USDA FOREST SERVICEGENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT NC-2 9
.
WILDLIFEOF _THEPRAIRIES
KEITH E-EVANS AND GEORGE E. PROBASCO
P
NORTH CENTRAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATIONFOREST SERVICEU.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _
CONTENTS
The Resource ....... _ • . . , ......... 1 "\• Habitat Management .................. 12 \,
• Discussion ...................... 14Llterature Cited .................. 15
North Central Forest Experiment StatlonJohn H. Ohman, Dlrector
Forest Service - U.S. Department of Agriculture1992 Folwell Avenue
St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
Manuscript approved for publication January 5, 1976
1977
°
THE AUTHORS
|
Kelth E. Evans Is a Prlnclpal Wlldllfeo Biologist and Project Leader at Columbia,
Missouri, specializing in research on the
l_apacts of land use alternatlves on nongame• species on the Ozark Plateau. Kelth holds
B.S. and M.S. degrees from Colorado State
University, where he majored In w11d1Ife
management, and a Ph.D. from Cornell Unl-verslty, where he majored In wildlife scl-ence and minored In animal nutrition and
!i!iiiiii_!iii..... ._i_!ii_,,......i_::. forest conservation. Kelth was employed by
ii_ili_::_,__,_,!:: ii_ :_'_.... :_ :.i'_: the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exper-• :_iiii'_....i!i::: iment Station for 8 years before moving to• _iiiii i .... Columbia, Missouri in 1972.
i
George E. Probasco is an AssociateResearch Wildlife Biologist at Columbia,Missouri. He received his B.S. in ZoologyIn 1966 from Ft. Hays, Kansas State College,and hls M.S. In Range Management In 1968from the University of Wyoming. He Is
currently studying the influence of easternredcedar invasion on b_rd and small mammal
populations of the Ozark gladelands.•
• .
I
WILDLIFEOF THE PRAIRIESAND PLAINS.
Keith E. Evans and George E. Probasco
The extensive and diverse grasslands plant and animal composition drastically.of North Amerlca were malntalned and per- Extensive areas are managed for livestock
petuated under the land use policies of the production by perpetuating the nativeaborigines. Grasses dominated the low rain- flora. These areas are inhabited by manyfall Great Plains for many thousands of wildlife species.yearsand still do except where cultivation
or destructive grazing have occurred. Firewas required in the higher rainfall prairie THE RESOURCEand Savannah areas to control woody plant
encroachment. Some of the wildlife species Grasslands encompass the most extensiveadapted tO these grasslands included bison, and varied of all plant communities inantelope, elk, bear, rabbits, prairie North Amerlca (fig. I). The mldcontinentdogs, wolves, coyotes, and grouse. The ' grassland extends 2,500 miles north to
river bottoms and badlands in the area south and averages 400 miles in width fromprovided habitat for deer, Audubon's big- the Rocky Mountalns east as far as Illinois.horn sheep, bobcat, mountain lion, turkey, It includes four of the elghtmaJor grass-quails and waterfowl, land types recognized in North America:
(I) oak-bluestem savannah, (2) tall grass,
In the late 1800's the American fron- (3) mixed grass, and (4) short grass. Thetier expanded westward--the day of the true remaining four are: (5) bunch grass,"wild west". Settlement under the Home- such as the palouse prairie in Oregon,
stead Act of 1862 encouraged many people Idaho, and Washington, (6) annual grassto settle on the prairies and plains. In in the Callfornla's Central Valley, (7)a shOrt span of time the area changed from desert grassland in New Mexico and Arizona,
wild grasslands teeming with wildlife to and (8) the coastal prairies in Texas,civilized areas of farms, ranches, fences, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York,towns, roads, and railroads. The 19th Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.century witnessed the beginning and end
of the Oregon Trail, gold rushes, openrange_ and cattle drives. The oak-bluestem savannah stretches
from southeast North Dakota and middle-
west Minnesota south along the eastern edgeThe wet years and high prices asso-ciated with World War I made the Great of the tall grass prairie to mldeastern
Plalnslook llke the promised land to many Texas. It is actually the transition zonefarmers. However, the years of productlv- or ecotone between the eastern deciduousity and profits gained by cultivating low forest and the tall grass prairie.ralnfaliareas were short. First came low Scattered segments of savannah occur
postwar prices, then high taxes, low rain_: throughout the oak-hlckory forest and thefall, and dust. Thusbegan the "dust eastern part of the bluestem prairie.bowl" days of the 1930's. The bluestem-oak-hlckory forest mosaic,
cedar glades, and cross timber vegetationtypes of Kuchler's (1964) Potentlal
For the most part, the economy and Natural VegetationMap are included asland use patterns on the North American savannah. The greater part of the Ozarkgrasslands have again become fairly stable. Dome is often included as part of the
A large proportion of the original grass- savannah (Marbut 1911, Davis 1964).lands are now being cultivated. The tall
grass prairieonce covered 42 million The tall grass prairie formerlyacres, but nowhas been reduced to 18 occupied the ecotone between the savannahmillion acres. Over much of the remaining and the mixed grass prairie. Fire was an
uncultivated tall grass prairie region, important factor in preventing the forestlivestoc_ overgrazlng has altered the type from invading the prairie (Curtis
,
,I.¢ °
KEY TO GRASSLANDTYPES:
",', \,, _,\,,,,........ OAK-BLUESTEMSAVANNAHANDTALL GRASS\,_ \\,,\_,\
-....... _. MIXED GRASS b_._._, BUNCHGRASS ..:..
_i! SHORTGRASS "'"'"" ANNUALGRASS,:.:.:.:.
_:o-_;;,..:. DESERTGRASS COASTAL
Figure 1.--P_nc_pal g_ssL_d _pes of the United States.
I
1959). Currently most of the tall grass Terrain,5o11,and Climateprairie has been converted to forest, to
mixed grass, or plowed. The conversion to The topography of the mldcontlnent
mixed grass res t!ted from prolonged exten- grasslands is variable, but generally it is
sire livestock grazing, moderately ro11Ing. Some areas, such as
the Red River Valley, are virtually flat;
other areas (river breaks) along the major
The mixed grass or needlegrass- drainages are steep. Major soil groups
wheatgrass-grama grass (Stipa-Agropyron- include Alflsols, Mollisols, Vertisols,
Boutelouu) community occupies the area west Inceptisols, and Aridlsols. There is a
• Of the tall. grass region, nearly to the gradient from the cool, moist soils in the
foothills of the Rocky Mountains. There northeast to the warm, dry soils in theis no definite line between the mixed southwest.
grass and short grass (Boutelo_-Buchloe)
vegetation types. The thin soil and low Climate of the midcontinent grass-
precipitation areas are dominated by the lands is temperate and subject to extreme
short grass species whereas the northern fluctuations. Summers in the north are
and eastern Great Plains areas contain a hot and winters are cold while in the south
vegetation type dominated by the mixed winters are less severe. Temperatures
grass species, range from-40 C to +40 C in the northand from-I0 C to +40 C in the south
(Kincer 1941). The frost-free season
General aspects of the other grass- ranges from less than 4 months in the
land types are discussed in subsequent north to nearly the entire year in southernsections of this paper. Texas.
.
