WHY IS CONCEPT MAPPING EFFECTIVE? SOME THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS

Professor Kirsti Lonka

University of Helsinki, Finland/

J.H. Bijtel Visiting Professor, University

Medical Centre Groningen, The Netherlands/

and Foreign Adjunct Professor, Karolinska

Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

THE NEED FOR EVIDENCE-BASED TEACHING?

“So why do outstanding scientists who demandrigorous proof for scientific assertions intheir research continue to use and, indeed, defendon the basis of the intuition alone, teachingmethods that are not the most effective?Many scientists are still unaware of the dataand analyses that demonstrate the effectivenessof active learning techniques.”

Handelsman, J. et al. Scientific Teaching, SCIENCE, 304,

23 APRIL 2004 www.sciencemag.org

Mental representations (or models)

Guide our attention, perception and memory

Not copies of reality, but emphasize things that are important for us

Working memory can only handle 3-7 units at a time

Motivation, stress and anxiety play a role

Complex problem solving requires well-developed mental models

van Dijk and Kintsch's (1983) model of strategic discourse processing

This model set up connections between constructivist

activities in encoding and the quality of the learning

outcomes. The model differentiated between three forms

of mental representation that may be constructed while

learning from text:

1) a surface memory for actual words and phrases

2) a textbase, in which a coherent representation of the

text is formed; and

3) a situation model, in which the text content is integrated

into the comprehender's knowledge system.

Why is the quality of mental representation important?

Surface representation may be thought of as related to to

the surface approach to learning (Marton & Säljö, 1976),

whereas the textbase and the situation model require

more deep-level processing Forming a situation model requires more constructive

processing and knowledge transforming than does

forming a textbase (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991) Situation model is the only way to knowledge that will be

easily accessed and beneficial (applicable) later on The textbase and situation models are not independent of

one another, but each has its own characteristics

Why study spontaneous strategies?

Such strategies may have a stronger effect on learning

than those experimentally induced (e.g., Kardash &

Amlund, 1991) Before implementing new strategy instruction programs,

investigators should first determine what strategies occur

naturally The strategies people use when they study for an exam

may be quite different from those adopted in

psychological experiments. Again, we cannot be sure that

the subjects in experimental situations are really trying

their best. Therefore, we need to test real learning of real

material in real situations (Mayer, 1992).

Methodological challenges

Ecologically valid research on spontaneous strategies, while

important, is methodologically demanding The first problem is that it is difficult to predict what strategies

will emerge in real life. For instance, research on note taking

may prove impossible if the subjects take very few notes

spontaneously (e.g., Kardash & Amlund, 1991; Wade, Trathen

& Schraw, 1990). Further, conclusions cannot be reached merely on the basis

of subjects' overt behavior, but also on the basis of what

students think they are doing. Such "covert cognitive

processing" does not necessarily have a consistent

relationship with overt strategy behavior (Kardash and

Amlund, 1991).

EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON SPONTANEOUS NOTE TAKING ACTITIVIES

The Learning-From-Text Test (LFT)

In Finland, all high school graduates need to pass entrance

examinations in order to get into universities. This is a highly

motivating and challenging situation for these young people. In 1988, we developed the so-called Learning-from-text test

(LFT) together with Sari Lindblom-Ylänne, for admission to

medical school at the University of Helsinki LFT became a national examination for all medical schools in

1990 – also in some vocational schools for health

professionals This research resulted in several scientific publications

together with Virpi Slotte and Sari Lindblom-Ylänne (Lonka,

Lindblom-Ylänne & Maury, 1994; Lindblom-Ylänne, Lonka &

Leskinen, 1996;1999; Lahtinen et al., 1997; Slotte & Lonka

1998; 1999ab; 2001ab)

THE LFT TEST

The applicants had about one hour to read a demanding

20-page text They could make notes during their reading In the end, the text and all notes were taken away, and

the applicants were given one hour to complete several

types of essay-writing tasks that were based on the text in

question and called for remembering, synthesis, or

problem-solving. Our studies took into account the qualitative aspects of

the learning outcomes by comparing subjects’ success in

various essay-writing tasks that posed qualitatively

different demands

THE EFFECT OF STUDY STRATEGIES ONLEARNING FROM TEXTLonka, Lindblom-Ylänne & Maury (1994)

The purpose of the present study was to obtain

information regarding overt study strategies that high-

school graduates in Finland spontaneously use while

learning from text in a highly demanding and motivating

situation, namely, in an examination taken for admission

to a medical school. Specifically, the intention was to assess qualitative effects

of these spontaneous strategies in terms of success in

different types of essay-writing tasks Three hypotheses were tested, based on van Dijk and

Kintsch's (1983) cognitive model of strategic discourse

processing.

