses the bus, she may take a taxi. => Modal verb 

Remember that all verb tenses have affirmative, negative and interrogative forms. Be careful to use the correct auxiliaries (for example, for the Present Simple we need don't/doesn't). Recuerda que todos los tiempos verbales tienen formas afirmativa, negativa e interrogativa. Asegúrate de utilizar el auxiliar correcto (por ejemplo, para el Present Simple necesitamos don't/doesn't).

SECOND CONDITIONALIn this type of conditional sentences, we talk about conditions which are possible but unlikely, or which are hypothetical: for example, we imagine or dream of something which is unreal. This sentences refer to the present, but to an 'imaginary' present situation. This is the most common structure:En este tipo de oraciones condicionales, hablamos sobre condiciones que es posible pero poco probable que ocurran, o que son hipotéticas: por ejemplo, imaginamos o soñamos con algo que no es real. Estas oraciones se refieren al presente, pero a una situación presente 'imaginaria'. Esta es la estructura más habitual:

If + Past Simple, would + base form If I had more free time, I would start a new hobby. (but the truth is that I don't have more free time.) We can also use the modal verbs could and might instead of would. También podemos usar los verbos modales could y might en lugar de wouldIf I had more free time, I could help you with your project.If I had more free time, I might travel to Auckland. We can also use this type of conditionals to give advice. We usually start with 'If I were you...'Este tipo de condicionales también se usa para dar consejos. Normalmente empezamos con 'If I were you...'

If I were you, I wouldn't go out with him. 

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Note that we say I were and he/she were instead of was, which is the normal form of to be in the Present Simple for the 1st and 3rd person singular. This use is only correct in second conditional sentences.Observa que decimos I were y he/she were en lugar de was, que es la forma normal del verbo to be en Present Simple para la 1ª y 3ª persona singular. Este uso solo es correcto en el segundo condicional.

Used to Used to

The expression used to is a verb structure that describes:La expresión used to es una estructura verbal que describe:A habit in the past, which no longers exists. un hábito en el pasado, que ya no existe.

I used to sleep until lunch time when I was a teenager.Something that was true in the past, but not at present. Algo que era verdad en el pasado, pero no en el presente.

There used to be good TV programmes 10 years ago. Like all verb tenses, we can find this expression in the affirmative, negative and interrogative forms.Como todos los tiempos verbales, podemos encontrar esta expresión en forma afirmativa, negativa e interrogativa.

 

Affirmative S + used to + base form I used to be very naughty as a child.

NegativeS + didn't use to + base form

We didn't use to go to the theatre, but we're very keen now.

Interrogativedid + S+ use to + base form? Did they use to take the bus to work?

  BE USED TOThis is a completely different expression which means 'be accustomed to'. It refers to a present habit or to something that is usual to you. It can be followed by a noun or by a verb in the -ing form.Esta es una expresión completamente diferente que significa 'estar acostumbrado a'. Se refiere a un hábito en el presente o a algo que es normal para ti. Puede ir seguida por un sustantivo o por un verbo en la forma -ing.

We are used to cold weather.She's used to travelling to Asia every summer.I'm not used to getting up early on Sundays.

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 When it is followed by a verb, the structure of this expression is the following:Cuando va seguida de un verbo, la estructura de esta expresión es la siguiente:

S + am/is/are (not) + used to + -ing

Time clauses Oraciones temporales

Time clauses are subordinate sentences which tell us the moment when an action takes place. The verb in time clauses is always in a past or present tense or in the imperative. It is never used in a future tense.Las oraciones temporales son oraciones subordinadas que nos dicen el momento en que una acción tiene lugar. El verbo de la oración temporal siempre va en un tiempo pasado o presente, o en imperativo. Nunca se usa un tiempo futuro.

When I go on holiday, I always take my laptop with me.She had a shower after she came home.Until you finish your homework, you will stay in your room. 

Note that the time clause can go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence (before or after the main clause). The only difference is that we put a comma when it comes first in the sentence, to separate it from the main clause. Observa que la oración subordinada temporal puede ir al principio o al final de la oración (antes o después de la oración principal). La única diferencia es que ponemos una coma cuando aparece en primer lugar, para separarla de la oración principal.

