MANAGEMENT SKILLS Writing management reports Engineers must be able to write reports which managers can understand and act on. This is not easy. It requires a structured approach which can be tailored to the needs of particular readers and situations. Tlus article offers such an approach. by David J. Silk riting a technical report for someone within the same specialism is one W thing. Writing a report for a manager who is not familiar with technical detail is another. Yet it becomes increasingly important for engineers to get their message across effectively to general managers. If you find this difficult, don’t despair. Engineers are no worse than other professionals in this respect. Indeed, engineers have a potential advantage: they have been trained in a logical discipline which requires attention to detail. This article builds on those skills. The aim is to help you to write more effective management reports. We shall look in turn at the context, principles and practice of writing such reports. The context of management reports A report is a method of communication between people. To make it effective you must consider the wider aspects of the communica- tion process. Fig. 1 shows a model which will be familiar to many engineers. This model emphasises the one-way trans- mission of information, along a channel which may be perturbed by noise. It is a useful model when designing electrical communication systems. It can also be applied to the detailed task of writing and submitting a report. But it is not really adequate as a general model of communication between people. Fig. 2 illustrates a more developed model which does that better. There are two features to mention. First, there is always the likelihood of feedback from the recipient(s) to the sender, sooner or later. Second, there needs to be some shared context for the sender and the recipient(s). The shared context may include culture, working for the same firm, a shared language and a concern about a particular management problem. We can see this model at work in everyday examples of human communication. When we enter a room, non-verbal communication Starts at once. Our dress, deportment and gestures all ~ i ~ . 1 Simple model of the communication process transmission noise ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT JOURNAL JUNE 1994 I23 - ~
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MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Writing management reports Engineers must be able to write reports which managers can understand and act on. This is not easy. It requires a structured approach which can be tailored to the needs of particular readers and situations. Tlus article offers such an approach.
by David J. Silk
riting a technical report for someone within the same specialism is one W thing. Writing a report for a manager
who is not familiar with technical detail is another. Yet it becomes increasingly important for engineers to get their message across effectively to general managers.
If you find this difficult, don’t despair. Engineers are no worse than other professionals in this respect. Indeed, engineers have a potential advantage: they have been trained in a logical discipline which requires attention to detail. This article builds on those skills. The aim is to help you to write more effective management reports. We shall look in turn at the context, principles and practice of writing such reports.
The context of management reports A report is a method of communication
between people. To make it effective you must consider the wider aspects of the communica- tion process. Fig. 1 shows a model which will be familiar to many engineers.
This model emphasises the one-way trans- mission of information, along a channel which may be perturbed by noise. It is a useful model when designing electrical communication systems. It can also be applied to the detailed task of writing and submitting a report. But it is not really adequate as a general model
of communication between people. Fig. 2 illustrates a more developed model which does that better.
There are two features to mention. First, there is always the likelihood of feedback from the recipient(s) to the sender, sooner or later. Second, there needs to be some shared context for the sender and the recipient(s). The shared context may include culture, working for the same firm, a shared language and a concern about a particular management problem.
We can see this model at work in everyday examples of human communication. When we enter a room, non-verbal communication Starts at once. Our dress, deportment and gestures all
~ i ~ . 1 Simple model of the communication process
transmission
noise
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Fig. 2 Broader model of the communication process
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SHARED CONTEXT , I
I I I
I transmission I
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feedback
convey a message. Other people may react with various kinds of body language before we even start to speak. Thus there is communication and feedback without a word being said.
If we have come into the room to give a formal presentation to the group (one-to- many) we have to make some assumptions about the shared context for our audience. We assume they are aware of the title of our talk, have some interest in it, and probably have some background knowledge also. We do not start a talk on application specific integrated circuits by telling the audience the basic principles of semiconductors. We make assumptions about the shared context at the outset. The feedback comes later, when the audience goes to sleep (or not), applauds at the end (or not), and people come and speak to you afterwards (or not).
If we now engage one or two people in conversation (one-to-one/few), the situation is different. Feedback is more immediate, and the communication becomes two-way. We have social conventions for changing the turn for speaking; they include tone of voice, raised eyebrows and quizzical looks. During the conversation the shared context becomes clearer, as we learn more about our conversation partners. The conversation can then converge sharply on an area of mutual interest and knowledge.
