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DEF: forming a memory codeRequires attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range
of stimuli or eventsAttention is selective; acts as a filter
ENCODING
Craik and Lockhart (1972) propose incoming info can be processed at different levels
3 levels for verbal info.:1: Structural encoding: shallow processing that emphasizes
the physical structure of the stimulus
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
Phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds likeSemantic encoding: emphasizes meaning of verbal input;
thinking about the objects and actions the word representsLevels of Processing Theory: deeper levels of processing
result in longer lasting memory codes
LEVELS OF PROCESSING CONTINUED
Elaboration: linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding
Helps enhance semantic encoding Involves thinking of examples to illustrate the idea
ENRICHING ENCODING
Creating visual images to represent words to be rememberedAllan Paivio: easier to form images for concrete wordsDual-coding theory: holds that memory is enhanced by
forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
VISUAL IMAGERY
DEF: deciding how or whether info is personally relevant It is easier to remember something if it is meaningful to you
SELF-REFERENT ENCODING
DEF: preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
Gives additional time to recognize stimulusVisual and auditory memory trace decays after ¼ of a second
SENSORY MEMORY
STM is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds
Rehearsal: process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the info
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Ability to recall decays considerably after only 15 secondsThis is due to time-related decay and interference from
competing stimuli
DURABILITY OF STORAGE
1956: George Miller publishes “Magical Number 7” paperClaims you can store 7 items (+ or – 2) in STMYou can increase capacity by Chunking: grouping familiar
stimuli and storing as a single unit
CAPACITY OF STORAGE
Alan Baddeley: “Working memory” consists of 3 parts:1: Phonological rehearsal loop (ex: reciting a phone #)—only
2 seconds of info2: Visuospatial sketchpad: allows to temporarily hold and
manipulate visual images3: Executive control system: handles info as you engage in
reasoning and decision making
STM AS “WORKING MEMORY”
DEF: an unlimited (virtually) capacity store that can hold info over lengthy periods of time
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Flash-bulb memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
Hypnosis induced memoriesESB triggering long-lost memories
LONG-TERM MEMORY PERMANENT?
Dominant thought today is that STM is a tiny and constantly changing portion of LTM
STM AND LTM SEPARATE
Clustering: tendency to remember similar or related items in a group
Conceptual hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
CLUSTERING AND CONCEPTUAL HIERARCHIES
Schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
SCHEMAS
DEF: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
Spreading activation: naturally thinking of related words
SEMANTIC NETWORKS
PDP models assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks
CONNECTIONIST NETWORKS AND PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
(PDP)
DEF: temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by the feeling that it’s just out of reach
Similar memories are interfering
TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON
Context cues facilitate the retrieval of info.Remembering the origin of the thought
REINSTATING THE CONTEXT OF AN EVENT
Distortions in recall occur b/c subjects reconstruct a story to fit w/ their established schemas
Theories: overwriting, interference, and…
RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES AND MISINFORMATION EFFECT