When periodic droughts occur, the NatlveAmerlcans and early settlerspreclpltatlonfailure usually occurs in utilized fire to attract and hold game andJuly and August. During these droughts to prepare the range for early spring
ralnfa11 w_ll vary from 50 to 90 percent grazing. Fire suppression efforts earlyof normal (Borcher_ 1950). Average annual in this century effectlvely reduced the
preclpltatlonvarles from 115 cm in the use of fire for these purposes. However,savannah to 65-80 cm in the tall grass research in the Kansas Flint Hills
prairie, to 50 cmln the mixed grass (Anderson et al. 1970), Missouri (Kucera
prairie, and to less than 35 cm in parts and Koelllng 1964), and Texas (Wrightof theshort grass prairie. Evaporation 1974a, 1974b) reveal that obllgateis a s_gnlflcant factor in mldcontlnent relations may exist between fire and somegrassland climate. Except in the savannah grassland plants.and ta!igrass prairie, the evaporation
potentlalexceeds precipitation. Strong Drought, fire, cultivation, and grazingwinds prevai ! over the grasslands inducing all influence vegetation composition. Thehigh evaporation rates and exerting con- Influence of the vast herds of bison is
siderablelnfluence on the thermoregulatory probably the least understood influence.
behavior of homeothermlc wildlife. Winds For example, there is disagreement as tooften become more intense during drought the successional status of the short grassperiods (Borchert 1950). plains. Many including Shelford (1963)j ' ,
distinguish the short grass type as aThe other grassland areas have dif- , distinctive unit (climax vegetation type).
ferent climates. The coastal prairies are Weaver and Albertson (1956) refer to the
wet, humld, and generally mild, and not short grass as a dlscllmax reflecting past ,subject-to the temperature extremes of the grazing use. Larson (1940) offered theintercontinental areas. Annual precipitation following evidence to support the view thatfor the coastal prairies ranges from 100 the short grass plains represent the true
to 140 cm." Average annual temperatures in climax of the pristine biome:the northern areas range from a low of 0 C
to a high of 25 C, while in the southern I. Historical records indicate the
areas temperatures range from 13 C to 30 C. large herbivores stocked the plainsThe bunch grass (palouse) prairie receivesmost of _its moisture in the form of winter to carrying capacity and the in-
troduction of livestock was merelysnow. The California Central Valley and a substitution for grazing bydesert grasslands usually receive winter wildlife.ralnwlth hot, dry summers. Annual precip-
itation inthese grasslands is generally 2. Explorers and pioneers referred50 cm or less. Average annual temperaturesin the bunch grass prairie range from to the short grass plains long
-5 C .to 25 C. In the latter two grassland before livestock was introduced.areas the temperature range is 5 C to27 C (Kincer 1941). 3. The marked ability of the short
grass dominants to withstandgrazing, indicating they evolved
with grazing as an environmentalfactor.
..-. ' VegetationRegardless, bison stocking rates
.. Weaver (1954) summarized the Impacts probably varied from extremely heavy useof drough t and Daubenmlre (1968) of flre to no use because fences were not presentongrasslands. Under extended drought con- to restrict bison grazing. Moreover, the
dltions, the grass cover ls reduced and grasslands in presettlement times probably'the plant Species composition altered were subjected to frequent and erratic(Albertson et aZ. 1957, Coupland 1958). periods free of grazing during which
changes in vegetation occurred because ofFire, whldh frequently accompanies climatic or moisture conditions.
the drought, makes additional demands upon
thevegetatlon. Some woody plants such Overgrazlng by bison, however, prob-as black oak (Quer_z8 velutina), eastern ably did encourage the growth of shortredcedar (Juniper_isvirginia), and ashe's grass species and produced conditions
juniper (Juniperu8 ashei) are particularly favoring the "invasion" of some annual orvulnerable to fire. biennial species.
3
[
The.former tall grass, oak-bluestem duc_loides) occur on the dry and abusedsavannah, and mixed grass types today make sites throughout the mixed grass area andup one of the most productive crop-growing dominate the short grass plains.regions in the world: the first two com-bined are.known as the "Corn Belt"; the The mixed grass prairie contains corn-
third, the "Wheatland". The vegetation of ponents of the tall grass prairie on thethose portions of these areas still re- better sites and species from the shortmaining in grass has often been altered grass plains on the thin soll or dry sites
because cool season species have been or where abusive grazing has been practiced.planted to replace native warm season There also are a number of grass speciesgrasses, that reach heights of 60 to 90 cm and fill
the niche between the tall grasses (often
A vegetation gradient, corresponding over 2 m), and the short grass (less thanto the soils gradient, occurs across the 20 cm). These include western wheatgrassmidcontinent grasslands from east to west (Agropyron smithii), slde-oats grama
and from north to south. Ecologists divide (Bouteloua curtipendula), several speciesthe area into several vegetation types, of needlegrass (Stipa spp.), Junegrasshowever, the ecotones or transition zones (Koeleria cristata), and several species of
between types are wide, variable, and depend dropseeds (Sporobolus spp.). Cool season-on past land use and climatic conditions, grasses play an important role throughoutMuch of the region is actually a mosaic the mixed grass prairie and are dominantof several types. A wide diversity of 0 on the northern Great Plains.
plants occur on the grasslands. The Herbaceous broadleafed plants (forbs)following discussion is limited to a few increase the range forage value and provideof the dominant species, esthetical values to photographers and
other rangeland recreatlonists. The com-Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi) * posite family (Compositae) and the legume
is the dominant component in the oak family (Leguminosae) are well represented.savannah and tall grass prairie. Big Common composites include sunflowers
• 2bluestem also occurs on better sites (Helianthus spp.), rosinweeds (Silphium
• throughout the mixed grass prairie. Sand spp.), and coneflowers (Ratibida spp.,bluestem (A. ball//), a close relative of Rudbeckia spp., and Echinacea spp.).
big bluestem, occurs on sandy soils in Common legumes include leadplant (Amorphathe tall, mixed, and short grass prairie, spp.), false indigos (Baptisia spp.)Little bluestem (A. 8ooparius) dominates prairie clovers (Petalostemum spp.), andthe drier, upland portions of the savannah Psoralea spp.
and extends its range westward to become Common shrubs and trees occurring onan important dominant throughout the mixed the savannah and tall grass prairie include:
grass prairie. Little bluestem is a warm smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), snowberryseason bunch grass that commonly provides (Symphoricaz_o8 spp. ) dogwood (Cornu8excellent cover for many wildlife species.
spp.), hawthorn (CPataegu8 spp. ), plum
There are many more species of Andropogons, (PPunus spp.), hazelnut (Cor_u8 ameT4eana),but the only other one noted here is oak (QuePcu8 spp.), elm (Ulmu8 spp.), and
broomsedge (A. virginicus), which commonly eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)occurs on old fields and overgrazed (Aikman 1929, Bruner 1931, Curtis 1959,pastures in the east. Kucera 1960, Weaver 1954).
Other warmseason grasses associated Periodic droughts restrict woody plantwith the tall grass prairie include switch- invasion on the mixed and short grassgrass (Panicum virgatum) and Indian grass plains to the moist areas along drainages.
(Sorghastrum nutans). Prairie cordgrass These woodlands provide cover, food, and(Spartina pectinata) occurs around the landscape diversity for many wildlifeprairie marshes and along the drainage species. Dominant trees include: ash
systems throughout the tall and mixed grass (Framinu8 spp.), cottonwood (Populus spp.),
prairie. Warm season grasses also dominate willow (Saliz spp.), elm (U_ spp.), andthe short grass areas. Blue grama (Bouteloua boxelder (Aoer negundo). Many shrub species
gracilis) and buffalo grass (Buchloe occupy the understory.
•Nomenclature for grasses follows 2Nomenclature for forbs, shrubs, andHitchcock (1850). trees from Harrington (1854).
