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Road Map for the Selection of Characteristic

Parameters of Polymer Matrix Composites for

Engineering ApplicationsDr.J.Fazlur Rahman

1Mohammed Yunus

2T.M. Tajuddin Yezdani

3and

Dr.A.Ramakrishna4

1. Professor Emeritus, Department of Mechanical Engineering,H.K.B.K. C.E., Bangalore, Karnataka State, India.

2. Professor, Department of Mechanical EngineeringH.K.B.K.C.E., Bangalore, Karnataka State, India.

3. Professor, Department of Mechanical EngineeringH.K.B.K.C.E., Bangalore, Karnataka State, India.

4. Professor and Dean, Department of Mechanical EngineeringAndhra University Engineering College, Vishakhapatnam

Andhra Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

An important technological development that has contributed significantly to the

growth of the composite is the development of a strong and stiff fibres such as glass,

carbon and aramide along with the concurrent development in polymer industry,

resulting in various polymeric materials such as epoxy, vinyl ester, phenolic resins,

etc. to serve as matrix materials. Over the last few years, usage of FRPs using

polymer matrices have seen tremendous growth as they can be tailored to suit specific

application. The mechanical and physical properties of FRP depend upon type, shape,

length and orientation of the fibres. Generally long fibres transmit loads more

effectively through the matrix. In spite of the complexity of their behaviour and theunconventational nature of fabrication, and other aspects, the usage of FRPs in

automotive industry, aerospace, marine application, sports equipments, house hold

articles, construction of structural frames and many more has been beneficially

realised. This paper deals with the charting of strategy for the application of PMCs

citing the specific reasons for selecting the particular material systems to its

functionality. A brief review of modern FRPs is followed by a general discussion and

the logical choice of a particular material system that has gained wide acceptance.

With this knowledge as the basis, a material engineer is well placed to create

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innovative designs that are having fast effective gains and also material enhanced

properties.

Keywords: Polymer Matrix Composites-PMC, Mechanical and Physical Properties of

FRP, Degradation of PMC, Moulding Processes, Types of Resins, Natural Fibres.

1. INTRODUCTIONRecently, many advances have been made in the design, manufacture and

application of composite materials which can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in

weight, that is strength to weight ratio and stiffness to weight ratio are several times

greater than steel and aluminium. These composites also exhibit fatigue and toughness

properties better than common engineering materials. A great deal of progress has

been made in the field of FRPs which makes them ideal for use in many applications.

The most commonly used composite class for load bearing structural applications isthe continuous fibre reinforced polymer matrix composite. The most popular material

system has been the epoxy based resins reinforced with carbon, glass, or aramid

(Kevlar) fibres. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine and

construction industries[19]. Attention is now focused on expanding the usage of such

composites to other areas where temperatures could be higher. As the polymer matrix

material is the most affected (rather than the reinforcing fibres) by high temperature, it

is the matrix material that has been the focus of attention in the development of high

temperature PMCs [8]. The research and development efforts to produce polymer

matrices with higher service temperatures (up to 500 C) have shown encouraging

trends.

Composite materials and layered structures based on natural plant fibres are

increasingly regarded as an alternative to artificial fibre reinforced parts [5]. These

new FR materials are called as bio-composites. Natural fibres such as hemp, flax,

cotton, jute, coir, sisal, kenaf, etc., are generally applied for reinforcement. The

various advantages of natural fibres over man made fibres (glass, Kevlar and carbon )

are, low cost, low density and comparable specific tensile properties, recyclability,

and biodegradability and their field of application is generally found in the structural

components in automotive industries, aerospace, construction, sports and packaging

industry [1,2]. The selection of a particular system required to be tailored depends on

a host of conflicting requirements, which a system has to satisfy. It is important to

note here that the production and the properties of several PMCs either for continuous

fibre or discontinuous fibre is profoundly affected by the reinforcement. These

property enhancements due to the reinforcement are comparable to the hybrid polymer

matrix composites [9].

