Research Methodology

Department of : MCMS Assignment no:1 Submitted by: Nusrat Azeema Roll no:38 Date:4 dec,2014

What is Research? Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed

phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998). Inductive

methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or

processes underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized

principles through observations. The purposes are different: one is to develop explanations, and

the other is to test the validity of the explanations.

Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of

data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore.

Research consists of:

Asking a question that nobody has asked before;

Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and

Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.

The Scientific Definition:

The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of any experimental process.

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.

Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.

The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated, although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.

Scientific method: Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to

qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be

controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control implies

that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.

Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain

logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings

is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from

information collected from real life experiences or observations.

Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research

enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

Validity- it can be stated that a research has highly validity if the study only contains what one wants

to study and nothing else. Validity refers to how well the data collection and data analysis of the Research captures the reality being studied. In other words the researcher must obtain the reality of responses of those people who are under the test through comparing their responses with such truth that in deed is truth

Common Characteristics of Scientific Research: Scientific research in its many forms, shares the following common characteristics:

Think of or recognize a good (interesting, important, and tractable) problem.

Learn a great deal about the problem.

Decide which experiments/observations/calculations would contribute to a solution to the problem.

Perform the experiments/observations/calculations.

Decide whether the results really do contribute to a better understanding of the problem.

Communicate your results.

Basic Elements of Research:

Concept

A concept is "an abstraction based on characteristics of perceived reality."

"A label we put on a phenomenon that enables us to link separate observations and to make

generalizations. A convenience, a name we give to observations and events"

An abstraction encompassing observed events; a word that represents the similarities or

common aspects of objects or events that are otherwise quite different from one another.

The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking by including a number of events (or the common

aspects of otherwise diverse things) under one general heading (Ary 1985).

Chair, dog, tree, liquid, a doughnut, etc…

Construct

Constructs are the “highest highest-level abstractions” of complicated objects and events,

created by combining concepts and less complex constructs. – used to account for observed

regularities and relationships, and to summarize observations and explanations (Ary 1985).

A concept with added meaning of having been deliberately and con consciously invented or

seriously adopted for a special scientific purpose.

It enters into theoretical schemes and is theoretical related in various ways to other constructs.

It is defined and specified so that it may be observed or measured (Kerlinger 1986).

Scientists measure things in three classes: direct observables, indirect observables (not

experienced or observed first hand), and constructs.

These constructs are defined as constructs theoretical creations based on observations but

cannot be observed directly or observed indirectly (Kaplan 1964).

Motivation, visual acuity, justice, problem solving ability, not a doughnut, but hunger. problem-

Variable

Characteristics or attributes of an object, individual or organization that can be measured or

observed, and that varies among those objects or individuals being studied (Creswell 2002).

They possess values and levels (the dimensions on which they vary) (Sommery 1997).

“The concepts that are of interest in a study become the variable variables for s investigation

(Ary 1985).”

Different Kinds of Variables:

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

They show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example,

if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then

the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that

procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation

in the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Independent variables are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve

manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing

new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research

setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will

have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.

INTERVENING VARIABLES

These refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the

independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually

inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher

cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent

variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning

processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.

MODERATOR VARIABLES

They affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying

the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are

measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language

acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age,

culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.

CONTROL VARIABLES

Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Extraneous variables are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which is not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

Steps of the research process:

Step 1: Identify the Problem:

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The

research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or

information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a Recreation trend

nationally.

Step 2: Review the Literature: Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic

under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the

research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.

Step 3: Clarify the Problem:

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad

in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope

of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge

gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the

research project.

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts:

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the

description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the

study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the

study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must

specifically define them for the study.

Step 5: Define the Population:

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,

employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of

technology into the operations.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan:

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan

serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how,

when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program.

Step 7: Collect Data:

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of

data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer

the research question.

Step 8: Analyze the Data:

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process

culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research

question can be answered.

Kinds of Research

Kinds of Research by Philosophy:

Qualitative research:

Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to

quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols

Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior

and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the

why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.

Advantages:

It enables more complex aspects of a person’s experience to be studied •

Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data be collected.

Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily, Individuals can be studied in

more depth

Good for exploratory research and hypothesis generation •

The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way

Disadvantages:

It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data •

There is more subjectivity involved in analyzing the data.

“Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes create lots of data, which

can take a long time to analyze!

Time consuming

Quantitative research

Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via

statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research

is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to

phenomena

Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:

The generation of models, theories and hypotheses

The development of instruments and methods for measurement

Experimental control and manipulation of variables RESEARCH •

Collection of empirical data

Modeling and analysis of

Evaluation of results

Advantages:

Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and analyse data.

The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.

Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its

ability to measure data using statistics.

Disadvantages:

The main disadvantage of quantitative research is the context of the study or

experiment is ignored

Quantitative research does not study things in a natural PHENOMENOLOGICAL setting

or discuss the meaning things have for different people.

A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate

Kinds of Research by Purpose:

Applied research:

Applies research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.

Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop

innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

Improve agricultural crop production

Treat or cure a specific disease

Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation.

Basic Research:

Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist’s curiosity or interest in a

scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or

invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from

basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such a

How did the universe begin?

What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

How do slime molds reproduce?

What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Other Research Kinds:

Historical research:

Historical research is research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent

past

Application:

Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over time which can help us

to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.

Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine current events and educational

practices.

The steps involved in the conduct of historical research:

Here are the five steps:

Identification of the research topic and formulation of research problem or question.

Data collection or literature review

Evaluation of materials

Data synthesis

Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition

Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for making realistic decisions.

Strengths:

Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends

Uses existing information

Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems.

Limitations:

Time-consuming

Resources may be hard to locate

Resources may be conflicting

May not identify cause of a problem

Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or inaccurate

Data restricted to what already exists

Descriptive research:

Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a

particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.

These studies are a means of discovering new meaning describing what exists, determining the

frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which has an

impact of the lives of the people it deals with.

For example:

finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research

will know what to do to QUALITATIVE RESEARCH prevent that disease thus, more people will live

a healthy life.

Advantages:

The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they usually do in

everyday situation

It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments;

Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;

As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it;

Disadvantages:

Descriptive research requires more skills.

Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon

Response rate is low in this research.

Results of this research can change over the period of time.

The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods:

Observational Research:

Observational research involves, well, observing. Say for instance you were interested in learning more

about how toddlers from different cultures engage in play activities. You would not want to impact their

natural inclinations to behave and engage in play activity, so you would watch from afar or perhaps

through a two-way mirror, simply observing and noting what you are seeing. After you complete all of

your observations, you can then make inferences about the differences and similarities that were noted.

Nothing has been manipulated and hopefully they didn't even know you were there.

Advantages of Observation Method:

• It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is willing to report or not.• It can be used even

when it pertain to those who are unable to respond such as infants and animals.

Limitations of Observation method:

• Only the current behavior of a person or a group of persons can be observed.

• Observation does not help us in gauging a person’s attitude or opinion on a certain subject nor his

knowledge of the same.

• The observational method is very slow and when a large number of persons are to be contacted , it

becomes unsuitable.

Case Study:

Another type of descriptive research method is called a case study. A case study involves making

detailed observations about one specific case. For instance, a medical student who is interested in

learning more about a particularly unique patient might study the behaviors and thought processes of

that one individual. This could consist of observations or interviews, but like observational research,

there is no influence from the researcher. The intent is simply to examine closely the qualities and

characteristics f of this one case.

Survey Method:

A systematic method for gathering information from (a sample of) individuals for the purposes

of describing the attributes of the larger population of which the individuals are members.

The attributes attempt to describe basic characteristics or experiences of large and small

populations in our world.

Features of a survey:

Information is gathered by asking people questions

Information is collected either by having interviewers ask questions and record answers or by

having people read or hear questions and record their answers

 Information is collected from only a subset of the population to be described (a sample) rather

than from all members.

On the other hand, the types of surveys according to the span of time used to conduct the survey are

comprised of cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.

According to Instrumentation:

1. Questionnaires:

Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents. The

usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which are followed by response

options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-ended questions to explore the answers of

the respondents.

Questionnaires have been developed over the years. Today, questionnaires are utilized in various survey

methods, according to how they are given. These methods include the self-administered, the group-

administered, and the household drop-off. Among the three, the self-administered survey method is

often used by researchers nowadays. The self-administered questionnaires are widely known as the mail

survey method. However, since the response rates related to mail surveys had gone low, questionnaires

are now commonly administered online, as in the form of web surveys.

Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or consumer research

Disadvantages: Limit the researcher understands of the respondent’s answers; requires budget for

reproduction of survey questionnaires.

Interviews:

Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing. Questionnaires do

not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the answers of the respondents, but

interviews do.

An interview includes two persons - the researcher as the interviewer, and the respondent as the

interviewee. There are several survey methods that utilize interviews. These are the personal or face-to-

face interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.

Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the answers of

the respondents

Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed phone numbers

or no telephones at all

According to the Span of Time Involved:

The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of surveys: cross-sectional and longitudinal.

Cross-Sectional Surveys:

Collecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the cross-sectional type of survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one point in time. For instance, a researcher conducted a cross-sectional survey asking teenagers’ views on cigarette smoking as of May 2010. Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the relationship between two variables, as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a cross-sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among teenagers as of May 2010.

Longitudinal Surveys:

When the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point in time up to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and examine the changes in the data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies, panel studies and trend studies.

Experimental research:

Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting

and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables

Advantages:

Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships

Disadvantages:

Artificiality

Feasibility RESEARCH

Unethical

The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two groups of participants.

The two variables (Independent versus Dependent variables:

The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome variable.

Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study its effect on the DV

The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental group):

Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns his/her sample to two

different groups: the control group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical group).

The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment), whereas the experimental

group receives the manipulation of the IV