The palouse region and Callfornia shovelers (Spatula clypeata) and gadwallsValley were originally dominated by bunch (Anus strepera), which seek the grasslands;grass species, such as bluebunch wheat- green-winged teal (Anus cmeoline_sis),grass (Agropyron spica_) and Idaho fescue lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), bufflehead_estu_a idahoensis). The palouse prairie (Buoep_zla albeola), ring-necked ducks
is now mostly under cultivation and the (Aythya collar_s), common goldeneyesCaliforniaValley has been converted to an (Bucephala cLrngula), and white-wingedannual grassland containing many introduced scoters (Melanit_z deglmcdi), which arespecies including chess (Bromus spp.), more abundant in the semlforested park
The desert grasslands are dominated by lands; and redheads (Aythya amez_ouna),curly mesquite (Hilaria belangeri), galleta canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria), and ruddy(Hi!ur_a jumesii), and grama (Bouteloun ducks (O_a jumaice_is), which seem con-
spp.). The coastal prairies contain mostly tent with either a park land or a prairietall grass species such as bluestem habitat (Llnduska 1964).
(Ar_opogon spp.)_and cordgrass (SpcD_tinu
spp.). Over most of the northern unglaciatedmixed grass plalns, natural ponds were
Wi]dlife Species scarce under pristine conditions. Sincethe early 1930's more than 300,000 stock
Waterfowl _ ponds have been constructed in North and• South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana and
lag_eFeo- destruction of waterfowl habitat ' 10,000 have been constructed on the prairlebehind the destruction of most of provinces of Canada. These ponds producethe prairie by the plow because it was about 1,000,000 waterfowl each yeareasier to plow the dry uplands than to (Linduska 1964). Duck breeding populatlon
drain the wetlands. Only a few years later, estimates vary between 3.3 pairs perwith the deyelopment of large equipment square mile (1.8 pairs per surface acre(early 1900's) and govermental assistance of water), according to Lokemoen (1973)programs (1930's),1arge-scale drainage and 7.0 pairs per square mile (2.3 pairs
programs Were initiated. By the 1950's, per surface acre of water), according tothesehad reduced the original wetlands in Bue et al. (1952). Broods averaged fromthe United States from 127 mi11ion acres 0.79 per acre of stock-watering pondto 82 miilion acres (Linduska 1964). (Lokemoen 1973) to 1.5 broods per acre of
pond (Bue st al. 1952).Prairie potholes are the backbone of
duckprodUction in North America. The During recent years, populations of
prairie potholes region, 300,000 square the Canada goose (Br_tu ounu_is), suchmiles, makes up only 10 percent of the as those wintering on the short grasstotal waterfowl breeding area of this plains, have steadily increased becauseconti:nent, yet produces 50 percent of the prairie lands have been cultivated and
duck crop in an average year--more during bodies of water impounded. Irrigationgood Years (Linduska 1964). using water from these impoundments and
from wells has provided large acreages of
Wlth a few wet years the prairie wheat, milo, and corn that offer more and
potholesprovlde habitat for a rapidly better foods than do native grassesexpanding waterfowl population. Several (Grieb 1970).successive drought years bring an inevitable
,crash. Although droughts cause short- Upland GameBirdsterm declines in duck numbers, they help
to.malntain fertility and increase pond Before settlement, greater pralrle
life These long-termadvantages probably chickens (_mpunuchus c_pido) were confinedfar oUtwelght the short-term disadvantages, primarily to the tall grass prairie. Their
range gradually extended westward as theFifteen species of ducks nest commonly native sod gave way to farms and wheat
in the prairlepothole region. Most abun-dant are the mallard (Anus pla_rhy_hos), s fields throughout the mixed grass prairie
types (Cooke 1909). Prairie chicken pop-plntall (Anus uuUf_z), and blue-wlnged teal ulations thrived with white-man's first(Anus diseors). Other species include
attempt at farming. This was attributed"i i i|
,- . to the abundance of food and undisturbed3Aviun nomenclature follows American nestlng areas ("prairie-type" land inter-
F
O_nitho_ogists Union (1957). mingled with patch farming). With patch
5
farming operations, prairie chicken pop-ulations peaked in Iowa about 1880 when
69 percent of the State was cultivated.By 1900, 90 percent of Iowa was cultivatedand prairie Chicken numbers were decreasing(Stempel and Rodgers 1961).
Prairie chickens were first recorded
in North Dakota in the early 1880's
(Johnson 1964) and in Colorado in 1897(SCiater 1912). Their populations increased ii_!and flourished during the "good pinnate
years,' between 1900 and 1930. With the
dust bowl days of the 1930's small ranches _i_and farms were abandoned or incorporated
into larger holdings. This led to largeareas of intensive cultivation on the better
soils and grasslands only where the soilswere too sandy or the land too hilly tof_rm. _With very little winter food on
the grasslands and virtually no nestingcover on the farmlands, prairie chicken °numbers decreased drastically. Prairiechicken numbers followed this same patternover most of the Great Plains (Beck 1957,Evans and Gilbert 1963, Johnson 1964).
The lesser prairie chicken (_armo_s
pal lidi_tus) inhabits a small area of Figure 2.--_-_iled grouse have beengrassland and brushland located in and still are the pro_r_v_t upland g_enorthern Texas, western Oklahoma, south- bird of the northern bz_sh_, park
• western Kansas, southeastern Colorado, l_n_s, and plains.and eastern New Mexico. Their populations:are fairly stable. Habitat of the Attwater's 1. The climax sagebrush of theprairie chicken (Tymp_nuchus c_pido northern desert shrub areaat_ateri) is disappearing along the Texas (Columbian sharp-tailed grouse).Cull Coast; consequently, this bird iscurrently listed as an endangered species. 2. The subclimax brush in the grass-
The heath hen (Tympanuchus _pido cupido), lands east of the Rocky Mountainswhich formerly occupied the coastal and in the park lands of theprairies of the New England States, is Rockies (plains sharptail).now extinct.
3. The oak-savannah and logged or
Since pioneering days the sharp- burned areas in the east (prairietailed g_ouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) sharptail) .has been a part of the animal llfe on the
• brushlands, park lands, savannahs, and 4. Openings in the boreal forestplains of much of the northern United (northern sharptail, AlaskanStates and Southern Canada (fig. 2). sharptail, other boreal forestJOhnson (1964) stated that sharptails races).
Probably have been in North Dakota for. hundreds of years. As with the prairie The bobwhite quail (Colinus virginian, s)
chicken, sharptail numbers decreased during is a savannah species, with its populations
the drought of the 1930's, and never re- most stable in the southern two-thirds ofgained their previous high. Intensive the savannah area (Rosene 1969, Johnsgardcultivation and certain grazing practices 1973). In the northern third of the
have decreased sharptail range and pop- savannah, populations decrease during years
ulations numbers throughout most Great of adverse climatic conditions. ThePlains States. bobwhite has adapted to the habitats
associated with agriculture; consequently,
Habitats of the sharp-tailed grouse it is abundant even in extensively cultl-include (Aldrich 1963) : vated areas.
The wild turkey (MeleaF_s gaIlopavo) Birds of prey occurring in grasslandsis considered a forest bird; however, include the red-tailed hawk (Bu#eoarcheological evidence indicates that _umuioensis), Swainson's hawk (B.