1.1Criteria for the Selection of Polymer Matrix Composites

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The selection of the materials comprising the PMC is by no means a random

process. The systematic selection apart from the composition of the component

comprising the PMC also takes into account the optimization factor, where the so

called merit parameters play a significant role in analysing the competitiveness

between the materials that are functionally related to material properties such as

density, tensile strength, stiffness, resistance to corrosion, resistance to temperaturebesides, cost and value of weight savings. In the aerospace sector, cost is not

necessarily the governing factor because of the low production volume and profit

realized by weight savings. The continuous fibre reinforced PMCs have low density,

more stiff and strong [7], are known to have weight optimized performance and are

performance oriented design. As far as the automotive sector is concerned, cost plays

a vital role. Since large volume prevails and as such material cost will significantly

affect the competitiveness of the component produced.

A great deal of progress has been made in the field of FRPs which makes them

ideal for use in many applications [19]. The matrix materials used for reinforcedplastics are epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins. The most popular material systems

have been epoxy based resins reinforced with carbon, glass or aramide (Kevlar fibres).

The application of reinforced plastic include, acid resistant tanks made of phenolic

resins and asbestos fibres, boats made of epoxies with glass fibre, advanced fibres

made with glass or carbon fibre. For high temperature (up to 5000C) application,

components of aircraft and rockets, helicopter blades, automobile blades and pressure

vessels and vessels, ladders etc., [6]. Aluminium application in aircraft has been

replaced by graphite epoxy reinforced plastics with reduced weight and cost with

improved resistance to corrosion and fatigue.

1.2 Selection of Right Polymer Matrix

The role of matrix in a fibre-reinforced composite is to transfer stress between

the fibres, to provide a barrier against an adverse environment and to protect the

surface of the fibres from mechanical abrasion [15]. The matrix plays a major role in

the tensile load carrying capacity of the composite structure. The binding agent or

matrix in the composite is of critical importance. Four major types of matrices have

been reported: Polymeric, Metallic, Ceramic and Carbon. Most of the composites used

in the industry today are based on polymer matrices. Polymers are generally classified

into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting. Thermoplastics currently dominateas matrices for bio-fibres (forming bio-composites). The most commonly used

thermoplastics for this purpose are Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene , High density

Polyethylene (HDPE), Low density Polyethylene (LDPE) ( processing temperature

less than 230 degrees C), and Poly vinyl- Chloride (PVC).

By heating, thermoplastic resins are softened from solid state before processing

(i.e., before making a composite) without chemical reaction. Thermoplastics return tosolid state (matrix) once processing is done. The primary advantage of thermoplastic

resin over thermoset resins is their high impact strength and fracture toughness.

Thermoplastic resins also provide higher strains-to-failure, which is manifested by

better resistance to micro cracking in the matrix of a composite. Some of the otheradvantages of thermoplastic resins are [24, 25]:

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1. Unlimited storage (shelf) life at room temperature.

2. Shorter fabrication time.

3. Postformability (e.g., by thermoforming)

4. Ease of repair by (plastic) welding, solvent bonding, etc.

5. Ease of handling (no tackiness).

6. Recyclability.7. Higher fracture toughness and better delamination resistance under fatigue than

thermosets such as epoxies.

Depending on the application, there are 3 types of thermosetting resins used -

polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy.

1.2.1. Polyester resin, tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard

projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time,

and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of

surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener is a MEKP, and is mixed at 14

drops per oz. MEKP is composed of methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, a catalyst. When

MEKP is mixed with the resin, the resulting chemical reaction causes heat to build up

and cure or harden the resin.

1.2.2. Vinyl ester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin

has lower viscosity than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often

billed as being fuel resistant, but will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to

be more resistant over time to degradation than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It

uses the same hardener as polyester resin (at the same mix ratio) and the cost is

approximately the same.1.2.3. Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured. Epoxy Resins are

thermosetting resins, which cure by internally generated heat. Epoxy systems consistof two parts, resin and hardener. When mixed together, the resin and hardener

activate, causing a chemical reaction, which cures (hardens) the material. Epoxy resins

generally have greater bonding and physical strength than do polyester resins. In the

aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material or as structural glue.