These examples of speaking have a parallel in our use of writing. If we write an article or book (one-to-many) we must also make assumptions about the shared context. We can then suggest a relevant topic, by choosing the title of the article or book. In this article I have already made some assumptions about the kind of people who read Engineering Management Journal, and those who are likely to have read beyond the title and introductory sentences of this article.
Writing a management report is different again. It is like a formalised conversation. It is one-to-one/few. We have to agree with the intended reader what the shared context is, why a report is needed, and what its aim should be. All this must be done before we start to write anything.
When we do start to write, we must remember from everyday experience some important characteristics of language:
Language is ambiguous: There are national, regional and individual differences in the way we use particular words. In addition syntax and grammar are imprecise. ‘He noticed her shaking hands’ has two meanings. ‘He has been at the bar a long time’ has two meanings in countries where the phrase ‘at the bar’ has a legal connotation. Language has a measure of redundancy, or surplus infomation: It has evolved to serve the human brain, which is not able to absorb information perfectly and continuously. We must build on this in the structure of a management report so that important points are repeated. Language ispowerful: It can convey emotion as well as facts. In fiction we may portray characters in situations; the resulting action conveys emotion and gives pleasure. In a management report we use a more logical approach, grounded in facts. We analyse data to give information; this becomes the basis for decision and action.
This can be illustrated by reference to the management learning cycle as shown in Fig. 3.
Real-world experience provides data. We observe events, and analyse the data to provide information which is meaningful and relevant to a manager. This, coupled with knowledge from related experience elsewhere, helps us to
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action experience DO
formulate concepts about how the world is. These become the basis for the key functions of a manager: to take decisions and initiate action. This results in new experience, and the cycle is repeated. The management learning cycle (Do-Watch-Think-Try) is underpinned by an information cycle (Data-Information- Decision- Action).
This model can be used to clarify the scope of a management report. It can be factual, analytical or advisory depending on whether it:
provides data (facts) without analysis or
provides information (data + analysis)
provides knowledge from a wider or related
recommends a decision, based on the
says how the related action can be initiated,
comment
relevant to a problem in hand
context
information and/or knowledge
and by whom.
Let’s now summarise the issues about the context of a management report. These are the points which need to be agreed with the sponsor, or intended reader of the report:
What is the management context within which the report is to be written? What is the purpose of the report? It will often relate to the solving of a particular business problem. Within that context and purpose, what is the aim of the report itself? The aim will be stated in the report. It must be succint and fully agreed. It is, in effect, the sponsor’s statement of requirement (SOR) for the report. Indeed for a complex report it may be necessary to prepare formal terms of reference (TOR). What is the scope of the report, in relation to the management learning cycle? Check that the purpose leads logically to the aim, and the aim leads logically to the scope. When we write the report we must use language as precisely and logically as we can. To assist that, is the shared context between the author and the intended reader clear? Are there likely to be other readers, now or in the future, for whom the shared context would be different?
Most engineers get involved with project management. What we are doing here is treating the writing of a management report as a project (which it is). We are taking great care to understand the customer’s problem and then
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data
agreeing an SOR with them. To embark on any project without doing that would be folly. It applies equally to writing a report. An excellent report on an irrelevant topic, or a report on the right topic but of the wrong scope, is no use to the customer.
The principles of report writing The first principle of writing a report flows
from what has just been said. Remember the principles of Total Quality Management (TQM)? The reader is your customer, you have to market your product (the report) to satisfy their perceived and potential needs. You mustn’t prepare the report which you will most enjoy writing; you must prepare the report which the customer will most benefit from receiving. That means telling the bad news as well as the good news. It means being honest, objective and realistic. Don’t withhold information which is unpalatable; it is better to draw attention to potential or actual problems than assume you will be able to cope unaided. Try to assess risk, and be realistic with estimates of time, money and other resources. So, think about the shared context and the reader as an individual. Do they have their own mind-set, in terms of knowledge of the subject, preferences and prejudices? Your report should be influenced by all of these if it is to be effective.
The second principle is to remember that different readers may need different levels of detail from your report. Some readers need different levels of detail on different occasions. For example, a busy senior executive may need to get the essential message quickly. The same applies to anyone picking up the report for the
ments? Fig. 4 offers a suggestion. This structure offers four levels of detail, as follows:
1 Executive summary (or Abstract) 2 Introduction + Conclusion 3 Introduction + Body + Conclusion 4 Introduction + Body + Conclusion t
Appendices
Fig. 4 Provisional structure ‘Or a management
first time, or coming back to be reminded of what you said. Another reader may need to scrutinise the detail carefully, before taking a decision. To deal with all these types of reader and circumstances, your report must offer multiple levels of detail.