The hypotheses

Our first hypothesis was that learning a minor detail

requires using some specific strategy because the

organization of the text does not support its remembering.

Again, a central idea may be learned more easily than a

detail, regardless of the strategy used. The second hypothesis was that strategies that maintain

a text-based representation of study materials, such as

underlining, are related to success in a task which

requires a synthesis of the text. The third hypothesis was that generative study strategies

that enhance forming a situation model of the study

materials, such as concept mapping, are related to

success in a task which requires critical review of the text.

METHODSLonka, Lindblom-Ylänne & Maury (1994)

The participants were the 503 applicants to the Helsinki

University Medical Faculty in spring 1988 - a random sample of

200 subjects was chosen for more detailed study where their

notes were analyzed in detail The subjects were first asked to read an article written by the

Finnish philosopher G. H. von Wright. The text was about

scientific-technological developments and their consequences

for human welfare and the ecological balance of nature (4021

words) During reading, subjects were allowed to make notes either in

the text or on an attached blank sheet of paper. After 90 minutes

of reading time, all the materials where collected and subjects

were given three essay-type tasks.

METHODS 2Lonka, Lindblom-Ylänne & Maury (1994)

After reading and note-taking the participants were given another 90

minutes to complete three different tasks: Detailed Learning Tasks. Two concepts from the text had to be explained

to a reader who had no previous knowledge of philosophy: a central idea

and a minor detail Synthesis Task. The title of the article had to be explained. This called for

pulling together the essentials of the text. The Synthesis Task was thought

to measure the formation of coherent textbase, or a synthesis of the text. Critique Tasks. Subjects were given two paragraphs of the text (called

Critique Tasks 1 and 2) which were to be critically reviewed on the basis of

the subjects' general knowledge. The Critique Tasks were thought to

measure the formation of a situation model, or the ability to go 'beyond' the

text.

METHODS 3Questionnaire (n = 503)

All participants had completed a one-page questionnaire

about what strategies they had used while trying to learn

from the text They were asked to score 'no' or 'yes' on whether they had

underlined important parts, made notes on the text paper,

made notes on the separate sheet, drawn maps of the

relations between concepts, defined central concepts by their

own words, or used a strategy of their own not mentioned in

the questionnaire (and if yes, describe that strategy). Also, the subjects were asked to check whether the

strategies they used were typical of them, whether they

sometimes used them, or whether they had never used them

before.

METHODS 4Analysis of notes and text papers

Text papers and notes of 200 participants were analysed in

terms of underlining, concept mapping, and other notes on the

text paper and a (blank) separate sheet. The total number of different kinds of notes was determined

(from 1 to 6) as 1) underlining, 2) concept maps, 3) whole

sentences on the text paper, 4) whole sentences on the

separate sheet, 5) single words or marks on the text paper,

and 6) single words or marks on the separate sheet It was determined whether Central Idea or Minor Detail were

underlined, written on the text paper, written on the separate

sheet, defined by own words, included in the notes, or

included in the concept maps, and also, how many of these

strategies were applied for learning each concept.

METHODS 5Statistical Analyses

The sample of 200 subjects was divided into three groups on

the basis of percentiles. This was done for the total exam

scores, and separately for each task. For the total scores, this

resulted in 68 in the below average group (BA), 68 in the

average group (A), and 64 in the above average (AA) group

in the sample of 200. The groups BA, A and AA of different tasks were compared by

one-way ANOVAs and chi-squares. In the sample, log-linear

models were also applied in order to test the second and third

hypotheses. The frequencies of different strategies on the basis of the

questionnaire as well as the correlations between scores

obtained in different tasks were calculated within the whole

group (N = 503).

Results: Popularity of different strategies on according to the questionnaire (N = 503)

Underlining (88%)

Notes on separate sheet (68%)

Defining concepts (49%)

Notes on the text paper (45%)

Concept mapping (14%).

27% described a strategy of their own, for example: "reading

with careful thought“, "reflecting“, "writing summaries“, or

"outlining." Most subjects (72%) reported that the strategy they had used

was very typical for them. Only 2 % had used a strategy in

this test that they had never used before When the questionnaires and notes (n = 200) were compared,

they were found to correspond with each other in 88% of the

cases

It was helpful to use a variation of strategies

Measured by total scores (n = 200), above average

subjects used a more diverse set of strategies, the

mean of different strategies being 3.27 (SD = 1.09) than

did average subjects (M = 3.01, SD = 1.15), and below

average subjects used the smallest number of different

strategies (M = 2.68, SD = 1.21). Differences between these three groups were statistically

significant measured by one-way ANOVA (F(2,195)=5.90,

p < .05).