Indians in the savannah utilized the turkey swai_oni), rough-legged hawk (B. Z.agopus),for both foodand ornamentation. Shortly sharp-shlnned hawk (Aoo_piter stz_zt_s),after 1900, exploitation and habitat and Amerlcan kestrel (Fa_oo sparver_,us).destruction resulted in the extirpation or The large hawks feed on rabbits, small
near extirpation of the turkey in the mammals, and snakes, the small hawks andsavannah (Hewltt 1967). Today, as a falcons on small mammals and birds, snakes,result of State restocking programs, and insects. In addition to their Impor-turkeys are found throughout all their tance in food chains, these birds contri-
former range as well as in areas that bute to man's pest control efforts. Theorlglnally did not support wild turkeys nocturnal raptors include the great horned(Sanderson and Schultz 1973). Good turkey owl (Bubo viPginianus), short-eared owl
range contains trees for roosting and trees (Asio _u_rneus), long-eared owl (Asiothat produce mast and fruit for food. otus), and burrowing owl (Speo_jtoThe grasses and forbs of the understory cunicularia). Many other avian speciesproduce seeds and habitat for insects occur on the grasslands. Their role andupon which.young turkeys feed. Occasion- function in grassland ecosystems is
ally turkeys will feed on cultivated discussed in Wiens and Dyer (1975).crops. Turkeys are found in the savannahas wellas along the wooded stream and , Bison
river drainages throughout the mixed grass The American bison (Bison bison) _ wasprairie, the one feature of the North American
central grasslands that all historians,
The mourning dove (ZenaidamacrouPa) naturalists, trappers, or travelers men-(American Ornithologists' Union 1973) is tioned in the diaries concerning theprlmarilymlgratory and depends on the pristine conditions of the area (fig. 3).northern prairies and savannahs for llfe Based on a series of assumptions about
requirements only during the breeding carrying capacity, range area, habits, andseason. Populatlons do winter in the population trends, Seton (1929) estimated
southern grassland types, depending on a populatlon of from 40 to 60 million biaonfood availabillCy. Preferred habitat for in North America. Bison were once spreadthe mourning dove consists of tree cover over one-third of the North Americanfor nesting and fields with open cover for Continent w-Ith the largest herds dlstri-
feeding. Hedgerows, shelterbelts, orchards, buted along the Mississippi River Valley.or woodlots provide acceptable nesting During the years previous to disturbancehabitat (Hanson and Kossack 1963). When by white man, the total area inhabited byconifers are available, doves prefer them bison was about 3 million square milesfor nesting (Hanson and Kossack 1963, (Scion 1929).Caldwe11 1964). The weak feet and bill of
the mourning dove limits its feeding Overgrazing by bison, in associationactivities to areas of sparse cover. Hat- with trampling, rubbing, and wallowing,
vested fields_ fleldmargins, and over- contributed to the creation and maintenancegrazed pastures contain the waste grains of environmental conditions favorable to a(wheat and corn) and weeds (foxtail) pre- variety of other wildlife (England andferredbythe dove (Korschgen 1958, Hanson Devos 1969). Bison are primarily grazers,and Kossack 1963, Ward 1964). so they depended on the herbaceous vegeta-
tion for food. Few herbivores possessed
Nongame Birds the capability for altering the environmentas did the bison. These animals require,
Predatory birds have suffered because approximately 30 pounds of forage per day,
of man's ignorance and apathy. Overzealous so even large areas could easily becontrol programs and pesticide use have overgrazed.serlously reduced some species populationsand causedothers to be placed on the en- A dramatic change occurred on the
dangered and threatened species llst. As Great Plains during the 1800's. Prior toone becomes knowledgeable of the feedinghabits of these birds, it is evident that
they, too, are important components in the _Ma_nalian nomenclature from Hallbiotic communities to which they belong. (1965).
7
.........
i _ _ _..... _ %___%_ii_
!!_....... _i____!_i_i__iiiiiiii!!_'_:'_:_''_: ............. Figure 4.--The present day land-use patterns
provide habitat for extensive herds of
• _ '__i_i_iii_:_I_ ::i!_!!_i:'_::i_iiii_!!_:_............ ._..................__ iilJ_:........iii!'i!i_:_iii_!I pro___ antelope,
,°_i_,i_,_ ._ .... _; _ _.__ ...._........_ _,_ _,__,., _i_i_......_i_ i_'__._i%_,,_, ...._........._ _._i_,_,
F_gure 3.--T_e bison or American buffalo don't refer to excessive slaughter ofw_s _e the dominant animal on the antelope. Therefore, _f antelope wereNorth American central grasslands, as numerous as estimated, and _f they were
not: slaughtered to the same extent as bison,this t_me the Indians were completely de- why d_d population numbers decrease so
pendent on bison for their llvellhood, greatly?Their hunting methods did not cause majorchanges _n b_son numbers, and usually re- Perhaps "Itwas due to the reduction
sulted in a harvest of surplus animals, in suitable habitat brought about by the
It is est_nated that approximately 300,000 extermlnat_on of b_son and the extensiveplains Indians existed primarily by hunting construction of fences. Perhaps their
i the b_son herds between Mexico and Lake decline can be attributed to a h_ghwinnipeg and from the Rocky Mountains to susceptibility to disease. Travelingi the M/ssissippi River (Allen 1954). The from Fort Abraham Lincoln west to the
part-Arab horses, escaping from the Little M/ssouri in 1873, J. A. Allen re-[ Spaniards, gave the Indian additional ported that he saw antelope almost con-
t hunting ability. Even with the horse and stantly (Bailey 1926). In the interimbow the Indian could not seriously deplete before his return trip a few months later,his resource, as the gun and fence was to a fatal epizootic raged among the prong-do later _ Liquidation of the bison took horns over most of the area between the
. about 50 years--by 1883 only a few animals Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers and 75 toremained. 90 percent of the pronghorns perished.
Pronghorn antelope populations de-
Pronghorn Antelope creased from an estimated 40 million(Seton 1929) to 13,000 around 1915 (Hoover
' Before intensive settlement of the et al. 1959). The species was then afforded
Unlted States, pronghorn antelope rlg_d protection by landowners and law
(Anti_ouupr_ _mer__) (fig. 4) were the enforcement agencies, and their currentcodom_nant grazing species with b_son on population _s estimated at 365,000the Great Pla_ns and with elk on the (Yoakum 1968). The increase _s attributed
Paiouse and Callfornla Prairies. They to: (I) controlled hunting, (2) favorablewere as numerous, if not more so, than the habitat, and (3) improved wildllfe man-bison (Rand 1945). The present range of agement practices such as transplantlng
pronghorns is more restricted (England programs, water developments, and fencesand Devos 1969). Most historical writings constructed to permit pronghorn travel.
8
,
Pronghorns fill a forage utilization Tule elk. First, the Spanish settlementsniche that isbetween the grazers (bison of the late 1700's and the invasion of theand elk) and the browsers (deer). Prong- annual grasses which resulted in the dis-
horn antelope have adapted well to changes placement of the dominant bunch grasses,in prairie vegetation resulting from live- which no doubt had adverse effects uponstock grazing, the Tule elk population (McCullough 1969).