Before you leave, turn off the lights.Turn off the lights before you leave. There are different time words which introduce time clauses. These are the most commonly used: Hay diferentes adverbios y preposiciones para introducir las oraciones temporales. Estas son las más utilizadas:

Time word Meaning Example

When at that time She was watching TV when her mother called.

While during that time She watched TV while it rained outside.

Before before that time She watched TV before she went to bed.

After after that time She watched TV after she had dinner.

Until up to that time She watched TV until she fell asleep.

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 Too/enough Too/enough

We use the words too and enough with adjectives or adverbs to indicate degree or intensity.  Usamos las palabras too y enough con adjetivos y adverbios para indicar grado o intensidad.  

TOO This word means 'more than it is necessary or sufficient'. It goes before the adjective/adverb. It can be followed by other complements introduced by for or to.TOO Esta palabra significa 'más de lo que es necesario o suficiente'. Va delante del adjetivo/adverbio. Puede ir seguida de otros complementos introducidos por for o to.

too + adj/adv This diamond ring is too expensive for me.Those clothes are too warm to wear in the summer. We can also use too + much/many before a noun. (Remember: too much + uncountable noun - too many + countable noun)También podemos utilizar too + much/many delante de un sustantivo. (Recuerda: too much + nombre incontable - too many + nombre contable)

too much/many + noun There were too many people on the bus, so I couldn't breathe well.There is too much information everywhere! I need a rest.  ENOUGHThis word means 'sufficient'. It goes after the adjective/adverb.Esta palabra significa 'suficiente'. Va detrás del adjetivo/adverbio.

adj/adv + enough The sea isn't warm enough for me to swim.My apartment is big enough for five people. 

We can also use enough with nouns, in this case it goes before the noun.También podemos utilizar enough con sustantivos, en este caso va delante del sustantivo.

enough + noun There isn't enough food for everybody.I have enough money to buy a new laptop.

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Indefinite pronouns Pronombres indefinidos

Indefinite pronouns don't indicate a specific person or thing. These pronouns refer to a person or thing that hasn't been mentioned before, and therefore their meaning is not precise or 'definite'. When it is the subject, the indefinite pronoun always goes with a singular verb, although it may refer to more than one person or thing:Los pronombres indefinidos no indican una persona o cosa específica. Estos pronombres se refieren a personas o cosas que no han sido mencionadas antes, y por tanto su significado no es preciso or 'definido'. Cuando hace la función de sujeto, el pronombre indefinido siempre lleva un verbo en singular, aunque puede que se refiera a más de una persona o cosa:

Everybody wants to know the truth.Everything was perfect on our trip to New Zealand. The following table shows the most common indefinite pronouns: La siguiente tabla muestra los pronombres indefinidos más habituales:

 

Indefinite pronoun Refers to Example

Everybody/everyone all people Everybody in the audience sang along.

Somebody/someone unspecified person I think someone is following me!

Anybody/anyone any person (no matter which) Anybody can learn to drive.

Nobody/no one no person I tried to contact them but nobody answered the phone.

     

Everything all things I love everything you do.

Something an unspecified thing There's something in your voice that makes me crazy.

Anything any thing (no matter which)

My mum won't let me eat anything before lunch.

Nothing not a thing I had nothing to tell him.

 We use indefinite pronouns which begin with some- in affirmative sentences, or in questions when we expect an affirmative answer. Usamos los pronombres indefinidos que empiezan por some- en oraciones afirmativas, o en preguntas cuando esperamos una respuesta afirmativa.

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I want to tell you something.Would you like something to eat? When we use indefinite pronouns which begin with no-, we cannot use any other negative word in the sentence (like a verb in the negative form). We have two possibilities to make the meaning negative:Cuando usamos los pronombres indefinidos que empiezan por no-, no podemos usar ninguna otra palabra negativa en la frase (como un verbo en forma negativa). Tenemos dos posibilidades para conseguir un significado negativo:

She said nothing about her previous job.She didn't say anything about her previous job.

Question tags Coletillas interrogativas

Question tags are short questions that we add at the end of a statement, to ask for confirmation or just to emphasize what has been said. The meaning is something like: Do you agree? Is that right? The structure of question tags is very simple: an auxiliary verb and a personal pronoun.Las coletillas interrogativas son preguntas cortas que añadimos al final de una aseveración, para pedir confirmación o simplemente para dar énfasis a lo que se ha dicho. El significado es algo como: ¿Estás de acuerdo? ¿Verdad? ¿No? La estructura de las coletillas interrogativas es muy sencilla: un verbo auxiliar y un pronombre personal.