In working with epoxies, the resin to hardener ratio is very important and should never

be adjusted in an attempt to slow down or speed up the curing process. The

importance of epoxy resin can be more fully understood by studying the followingtable.

Table 1. Characteristics of different resins

Characteristics Polyester Resin Epoxy Resin

Flexural Strength Good Best

Tensile Strength Good Best

Elongation % Good Lowest

Water Absorption Good Lowest/Excellent

Hardness Good Best

Pot Life 4 7 Minutes 14 20 Minutes

Working Time 20 30 Minutes - 6 Hours

Above Waterline Yes Yes

Below Waterline Yes Yes

Major Construction Yes Yes

General Repairs Yes Yes

Shelf Life 18 24 Months 2 Year +

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Catalyst MEKP 2-Part System

Cure Time 6 8 Hours 5 7 Days

The properties of typical thermoplastic polymers and thermoset polymers used in fiber

reinforced composites are given in the Table-2.

Table 2. properties of thermoplastic and thermoset polymers used in FRP

Property PP* LDPE* HDPE* PS* Nylon6 Nylon6.6 Polyester

resin

Vinyl

ester resin

Epoxy

Density(g/cm2) 0.899-

0.9200.910-0.925

0.94-0.96 1.04-1.06 1.12-1.14 1.13-1.15 1.2-1.5 1.2-1.4 1.1-1.4

Tensile strength

(MPa)

26-41.4 40-78 14.5-38 25-69 43-79 12.4-94 40-90 69-83 35-100

Elastic modulus

(GPa)

0.95-1.77 0.055-

0.38

0.4-1.5 4-5 2.9 2.5-3.9 2-4.5 3.1-3.8 3-6

Elongation (%) 15-700 90-800 2.0-130 1-2.5 20-150 35->300 2 4-7 1-6

Water absorption24hrs (%)

0.01-0.02 854 26.7-1068 1.1 42.7-160 16-654 0.15-3.2 2.5 0.3

*PP=Polypropylene, LEDP=Low density polyethylene, HDPE=High density

polyethylene, PS=Polystyrene.

1.3. Selection of Right FibresFibre reinforced plastics are made using fibres of glass, carbon ( graphite,

aramide or boron) in a matrix of polyester or epoxy and have very high toughness and

strength to weight ratio and stiffness to weight ratio. The mechanical and physical

properties of reinforced plastics depend on type, shape, length and orientation of

fibres. Long fibres transmit loads more effectively through the matrix. The important

properties of different types of fibres used in reinforced plastics are given in the

followings.

1.3.1 Carbon fibres

Carbon fibres have low density, high strength and high stiffness but are costlier

than glass fibres. Carbon fibres are usually 80 to 85 % carbon, whereas graphite fibres

are more than 99% carbon. Conductive graphite fibres are available which give

enhanced electrical thermal conductivity to the reinforced plastic components. Carbon

fibres [14] are used for reinforcing certain matrix materials to form composites.

Carbon fibres are unidirectional reinforcements and can be arranged in such a way in

the composite that it is stronger in the direction, which must bear loads. The physicalproperties of carbon fibre reinforced composite materials depend considerably on the

nature of the matrix, the fiber alignment, the volume fraction of the fiber and matrix,

and on the molding conditions. Several types of matrix materials such as glass and

ceramics, metal and plastics have been used as matrices for reinforcement by carbonfibre. Carbon fibre composites, particularly those with polymer matrices, have become

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the dominant advanced composite materials for aerospace, automobile, sporting goods

and other applications due to their high strength, high modulus, low density, and

reasonable cost for application requiring high temperature resistance as in the case of

spacecrafts.