Detailed learning tasks: A minor detail was learned when it was included in the notes

When learning Central Idea, study strategies did not matter Those subjects who had either defined Minor Detail, underlined it,

or written it down on the separate sheet, obtained a significantly

higher score in Detailed Learning Task 2 than the other subjects. More selective attention was paid to Central Idea: Only 15% of

the subjects used more than one strategy for learning Minor

Detail, whereas 68% used more than one strategy for learning

Central Idea. Underlining and concept mapping in general were not related to

Detailed Learning Tasks

Systematic underlining was related to Synthesis task, whereas Concept mapping was related to Critique tasks

Model 1 tested the assumptions that Synthesis Task

interacts with underlining and Critique Task 1 interacts

with concept mapping, and that there are no other

interactions among these variables. This model fit well

with the data (G2(25) = 12.88, p = .978) Model 2 was identical to Model 1, except that Critique

Task 2 was included instead of Critique Task 1. This

model had an even better fit (G2(25) = 11.95, p = .987). In sum, there were no major discrepancies between the

theoretical models and the data.

Slotte & Lonka (1998): Example from a below-average spontaneous concept map

Slotte & Lonka (1998): Example from an above average spontaneous concept map

Generative note taking useful in general

Lahtinen, Lonka & Lindblom-Ylänne (1997): Generative strategies

(summarising, concept mapping) were most useful while learning in

text (n = 502) Slotte & Lonka (1998): Having notes present was useful in text-

based remembering, whereas in a task requiring cricitical review of

the text there was not much use having notes available (n = 226) Slotte & Lonka, (1999a) analyzed qualitatively all concept maps that

were drawn in an entrance examination (n = 502: 36 maps). The

extent and complexity of concept maps played a powerful role in

understanding of scientific texts Slotte & Lonka (1999b): spontaneous note taking was related to

success in an entrance examination (n = 226), especially with

generative notes

BEYOND MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS:

SOCIALLY AND PHYSICALLY DISTRIBUTED COGNITION

Overcoming cognitive limitations with the help of tools

PERSON PERSON + PERSON ++

Socially and physically distributed cognition

Cognitive load may be divided between a human beings

and external thinking tools

(e.g., offices, computers, written documents)

Some cognitive activities may be outsorced to external

tools

Note taking activities are social practices, not only

individual cognitive efforts

Demanding tasks call for advanced tools and artifacts

New technologies – concept mapping, CSCL, wiki, blogs –

may help to distribute cognition both socially and

physically

Interaction between internal and external memory fields Hakkarainen, Lonka & Paavola (2004),

based on Donald (2001, p. 311)

Working Memory

Long-Term Memory

External Symbolic Storage

External Memory

Field

Consciousness

Internal memory loop

Externalmemory loop

SOME CONCLUSIONS

Concept mapping appears useful, even without training It is useful especially in tasks calling for problem solving

and application (situation model)– not so much in detailed

remembering The process of concept mapping enhances learning,

regardless of possibilities to review the notes The results may be interpreted from the cognitive

perspective, but also from a more socio-cultural view Notes may provide an external memory loop that extends

the biological memory More research needs to be done with technologies as

tools for forming external digital aids for collaborative

knowledge building

Studies

Lonka, K., Lindblom-Ylänne, S. & Maury, S. (1994). The effect of study strategies on learning

from text. Learning and Instruction, 4, 253-271.

Lahtinen, V., Lonka, K. & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (1997). Spontaneous study strategies and the

quality of knowledge construction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 13-24.

Slotte, V. & Lonka, K. (1998). Using notes during essay-writing: Is it always helpful?

Educational Psychology, 18, 445-459.

Slotte, V. & Lonka, K. (1999a). Review and process effects of spontaneus note-taking on text

comprehesion. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 1-20.

Slotte, V. & Lonka, K. (1999b). Spontaneous concept maps aiding the understanding of

scientific concepts. International Journal of Science Education, 21, 515-531.

Slotte, V. & Lonka, K. (2001a) Study-strategy use in learning from text. Does gender make

any difference? Instructional Science, 29, 255-272.

Slotte, V. & Lonka, K. (2001b) Note-taking and essay writing. In P. Tynjälä, , L. Mason,

& K. Lonka. (Eds., 2001) Writing as a Learning Tool: Integrating theory and practice. Studies

in Writing. Vol. 7. Dordrecth, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.