Then the increase in competition by wild
When populations of pronghorns and cattle and horses, the gold rush (1848),livestock are in adjustment with the forage and the resulting slaughter of wild animals
capacity of a good condition range, corn- during the booming market-huntlng years,petition between cattle and pronghorns is further decimated the population. Bynegligible. The compatability of cattle 1855, the market-huntlng era brought the
and pronghor n antelope is similar to that Tule elk to the end of its time as anwhich must have existed, in the past, important element in the fauna of thebetween bison and pronghorn. Competition region. Today there are about 400 to 500between domestic sheep and pronghorns can Tule elk in California's Central Valleybe so severe that the latter will be (McCullough 1969). The wapiti or Nelson'sellmlnated. Sheep, Which can be kept alive elk have been completely eliminated over
with supplemental feeding, can overgraze the rest of the grassland habitats they
the-vegetation to a point where it is formerly occupied. Their populations areunable to support pronghorn antelope now limited to high mountain ranges.(Buechner 1960),
Elk
The pristine range of the elk, or Deer
wapiti, was as widespread in North Americaas that of the bison. At least two species The white-tailed deer (D_u v_rg_n_)Of elk inhabited the grasslands and wooded was a frequent part of the hunter's bagriver bottoms: Nelson's elk or wapiti during the Lewis and Clark expedition of(Cer_s cunuder_sis), which inhabited the 1804 to 1806. Mule deer (Duma hen_or_s)
midcontinent grasslands, and the northern shown in figure 5 were less abundant but
Pacific coast grasslands, and the Tule elk occurred as far east as Chamberlain, South(C,:r_v_nodes), which occupied the Southern Dakota (Lewis 1961, Cutright 1969). The .Pacific area in the Central Valley of Astoria party, which ascended the Missouri• in 1811, made no mention of deer while on
California (McCullough 1969). an overland Journey from the mouth of theCannonball River until they reached the
The carrying capacity of the Tule elk Black Hills of Wyoming (Irving 1868)was estimated at 500,000 animals in although they made frequent references to
pristine time. Several factors contributed white-tailed deer while traveling alongto the decline and near extinction of the rlverways.
:.__' Figure 5.--Mule deer populations
,:_ .....ii_,_ _:,_ _.._:_:,,_!_ increased on the midcontinent
grasslands with the control"_:i_i_i_..... : of hunting and the increase
......._:::_...... " _ in the able of woody
_.:.
9
Bailey(1926) reported mule deer to Small Gamebe plentiful throughout North Dakota untll
about 1880 when their numbers began to Increased population size of thedecrease as hunting pressure mounted. By eastern cottontail rabbit (SylviY.ugus1888 deer Were fairly well exterminated flo_s) on the savannah and tall grassfrom NorthDakota because intensive live- prairie coincided with the advent and
stock grazing eliminated the shrubby species expansion of agriculture (Lord 1963).that provided excellent browse and cover Its smaller home range makes it more tom-for deer. In the Great Basin and south- patible with intensive agriculture
west, however, livestock grazing encouraged (Beck_fth 1954). Many miles of brushythe invasion of shrubs (Longhurst 1960); fencerows and grassy road ditches adjacentthus, deer habitat was often improved, to cultivated fields have furnished goodMackie (1970), in the northern Great Plains, habitats capable of supporting high cotton-reported that the food and range-use habits tail populations. The unspecializedof mule deer and cattle differed substan- habits of the cottontail make it likely
tially. Deer ingested primarily shrubs to remain an abundant game animal.and forbs, cattle mostly grass. Deer in-habited relatively steep slopes, cattle The tree squirrel most commonlythe more open ridgetops and coulee occurring in the savannah and along riverbattoms, bottoms is the fox squirrel (Sc__s niger).
It depends on fruits and nuts but alsoWith the disappearance of the bison' feeds on crops when these are available.
and elk, the white-tailed deer became the One to three squirrels per acre is consid-only large herbivore left on the tall grass ered optimum for this type of habitatprairie and savannah. The forest clearing (Schwartz and Schwartz 1959).and patch farming practiced by the_mmigrating settlers increased the edge Two lagomorphs inhabit the extensivehabitat preferred by the white-tail and upland grassland types. The white-tailedthis contributed to a substantial increase Jackrabbit (Lepus t_onser_ii) on the
in the deer population (Severinghaus and northern Great Plains and the black-tailed• Cheatum 1956). On the northern savannah, Jackrabbit (Lepus califor, nic, us) on the
however, their numbers declined to less southern Great Plains. Both depend onthan 2,000 in the face of increasing human good eyesight and speed to avoid enemiespopulations pressures and year-round because they are not burrowing animalshunting. The 1930's depression caused like many other small mammals. Rather,farm abandonments resulting in widespread they rest and hide in shallow depressions,secondary succession, and the restoration or "forms", at the base of a shrub or
clump of grassof the habitat (Beckwith 1954). By 1968,
deer numbers on the northern savannah had PrairieDogsincreased to an estimated 845,000 (Nixon
1970). The most conspicuous of the grassland
rodents were the prairie dogs (Cy_sBtghorn Sheep spp.). Prairie dogs were once incredibly
numerous. Because prairie dogs eat grass
Before disturbance by the white man, and compete with the livestock industry,• bighorn sheep (Oois oaru_n_sis) were their numbers have been reduced by exten-
numerous in mostmountain ranges of the sive poisoning progrms. Dobie (1949)west, and in the "badlands" along portions reported information £rom writers duringof the Missouri, Little M/ssourl, the late 1800's of prairie dog towns cover-
Yellowstone, North Platte, Arkansas, ing 16 million acres with an estimatedColorado, Green, and Gila Rivers, and their 400 million animals. These prairie dogprincipal tributaries. They were never towns provide food and/or cover for prairie
characteristic prairie dwellers as some- rattlesnakes (Cro_Zus vir_dis), burrowingtimes rePorted, but they did occupy some owls, (Speo_jto cwzi__), and theof the buttes and badlands of the Great black-footed ferret (_uste_znig_pes).Plains region. They were exterminated The black-footed ferret is completelyearly in the history of white man settle- dependent upon the prairie dog town forment. The last Audubon or badlands bighorn both shelter and food. Man's wholesale
sheep (0. c. audubcmi) was killed in 1916, destruction of the prairie dog has so re-near the White River of South Dakota duced ferret populations that this hand-(Hipschman 1959). some weasel is now one of America's rarest
10
_---,-is. Many other wildlife and plant to the virtual elimination of the mountain
species are associated with the influence llon by 1900 (Schwartz and Schwartz 1959).
of a pralrle dog town. The bobcat has survived, but its range ismuch more limited (Schwartz and Schwartz
Manmal_ianPredators 1959). It. has also undergone persecutionbecause of the "all-predators-are-bad"
The grassland herbivores originally philosophy. This legend seems to restserved as food supplies for a number of more on fiction than fact because Korschgenmammalian predators. The best known species (1957a) determined that the bobcat diet
are the gray wolf (C_is lupuS), red wolf is primarily rabbits and squirrels.(C..rufus), coyote (C. Lz_ans), red fox
(Vulpes. vulpes), gray fox (Urocyon The striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis),cinereoargenteus), mountain lion (Felis spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius), andconcolor), and bobcat (Lynx rufus). The raccoon (Procyon lotor) have survived in
' gray wolf depended primarily on the bison close proximity with settlement; and in
and elk fur food. Originally they ranged some cases they llve around homesltethroughout the United States, but now the buildings. Their food supply consists ofonly remaining populations are in northern small mammals, small birds, reptiles,
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan (Mech amphibians, insects, and eggs.1966). Loss of preyspecies and heavyhunt'ing led to the demise of the gray Fishwolf. It had disappeared from the central,
unlted;States by 1900 (Schwartz and The important fishes occurring in theSchwartz 1959). grassland streams and lakes are the
minnows (Cyprinidae), the suckersThe fate of the red wolf, which (Catostom_dae), the catfishes (Ictalumidae),
originally ranged from Illinois and Indiana the sunfishes (Centrarchidae), and thesouth through the Ozarks and into Texas, perches (PePcic_e). Members of the sunfish
was similar to that of the gray wolf. and perch families have been widely in-The current status of its population and its troduced into manmade reservoirs and
diStribution is questionable; however, it stock-waterlng ponds. The best known are
'is generally conceded that the red wolf is the large-mouth bass (MicroptePu8 8almoides)srestricted in both categories. Thus, it and the walleye (Stizostedion vitreum),
has been placed on the endangered species (Schultz 1936, Koster 1957, Bailey andlist by the United States Department of Allum 1962, Cross 1967).interior, in the 1940's Leopold and Hall(1945) reported seeing red wolves in thewestern Ozarks but Plmlott and Joslln Amphibians(1968) have since reported that thedistribution of this wolf currently is Arid climates pose special problems
limited to the coastal prairie areas, for amphibians. Grassland amphibians havebeen able to adapt to the arid climates
The coyote is the only canine pre- through the evolution of behavioral ordator of any significance remaining on physiological traits that tend to conserve
the grassland and savannah. Coyotes are moisture. For example, the tiger salamandercontinuously subjected to harsh control (Ambystoma tigrinum),e plains spadefoot
programs and heavy hunting pressure, yet (Scccphiopusbombifrons), Rocky MountainCoyotes continue to expand their range, toad (Bufo woodhousei), and Great PlainsThe coyote prefers a grass-shrub or grass- toad (B. cognut-us) are able to escapetree cover combination and its apparent drying conditions by burrowing. Rapid
adaptability enables it to rapidly occupy development of their young enables theall such areas created by man. spadefoot to use large temporary rain pools
for breeding.°
The red fox and gray fox are found in
the tall grass and mixed grass prairies. The most widely distributed amphibianThese two species seem to be adapting to in the grassland is the leopard frogthe habitat changes caused by current landuse.