You have been to New Zealand, haven't you?Your brother went to the dentist, didn't he?Chris isn't Australian, is he? The auxiliary in the question tag depends on the verb tense of the main sentence. We need the same auxiliary that is used for the verb tense of the main sentence (e.g. if the sentence is in the Past Simple, we will use the auxiliary did), but of the opposite sign. For an affirmative sentence, we use a negative question tag. For a negative sentence, we use an affirmative tag.El auxiliar de la coletilla interrogativa depende del tiempo verbal de la oración principal. Necesitamos el mismo auxiliar que se utiliza en el tiempo verbal de la oración principal (por ejemplo, si la oración está en Past Simple, usaremos el auxiliar did), pero de signo opuesto. Para una oración afirmativa, usaremos una coletilla negativa. Para una oración negativa, usaremos una coletilla afirmativa.

+ sentence, - question tag

- sentence, + question tag Here are some more examples with all the verb tenses.Aquí tiene más ejemplos con todos los tiempos verbales.

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We are in the same hotel, aren't we?Sheila doesn't know me, does she?You are studying hard this year, aren't you?I haven't told you my name, have I?That wasn't a good idea, was it?That film got many Oscars, didn't it?Your friends were playing football in the rain, weren't they?James and Laura hadn't met before, had they?They will finish soon, won't they?Melanie couldn't come to the show, could she?You wouldn't buy a sports car, would you? 

There are some special cases where we use different auxiliaries or pronouns.Hay algunos casos especiales en que utilizamos auxiliares y pronombres diferentes.

I am older than you, aren't I?Nobody called last night, did they?Let's go to the cinema, shall we?There were too many people at the concert, weren't there?

Both... and, neither... nor Both... and, neither... nor

The expressions both... and and neither... nor are correlative conjunctions. This means that they are parallel: they always go in pairs joining two words or expressions of the same grammatical category (two nouns, two adjectives, two verbs...) Las expresiones both... and y neither... nor son conjunciones correlativas. Esto significa que son paralelas: siempre van en pareja uniendo dos palabras o expresiones de la misma categoría gramatical (dos sustantivos, dos adjetivos, dos verbos...)

BOTH... AND The expression both... and indicates a group of two people or things in which we mention each item separately. We can also use both with the preposition of followed by a plural noun or a personal pronoun to express the same thing, or we can use both alone.  La expresión both... and indica un grupo de dos personas o cosas en que mencionamos cada elemento por separado. También podemos usar both con la preposición of seguida de un sustantivo plural o de un pronombre personal para expresar lo mismo, o podemos usar both solo.

The verb goes in the plural form because it refers to two people or things. El verbo va en plural porque nos referimos a dos personas o cosas.

Both Fred and Tina are from Auckland.Both of my friends are from Auckland.Both of them are from Auckland.Both are from Auckland. 

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NEITHER... NORThe expression neither ... nor indicates a group of two people or things in which none of the items is included. Neither can also be followed by the preposition of and a personal pronoun, or it can be followed directly by a singular noun.La expresión neither ... nor indica un grupo de dos personas o cosas en que ninguno de los elementos está incluido. Neither también puede ir seguido de la preposición of y un pronombre personal, o puede ir seguido directamente por un sustantivo singular.

The verb goes in the singular form. El verbo va en singular.

Neither Alice nor Kate is in my class.Neither of them is in my class.Neither girl is in my class.

Irregular verbs

Base form Past Simple Past participle

be was / were beenbecome became become begin began begunbring brought broughtbuy bought boughtchoose chose chosencome came comedo did donedrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eatenfall fell fallenfeel felt feltfind found foundfly flew flownforget forgot forgottenget got got give gave givengo went gonehave had hadhear heard heardkeep kept keptknow knew knownleave left leftlend lent lentlet let let

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lose lost lostmake made mademeet met metpay paid paidput put putread read read run ran runsay said saidsee saw seensell sold soldsend sent sentsing sang sungsit sat satsleep slept sleptspeak spoke spokenstand stood stoodswim swam swumtake took takenteach taught taughttell told toldthink thought thoughtunderstand understood understoodwear wore wornwrite wrote written