1.3.2. Glass fibres

Glass fibres are most widely used being least expensive. E-type fibres have

tensile strength about 3500 MPa and lowest cost. S-type fibres are costlier and have

tensile strength of about 4600 MPa. E-ECR fibres have high resistance to elevated

temperatures and acid corrosion. Glass fibres are the most common of all reinforcing

fibres for polymeric (plastic) matrix composites (PMCs). The principal advantages of

glass fiber are low cost, high tensile strength, high chemical resistance and excellent

insulating properties [19, 26]. The two types of glass fibres commonly used in the

fiber reinforced plastics industries are E-glass and S-glass. Another type known as C-

glass is used in chemical applications requiring greater corrosion resistance to acids

than is provided by E-glass.

1.3.3. Aramides / Kevlar fibres

Aramide are the toughest fibres with highest strength to weight ratio of all

fibres. Absorption of moistures by these fibres degrades the properties of the

composite. Kevlar belongs to a group of highly crystalline aramide (aromatic amide)

fibres that have the lowest specific gravity and the highest tensile strength to weight

ratio among the current reinforcing fibres. They are being used as reinforcement inmany marine and aerospace applications [3, 12].

The use of natural fibres for the reinforcement of the composites has received

increasing attention both by the academic sector and the industry. Natural fibres have

many significant advantages over synthetic fibres. Currently, many types of natural

fibres have been investigated for use in plastics including flax, cotton, hemp, jute

straw, wood, kenaf, ramie, sisal, coir and many more. Annual production of some of

the natural fibres and its source are given in the table-3 below.

Table 3.Annual production of natural fibres and their origin

Fiber source World production (103tons) Origin

Cotton lint 18500 Stem

Jute 2500 Stem

Flax 810 Stem

Hemp 215 Stem

Kenaf 770 Stem

Ramie 100 Stem

Sisal 380 Stem

Coir 100 Fruit

Table 4. The properties of various natural and manmade fibres.

Fiber Density Elongation Tensile Elastic

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(g/cm2) (%) Strength(MPa) Modulus(GPa)

Cotton 1.5-1.6 7.0-8.0 400 5.5-12.6

Jute 1.3 1.5-1.8 393-773 26.5

Flax 1.5 2.7-3.2 500-1500 27.6

Hemp 1.47 2-4 690 70

Kenaf 1.45 1.6 930 53

Ramie N/A 3.6-3.8 400-938 61.4-128Sisal 1.5 2.0-2.5 511-635 9.4-22

Coir 1.2 3.0 593 4.0-6.0

E-glass 2.6 2.4 1720 72

S-glass 2.5 2.9 2530 87

Kevlar29 1.44 2.8 2270 83/100

Kevlar49 1.44 1.8 2270 124

Carbon

High Strength

1.8 1.1 2840 230

Carbon

High Modulus

1.9 0.5 1790 370

Carbon

Ultra HighModulus

2.0-2.1 0.2 1300-1310 520-620

2. SHAPING PROCESS FOR POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITESMany of the shaping processes are slow and labour incentive. In general the

techniques for shaping composites is less efficient than for other materials as

composites are more complex than other materials consisting of two or more phases

and particularly for FRPs the fibres must be correctly oriented. The shaping processes

of FRPs can be categorized asOpen mould Processes: Manual procedures for laying resins and fibres onto forms.

In this, successive layers of resin and reinforcement are manually applied to an open

mould to build the laminated FRP to the desired thickness. This is then followed by

curing and part removing.

Curing is required in all thermosetting resins used in FRP composites. Curing

cross links the polymer, transforming it from its liquid or highly plastic condition into

a hardened product. The various open mould processes are [16, 17]1) Hand-lay process.2) Spray-up process.3) Vacuum bagging4) Automated tape- laying machines.Close mould process: Molding takes place in moulds consisting of two sections

that open and close after each molding cycle. Cost is double that of open mould

process, but it gives a good surface finish, higher production rates, and has close

control over tolerance.

The various close moulding processes are

1) Compression moulding.2) Transfer moulding.3) Injection moulding.

Filament winding: continuous filaments are dipped into liquid resin and wrapped on a

mandrel in a helical pattern. The operation is repeated to form additional layers each

having criss-cross pattern with the pervious until desired part thickness is obtained for

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producing rigid hollow cylindrical shape. The resin is then cured and the mandrel

removed.