SFish nomenclature follows Eddy (18,57)Depredations by mountain llon on
domestic livestock and the resultant con- SAmphibian nomenclature follows Conunttrol campaign plus habitat destruction led (18,58).
ii
(R_pipier_), which occurs in some dry nearly 200 million acres of midcontinenthabitat butgenerally Within traveling short grass-mixed grass type. This areadistance Of permanent water sources. The supports a large livestock industry and
bullfrog (Rune catesbeiar_) is widespread has a large potential for wildlife protec-in the central and lower Great Plains and tion. Livestock management systems are now
has been widely introduced elsewhere. The in operation on private and public lands
bullfrog is aquatic and must have permanent that strive for multiple use of the grass-water sources to survive, land with coordinated livestock and wild-
life use.
Reptiles-.
The large number and diversity ofMany of the reptiles (turtles, llz- wildlife species plus the variability with-
ards, and snakes) have adapted to arid in the grassland plant communities providesconditions. The more common turtles in- for a large number of wildlife habitat
clude the common snapping turtle (ChelydPa management options. These options areyellow mud turtlese_ent_na), further complicated by year-to-year changes
(KinoS_e_m flavesce_s ), painted turtle in weather and precipitation. Rangeland(Ch_se_js pica%u), three-toed box turtle wildlife and livestock depend on forage
(TePPuper_ e_Poli_n), ornate box turtle production for food and cover. Forage(T. oPRu_), and spiny soft-shelled turtle production can vary from nearly nothing(Tr_onyx spinifer). Except for the box on the high plains during droughts toturtle, all require permanent sources of ' 9,000 pounds per acre (Curtis 1959) onwater, the tall grass prairie. The discussion
Most lizards and snakes don't need that follows relates to the food and cover
free water to llve. Species found through- requirements of many of the species
out the grasslands include: earless liz- previously mentioned. The land managerards (Holbrookia spp.), horned lizards must use imagination and foresight to
(Ph_nosomG spp_), spiny lizards (Scelopor_s design specific systems to provide for anspp.), whiptails (Onem_dopho_s spp.), optlm_balance of different habitatskinks _E_meoes spp.), collared lizards components.
" (6_o_hy_8 coILlri8), hognose snakes.(Hetero_:)n spp.), coachwhips (Masticophisspp.), racers (Coluber constrictor), king- Wetlands
snakes (Laz_ropeltis spp.), black-headedsnakes (Tantilla spp.), and rattlesnakes Many species of wildlife are associ-
(C_o_lUs spp.). Garter snakes (Tha_nophis ated with the natural wetlands and manmadespp,) and water snakes (Natr_ spp.) are ponds of the grassland areas. Waterfowlf0undwherever there are streams or lakes and shorebirds are of primary importance.
(Stebbins 1954, Conant 1958). Grassy shorelines support nearly threetimes as many breeding pairs of ducks asthe bare mud type (Linduska 1964). The
HABITAT MANAGEMENT composition, density, and height of theshoreline vegetation depends largely on
Despite widespread vegetational the type of grazing system involved.
changes, the potential value of much of Season-long grazing systems will depletethe original grassland areas as rangeland the shoreline vegetation even if livestockand wildlife habitat remains very good. stocking rates are low, unless there areSome of theassociated wildlife species several ponds or watering areas in each
are now absent; populations of others have pasture. Shoreline vegetation'can bebeen reduced, but the majority of species maintained by fencing all or part of a
stock dam or by using carefully designedhaveadjusted to habitat alterations andremain important components in the modern rest-rotation grazing systems. Shorelinesbiotic communities. The oak-bluestem that are completely protected from livestock
savannah, tall grass prairie, and the trampling and grazing often contain densewestern bunchgrass types have been most emergent vegetation or shrubs that arealtered by land use practices. The largest not sultable for dabbllng duck habitat.
grassland typeremalning in America is the Management plans should be designed toproduce some mudflats for shore bird feeding
' areas, grassy shoreline areas for duck
7Reptile nomenclature follows Stebbins nesting, and some emergent vegetation(195@_ and C_unt (_8). growth for duck brood protective cover.
12
Uplands (Robinson 1957). Dense grassland covercan be opened by using fire, cultivation,
Brushy cover is to sharptails what or grazing. Croplands provide crop residuegrass is to prairie chickens, second growth and weed seeds which are valuable bobwhiteis to ruffed grouse, and mature coniferous fall and winter foods. Corn (Zea muys),forest is tospruce grouse. On good Korean lespedeza (Lespedeza stiFalacea) ,moisture and soil sites, lack of grazing and sorghum (Sorghum v_lgaPe) are cul-
or rest will bring about an increase in tlvated crops which rank high in the bob-such desirable species as wild plum (Prunus white diet. Ragweeds (Ambrosia spp. ),ameP__), chokeberry (P. virginiana), wild beans (Strophostyles spp.), CPoton
silver buffaloberry (Shephe_dzz _Pgenteu), spp., foxtall grasses (Setu_a spp. ), andand hawthorn (C_u_egu8 spp.), sunflowers (Helianthus spp. ) are native
I annual plants and are prolific seed
Food habits of the sharp-tailed producers commonly associated with disturbedgrouse are nearly as varlable as the areas (Baumgartner et al. 1952; Korschgenhabitats they occupy. Several plant species 1952, 1960; Robinson 1957). Insects
' do occurln most food habits studies, in- associated with cultivated crops and forbs
diCating their importance for food and/or are used for food in spring and summercover. Tkese species include dandelion (Rosene 1969). The brushland and wood-
(Taraxac_m officinale), rose (Rosa spp.), land areas are used for escape, roosting,hawthorn (CPataegus spp.), snowberry and feeding. Casey (1965) questioned the(SymphO_ca_pos occidentalis), Russian ° need for tree cover if brushland was
olive (EZ_e_s _gustifolia), silver available. Robinson (1957) providedbuffaloberry, and buds from Populus species, support for this idea when he found theCultivated crops are eaten when available number of coveys in an area to be dependent(Evans 1968). Several of these berry- on the number of "headquarter areas", whichproducing species provide grouse with a were brushy cover dense enough to providewinter diet sufficient to survive winter adequate protection during periods of highConditions on the northern Great Plains light intensity. Cover type distribution
(Hillman and Jackson 1973, Evans and must be planned and incorporated into aMoen1975). total management plan so that access to
all cover types will be available within
Evans and Dietz (1974) tested seven the home ranges of a covey; a home range
diet materials and found nitrogen-corrected varies from 12 to 20 acres.metabolizable energy (Kcal/g. dry matter)
to range from 3.91 for corn to 1.39 for The cottontail rabbit is a closerose hips. The fruit of silver buffaloberry associate of the bobwhite over much of
was the best native winter food item their ranges. The most preferred foodstested. Fleshy hawthorn berries were in- for cottontail rabbits in Missouri, are
gested in larger quantity than other air- bluegrass (Poa pPatenses), wheat (TPitic_#_
dried foods. For maintenance, winter aestivum), and white clover (Trifoliumfoods needed to be consumed in large enough repens) (Korschgen, unpublished data). Aquantity to provide metabolizable energy in wide variety of food species appearing inexcess of 1.5 times basal metabolic rate. smaller amounts serve to illustrate the
A keyto intensive management of winter catholic taste of the cottontail.