The third principle is to separate clearlyfact, analysis and opinion. If the scope of your report is only to present facts, this is easy. More often, though, you will include analysis and recommendations as well. In that case, your reader may not be fully persuaded by your argument. He or she may accept your facts (on the confident assumption that as a professional you will have checked them), but draw different conclusions from them. Your report will be most useful to such a reader if you have kept fact, analysis and opinion separate. It is also in your own interest, because you may be asked to modify the report after discussion with the recipient or by a committee.
It’s worth considering how newspapers separate fact, analysis and opinion. In the quality press a news item is written in a factual manner. It starts with a top-level statement and then adds more and more detail. This is called ‘pyramid’ writing; the reader simply carries on reading until they have enough detail to satisfy them. Longer, feature articles will have the classic three-part structure: introduction, the body and the conclusion. Within the body the facts are presented and then the analysis. The newspaper’s opinions are presented in the leader articles and other ‘comment’ columns. Here, more emotive language is used, based on values and judgments. A newspaper which failed to follow these conventions for separating fact, analysis and opinion would be very frustrating to most of its readers. The principle is equally important for management reports.
Thus there are two major requirements: to offer multiple levels of detail, and to separate fact, analysis and opinion. What structure of management report will meet these require-
The title of the report is, in a sense, a further summary. Make it as descriptive as possible, without being overlong. A subtitle can help with this. Within the report itself:
The executive summary is a self-contained abstract of a few hundred words. It is probably the most important part of the report. It is all that some influential recipients will read. The introduction sets the scene (within the shared context). It gives the problem to be addressed, the purpose of the report and an explicit statement of the agreed aim. It then explains the structure of the rest of the report (for example, the sequence of chapters). The body contains the meat of the report. At appropriate points in the argument it refers to appendices for supporting detail, while giving the reader the choice of whether or not to study them. The body usually has at least three chapters or sections. A typical scope for these three chapters is shown in Fig. 4.
*The conclusion is a summary of the body, with no new information. It may tabulate conclusions and recommendations, with a cross-reference to the place where they are dealt with in detail in the body of the report. It must make sense when read only with the introduction. The appendices must have a clear link with the body of the report. Each appendix must give supporting evidence for the corresponding assertions in the body of the report. Appendices should be listed in the order in which they are cited.
Having decided on a structure of this kind, you need to consider format and presentation. The report should have a good structure of headings to help the reader find their way through the report, getting the level of detail which they require:
main title (usually centred and highlighted) for long reports, major section/cbapter titles; they are usually centred
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sectton titles (groups of paragraphs); usually a -‘State control of industry is an infringe- ment of personal liberty; therefore we must resist it.’
prominent side-heading.
Always include a contents page, giving the structure of headings and the corresponding page numbers. Beyond that, you may need to use the relevant house style for such things as:
Layout, and the numbering of pages in the
-‘Researchers are out of touch with reality.’ -‘I was drunk after taking three different types
of whisky with water. So it must be the water that makes me drunk.’
-‘The Bible is divinely inspired, because it says so.’
preamble, main report -‘As using a razor makes and appendices. it blunt, so using your The numbering of sec- brain too much will tions and/or paragraphs. A newsmoer iNhl(7P make it blunt.’
I *
A decimal n u i b e h n g -‘Some Moslems are system is useful in long non-drinkers; all Arabs or complex reports. are Moslems; therefore Consider whether the con”entions foi some Arabs are non-
iailed to foilcm
report is likely to be separalrng facr drinkers.’ edited, so that the page -‘Jones was not intoxi-
The numbering of Fig- -‘Your statement that uresmables. Place them would be n,ierF’ jogging is harmless is near the relevant text. trustrating tc most $31
untrue, because YOU are a jogger.’