Pultrusion: it is similar to extrusion but only adapted to include continuous fiber

reinforcement.

The classification of manufacturing processes of FRPs is shown in fig.1.

Fig.1.Classification of manufacturing processes of FRP

3. Advantages of FRPs over conventional materialsMerits of FRP over steel and suitability of application of FRP with respect to various

desired properties are tabulated [5, 6].

Table 5. Merit Comparison and Ratings for FRP and Steel

Property (Parameter) Merit/Advantage (Rating)

FRP Steel

Strength/stiffness 4-5 4

Weight 5 2

Corrosion resistance/

Environmental Durability

4-5 3

Ease of field construction 5 3-4

Ease of repair 4-5 3-5

Fire 3-5 4

Transportation/handling 5 3

Toughness 4 4

Acceptance 2-3 5

Maintenance 5 3

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Note: Higher rating indicates better desirability of the property

Note: Different Rating Scales

1: Very Low, 2: Low, 3: Medium, 4: High, 5: Very High.

Table 6. Merits and suitability of applications of FRP

Table 7. suitability for marine applications and use of FRPs

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4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:Based on previous researchers work, on the characterization of fiber reinforced

polymer composites, the following have been inferred for future studies.

1. Natural fibers due to their low cost fairly good mechanical properties, highspecific strength, not abrasive, eco friendly and bio degradable characteristics,they are exploited as a replacement for conventional fiber, such as glass,

aramid and carbon. The tensile properties of the natural fiber reinforced

polymers are generally influenced by the inter-facial addition between the

matrix and the fibers. Several chemical modifications are employed to improve

the interfacial matrix-fiber bonding for the enhancement of tensile properties.

In general, the tensile strength of the natural fiber reinforced. Polymer

composite increased with the increase in fiber content up to an optimum valueand then the value will drop. The youngs modulus of the natural PMC

increased with increase in fiber loading [3, 12 and 14].

2. The PMC have been used in structures subjected to for a variety of applicationssuch as structural members of airplanes, automobiles, marine applications,

sports equipments, chemical plants etc. since they are outstanding

performances such as lighter weight, high strength and good fatigue propertiesand corrosion resistance but material characterization and failure evaluation of

the PMCs is in compression is still an item of research [6, 13 and 19].

3. Glass reinforced plastics have wide applications but is being proposed forcritical marine components such as Moisture resistance in submarine control

surfaces transmission shaft propellers and super structures, submarine casingsetc. due to limited durability in under water shock loading [27].

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4. The long term durability and the residual life of the composites depends uponthe degradation of the PMC composites under hostile environments and service

conditions which often limits the service life of the component. Degradation

occurs as the results of environment dependent chemical or physical attack by

degradation agents.

The various causes of degradation of polymeric components are [28, 29]a) Photo oxidation

b) Thermal decompositionc) Hydrolytic attackd) Attack by pollutantse) Mechanical degradation andf) Stress - aided chemical degradation.

5. The selection the materials comparatively the polymer matrix materials such aspolyester resins, vinyl ester resins and epoxy resin depends upon the various

properties for a specific application involving the various factors such as

density, tensile strength, stiffness, resistance to corrosion and resistance to

temperature and also the cost and value of weight savings, which is highlighted

in detail aspects in table 1 and 2. The selection of right fibers namely glass,

carbon, aramid or boron in a matrix of polyester or epoxy depends upon three

main factors namely high toughness, strength o weight ratio and stiffness to

weight ratio. The mechanical and physical properties of reinforced plastics

depend on the type, shape, length and orientation of fibers. Generally the long

fibers transmit loads more effectively through the matrix, the various properties

of different types of fibers are given in table 3 and 4.

The merits and demerits of the different moulding processes namely open

mould and close mould processes of FRPs are highlighted with regards to

dimensional accuracy of the components surface finish produced, production

rate and the cost. Lastly, the merit comparison along with the rating for both

FRP and steel is presented in a tabular column 5.

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