habitat for sharp-tailed grouse is the Cottontails may become a nuisance if in-propagation and/0rencouragement of high clement weather forces them to feed on the
•energyaproviding plants. Several native bark of shrubs, shade trees, orchards, andshrubspecies provide good protective cover windbreaks, thus damaging or killing in-
for sharptails and produce berries that dividual plants. Hunting or trapping canare palatable and high in energy, be used to effectively control cottontail
populations which are exceeding theEdmlnster (1954) listed four types of carrying capacity of the habitat.
cover required by the bobwhite: grass-
land, cropland, brushland, and woodland. Within the various rangeland habitatsThe grassland provides nesting and feeding from sea level to above timberline, many
cover durlngsPrlng and s,,mmer. Parmalee management practices are available for in-(1.955)found 85 percent of the nests creasing grazing capacity, improving rangelocated during hls study to be in grass- condition, and creating new range. Allland. Grassland must be open enough to are designed to favor livestock. The non-permit birds to move about unhampered game bird section of most management plans
13
are shortand generally useless for required to remove range forage sufficient
evaluatlngeffects of different practices to feed 1 cow (Stoddart and Smith 1955).on birds and their habitats. The interest
and awareness of animals other than cattle The coyote often preys on livestockand sheep is rapldly growing as managers and blg game species; however, Korschgenrecognlzethe value of diversified wild- (1957b) reported that the coyote diet in
llfe populatlons. Buttery and Shlelds M_ssourl consisted mainly of rabbits and(1975) have summarized information per- rodents. Thls agrees wlth Murle (1940)talning to bird habitat values and have who determined that coyotes in Yellowstone
pointe d out research needs, consumed primarily rodents and insects.Consumption of 11vestock or wild mammals
Big Game other than those mentioned above was 10percent or less for each. The evidenceindicates that often the coyote could be
Mule deer, white-tailed deer, and considered a valuable aide in controllingpronghorn antelope currently offer the rabbit and rodent populations. In localbest potential for big game management, instances coyotes can cause economically
Deer are browsers and require a supply ofwoody plants for food and cover. Good significant sheep mortality.
sharp-tailed grouse habitat on the northern In spite of the fox-chicken legendGreat Plains is usually compatible wlth
good deer habitat. Some livestock grazlpg it appears that the foxes still depend onsystems are very compatible wlth deer and wild animals for the major portion of
their diet (Korschgen 1957a). Rabbitsgrouse populations. Grazing systems that and rodents comprised more than 50 percentreduce brushy cover in the small drainageareas probably also reduce deer habitat of the diet for both species. Foxes havebeen considered to have both detrimentalvalues, and beneficial attributes. Detrimental
Whlte-tailed deer range can best be because they occasionally take domesticdescribed as a mosaic of croplands or poultry but beneflclal because of thepasturelands and oak-hlckory woodlots, impact they make on rodent populatlons and
brushy fencerows, and wooded stream bottoms the value of the pelt.(Crawford 1970). A survey of deer food
habits in Missouri (Murphy 1970) revealed DISCUSSIONthe importance of cultivated crops In thediet, especially corn and soybeans. This Past experience indicates that futuresurvey showed substantial dependence on habitat management objectives are going toshrubs and small trees as a food source, require conslderable thought and imaglna-
• Important shrub species are buckbrush tlon. The bison, elk, and gray wolf are
(Sgvr;phoz_o_o8 spp.), sumac (R_s spp.), gone from the grasslands and savannahs--and hawthorn. Acorns are an important victims of changing land use and indlscrlmant
contribution of the tree component in the shootings. Those game species remainingmore heavily wooded areas. Favorable have been able to adapt to changing landhabitat extends along the major drainage use but even these species are limited inacross the Great Plains. the amount of change that they can tolerate.
We have hardly considered the multitude of
Pronghornantelope differ considerably nongame species present. We know that landfrom deer in their habitat preferences, use changes influence these speciesDeer prefer woody or brushy areas, and (Warbach 1958, Graber and Graber 1963,
antelopeprefer upland and open expansions Buttery and Shlelds 1975), but insufficientof grasslands. The forb component of datamakes accurate evaluation of these
, grassland vegetation communities Is changes difficult. Wildlife has continually
important to pronghorns, been relegated to areas that are difficultto cultivate or to intensively manage, andthese areas continue to dwindle as new
Predator-PreyRelations economic uses are discovered. There aretwo broad alternatives available to
JaCkrabbits occaslonally become so society. The first is to continue man-numerous that control campaigns are aging with a dwindling habitat base usurpedlaunched. Because of their size and by an expanding urban population and inten-differences in food habits, it is estimated siftcation of agriculture practices; orthat approximately 200 Jackrabbits are secondly, stimulate incorporation of
14
habitat management practices in land use American Ornithologists' Union. 1973.planning through education and economic Thlrty-second supplement to the American
incentives. Ornithologists' Union checklist of.
North American birds. Auk 90(2):411-419.The land manager must have some in- Anderson, Kllng L., Ed F. Smith, and
centive forproduclng wildlife. It is Clenton E. Owensby. 1970. Burning
unreasonable to expect a private land man- bluestem range. J. Range Manage.agerto voluntarily donate his most pro- 23(2):81-92.
ductlve land to wildllfe habitat when the Anderson, Wallace L., and Lawrence V.
demands of an urban population for farm Compton. 1958. More wildlife throughandranch products are so great (Crawford soil and water conservation. U.S. Dep.
1970) The practice of charging hunters a Agric., Soil Conserv. Serv. Agric. Inf.fee to useprivate lands is relatively new Bull. 75, 15 p.
in manyStates, but well established in Bailey, Reeve Maclaren, and Marvin O. A11um.more populated areas. This economic in- 1962. Fishes of South Dakota. Univ.
centive is becoming increasingly popular Mich V Mus. Zool., Misc. Publ. ll9, 131 p.(Severson and Gartner 1972). Consumptive Bailey, Vernon. 1926. A biologlcal surveyusers havetradltionally shouldered the of North Dakota. U.S. Dep. Agrlc.burden of_game management costs through North Am. Fauna 49, 226 p.license fees and special taxes on hunting Baumgartner, Frederick M., Meredith J.equipment. Very llttle of this money has Morris, John L. Steele, and Jack E.gone directly to the landowner as an ' Williams. 1952. Oklahoma bobwhite food
economic return for the wildlife produced relations. North Am. Wildl. Conf.on his land. Future wildllfe habitat 17:338-359.
programs will depend on whether or not man Beck, John V. 1957. The greater prairieis willing topay a portion of the wild- chicken in history. Nebraska Bird Rev.llfe productions costs. Adequate procedures 25(1):8-12.for managing wildllfe and methods ofapplication are readily available (Wing Beckwlth, Stephen L. 1954. Ecologlcalsuccession on abandoned farm lands and
1951, Anderson and Compton 1958, Giles its relationship to wildlife management._1969, Allen 1972), but wld_spread Ecol. Monogr. 24(4):349-376.
application awalts a basic philsophlcal Borchert_ John R. 1950. The climate o_ thechange_in which wildllfe will be recognized Central North Amerlcan grassland. Assoc.as an esthetic necessity rather than an Am. Geogr. Ann. 40(1):1-39.
esthetic luxury. The fate of wildllfe Bruner, W. E. 1931. The vegetation ofis inexorably llnked with the fate of man. Oklahoma. Ecol. Monogr. 1(2):99-188.