writing With these dangers in You have got the mind as we write, what is a
purpose, aim and scope of good approach to drafting the report in mind. You have planned a the actual report? To avoid the paralysis of structure which offers multiple levels of detail sitting in front of a blank piece of paper (or the and which separates facts, analysis and opinion. blinking cursor on a blank VDU screen), you You have considered the format and need a plan. The order in which you do the presentation of your report, taking account of work should be influenced by that major house style. You have assembled the material requirement: to produce a report which gives a and done your analysis and thinking. Now, at coherent message at each of several levels of last, you can surely start to write? detail. Here is a suggested order of work:
Well, almost! Before you start it is worth thinking again about that fickle tool called language. You are seeking accuracy, brevity and clarity. Your prose must be logical wherever possible, and persuasive elsewhere. This is not easy. Here are some tips:
Avoid the ambiguity and imprecision of language mentioned earlier. Avoid conscious or unconscious self-interest. If you have a personal interest in the outcome, declare it.
thinking, especially the ‘not invented here (NIH)’ syndrome. Avoid emotional terms, suggestion and the inappropriate quoting of authority. Avoid errors of logic. Think about these examples:
2 Write down the aim. Compose the title. 3 Draft the introduction (Ser 1 on Fig. 4) 4 Assemble context/literature information.
Draft related chapters (Ser 2) and appen- dices (Ser 6 )
5 Assemble the fucts/research datu. Draft related chapters (Ser 3, and (Ser6).
scope into your mind.
6 Perform the analysis, draw deductions, and
Avoid habit and assumptions in your (if appropriate) 4,
7 Revise the introduction (Ser 1); draft the conclusion (Ser 5)
8 Draft the executive summary, or abstract (Ser 0 )
9 Set the draft aside for a few days. Get someone else to read and comment on it.
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10 Revise the draft, trying to put yourself into the position of the reader. Pay attention to spelling, grammar and presentation.
11 Produce thefinalversion, and submit it. Be ready for the response.
Adopt a structure which will offer readers a choice of several levels of detail, and separate facts, analysis and opinion. Decide on the conventions of presentation which you will use.
A final word on the use of information technology (IT). Take account of the secretarial services available to you, and how best to use them. Decide how much time and effort to invest in learning to use IT yourself. There are
Aboutpractice, remember:
Think clearly, and avoid logical errors. Draft the report methodically. Evolve your own style and method for doing this.
no short cuts, but for many people the initial investment pays for itself many times over in terms of convenience and effectiveness of producing documents throughout a career. Make your own decision about the use of personal computers (PCs) for:
Word processing: Consider your keyboard and drafting skills. Is thinking-time or writing-time the main con- straint on your productivity? Spreadsheets, for data analysis Graphics, to present data
Desktop publishing, to more effectively
smarten presentation.
Conclusion
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t” I
Decide carefull; how to use IT and other supporting resources.
We all have to develop our own approach to writing management reports. The approach described here is only one suggestion, although it has been found effective for people in varied circumstances. In the refer- ences below you will find further advice on specific aspects of report writing. Remember, we have been discussing only principles. But principles are the basis for practice, and practice makes perfect!
You will have noticed that this article has followed some of the principles discussed, but not all of them. It is not, after all, a management report! However, it should, and will, follow the important principle of reminding the reader of the main points in a conclusion which distils these main points without adding new information.
About context, remember:
The relationship between writer and reader, within a shared context. The management learning cycle (do-watch- think-try) and the supporting role of data- information-decision-action. Define and agree the purpose, aim and scope of the report.
About principles, remember:
Reference Material 1 Modern quality dictionary (e.g. Concise Oxford
2 Roget’s Thesaurus 3 Ernest Gowers ‘The Complete Plain Words’
(Pelican, revised 1987) 4 Fowler’s Modern English Usage (Oxford, current
edition) 5 IEE Professional Brief on ‘Technical Report
Writing’ (revised Jan 1993) 6 ‘How to write right’, Gerald M. Blair, Engineering
Management Journal, June 1992, 2, (3), pp.111-115
7 ‘The management of a student research project’, K. Howard and J. A. Sharp (Gower, 1983), especially chapter 8 ‘Presentation of the research findings’.
Dictionary)
0 IEE: 1994 Dr. David Silk is a consultant in Information Management.
consider your reader as a customer, prepare the report which Will benefit the customer most. Be objective, realistic and professional.
He is an IEE Fellow, and associate faculty-member of Henley Management College and of Lancaster University. He can be contacted at Orphan Crag Barn, Underbarrow, Kendal, Cumbria LA8 8HQ, UK.