Bue, I. G., Lytle Blankenship, and• LITERATURECITED William H. Marshall. 1952. The
relationship of grazing practices toAikman, John M. 1929. Distribution and waterfowl breeding populations and
structure of the forests of eastern production on stock ponds in westernNebraska. Univ. Nebraska Stud. South Dakota. North Am. Wildl. Conf.26(1 & 2):1-75. 17:396-414.
Albertson, F. W., G. W. Tomanek, and Buechner, H.K. 1960. Regulation ofA, Riegel. 1957. Ecology of drought numbers of pronghorn antelope incycles andgrazlng intensity on grass- relation to land use. l__n_nEcologyandlands of Central Great Plains. Ecol. management of wild grazing animals inMonogr 27_I):27-44. temperature zones, p. 226-285. F.
Aldrlch, John W. 1963. Geographic Bourliere, ed. Eighth Tech. Meet.orientation of American tetraonldae. IUCN, Warszawa.J. WildlManage. 27(4):529-545. Buttery, Robert F., and Paul W. Shlelds.
Allen, Durward L. 1954. Our wildllfe 1975. Range management practices andlegacy. 422 p. Funk and Nagnalls Co., bird habitat values. In Management of-.=-.
New York. forest and range habitats fer nongameAllen, Durward L. 1972. The future of birds Symp. Proc. Dixie R. Smith,
wildlife resources. J. Soil & Water Tech. Coerd. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech.
Conserv. 27(6):244-249 Rep. NO-l, p. 183-189.
American Ornlthol0gists' Union. 1957. Caldwe11, Larry D. 1964. Dove productionChecklist of North American birds, and nest site selection in southern
5th ed. 691 p. Am. Ornlthol. Union, Michigan. J. Wild1. Manage. 28(4):Ithaca, New York. 732-738.
15
Casey, William H. 1965. Some speculations Evans, Keith E., and Aaron N. Moen. 1975.
on theminimumhabitat requirements of Thermal exchange between sharp-tailedb6bwhite quail. In 19th Annu. Conf. grouse (Ped_oeoet_8 p_s__IZu8)andSoutheast. Assoc.G--ame & Fish Comm. their winter environment. Condor 77Proc., p. 30-39. (2):160-168.
Conant, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles Giles, Robert H., Jr., ed. 1969. Wild-and amphibians of the United States and life management techniques. 3rd ed.Canada east of the 100th Meridian. 623 p. The Wildl. Soc., Washington, DC.366 p. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Graber, Richard Rex, and Jean W. Graber.Massachusetts. 1963. A comparative study of bird
CooMe, Wells W. 1909. The birds of populations in Illinois, 1906-1909 andColorado. Auk 26(10):400-422. 1956-1958. Ill. Natl. Hist. Surv. Bull.
Coupland, Robert T. 1958. The effects of 28(3):377-528.fluctuations in weather upon the grass- Grieb, Jack R. 1970. The shortgrasslands of the Great Plains. But. Rev. pra±rie Canada goose population. Wildl.24(5):273-317. Monogr. 22, 49 p.
Crawfo_d, Hewlette S., Jr. 1970. Mid- Hall, E. Raymond. 1965. Names of Northwestern deer habitat. In White-tailed American m-mm_ls north of Mexico. Univ.deer in the Midwest. US-DA For. Serv. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. 43,
Res_ Pap. NC-39, p. 19-22. North 16 p.Cent. For. Exp. Stn., St. Paul, Minn. Hanson, Harold Carster, and Charles W.
Cross, FrankB. 1967. Handbook of fishes Kossack. 1963. The mourning dove inin Kansas. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Illinois. Ill. Dep. Conserv. Tech.
Hist. Misc. Publ. 45, 357 p. Bull. 2, 133 p.Curtis, John T. 1959. The vegetation of Harrington, H. D. 1954. Manual of the
Wisconsin. 657 p. Univ. Wis. Press, plants in Colorado. 666 p. Sage Books,
Madison, Wis. Denver, Colorado.Cutrlght, Paul Russell. 1969. Lewis and Hewitt, Oliver H., ed. 1967. The wild
Clark: pioneering naturalists. 506 p. turkey and its management. 589 p. TheUniv. Ill. Press, Urbana, Ill. Wildl. Soc., Washington, DC.
Daubenmire, Rexford F. 1968. Ecology of Hillman, Conrad N., and Warren W. Jackson.fire in grasslands. Adv. Ecol. Res. 1973. The sharp-tailed grouse in South5:209-226. Dakota. South Dakota Dep. of Game,
Davis, A. M 1964. The Ozark savannah. Fish, and Parks. Tech. Bull. 3, 62 p.(Abstr.) 17th Annu. Meet. Am. Soc. Hipschman, Don. 1959. Department history,
Range Manage. p. 7-8. 1909-1959. l_.n_nLooking back over theDobie, James Frank. 1949. The voice of past 50 years. South Dakota Dep. Game,
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Edm/nster, Frank Custer. 1954. American Hoover, Robert L., C. E. Till, and
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Mackie, RichardJ. 1970. Range ecology Doubleday, Doran, and Co., Xnc., Newand relations of mule deer, elk, and York.
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Severtnghaus, C. W., and g. L. Cheatum. J. Wtldl. Manage. 28(1):152-157.1956. Life and times of the white- Weaver, John Ernest. 1954. North Americantalled deer. In The deer of 'North prairie. 348 p. Johnsen Publ. Co.,
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•_,U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978-768-3437130-6
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Evans, Keith E., and George E. Probasco.1977. Wildlife of the prairies and plains. USDA For.
Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-29, i8 p., illus. North Cent.For. Exp. Sin., St. Paul, Minn.
The North American grasslands are the most extensive
and varied of all plant communities in North America.The grasslands are divided into eight subtypes and thewildlife resources, past and present, are discussed for
each subtype. Objectives and practices of wildlifehabitat management are discussed.
OXFORD: 182.3:175.2:149:148.2. KEY WORDS: bison, big
game, waterfowl, upland birds, ram,reals,range mangement.
| nm
Evans, Keith E., and George E. Probasco.1977. Wildlife of the prairies and plains. USDA For.
Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-29, 18 p., illus. North Cent.For. Exp. Sin., St. Paul, Minn.
. .
The North American grasslands are the most extensiveand varied of all plant communities in North America.
The grasslands are divided into eight subtypes and thewildlife resources, past and present, are discussed foreach subtype. Objectives and practices of _rlldlifehabitat management are discussed.
OXFORD: 182.3:175.2:149:148.2. KEY WORDS: bison, biggame, waterfowl, upland birds, mammals, range management.
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" Leave parks and forests clean.., or cleaner.
