A cautionary approach in transitioning to 'green' energy technologies and practices is required.pdf

Rev Environ Health 2016 aop

Corresponding author Puleng Matatiele Toxicology Section National Institute for Occupational Health Johannesburg South Africa E-mail pulengmatatieleniohnhlsaczaMary Gulumian Toxicology Section National Institute for Occupational Health Johannesburg South Africa and Haematology and Molecular Medicine School of Pathology University of Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa

Puleng Matatiele and Mary Gulumian

A cautionary approach in transitioning to lsquogreenrsquo energy technologies and practices is required

DOI 101515reveh-2016-0004Received February 4 2016 accepted April 8 2016

Abstract Renewable energy technologies (wind turbines solar cells biofuels etc) are often referred to as lsquocleanrsquo or lsquogreenrsquo energy sources while jobs linked to the field of environmental protection and energy efficiency are referred to as lsquogreenrsquo jobs The energy efficiency of clean technologies which is likely to reduce andor eliminate reliance on fossil fuels is acknowledged However the potential contribution of green technologies and associ-ated practices to ill health and environmental pollution resulting from consumption of energy and raw materials generation of waste and the negative impacts related to some life cycle phases of these technologies are discussed Similarly a point is made that the green jobs theme is mis-takenly oversold because the employment opportunities generated by transitioning to green technologies are not necessarily safe and healthy jobs Emphasis is put on iden-tifying the hazards associated with these green designs assessing the risks to the environment and worker health and safety and either eliminating the hazards or minimiz-ing the risks as essential elements to the design construc-tion operation and maintenance of green technologies The perception that it is not always economically possi-ble to consider all risk factors associated with renewable energy technologies at the beginning without hampering their implementation especially in the poor develop-ing countries is dismissed Instead poor countries are encouraged to start implementing environmentally sound practices while transitioning to green technologies in line with their technological development and overall eco-nomic growth

Keywords green hazards health jobs pollution renew-able energy

IntroductionReducing greenhouse gas emissions the use of renewable energy sources energy efficiency biodiversity protection and recycling are good for the environment and consti-tute both an economic boost and an opportunity to create new jobs They are linked to enhancing naturersquos ability to sustain both present and future generations (1) Renew-able energy technologies (wind turbines solar cells bio-fuels etc) are often referred to as lsquocleanrsquo or lsquogreenrsquo energy sources while jobs linked to the field of environmental protection and energy efficiency are referred to as lsquogreenrsquo jobs Green technologies are supposed to be environmen-tally friendly inventions that combat climate change and involve energy efficiency recycling safety and concern for health in a manner aimed at the sustainable manage-ment of resources and minimal (if any at all) generation of waste (1 2) In turn green jobs are decent jobs that contribute to preserving or restoring the environment thereby contributing to a more sustainable world (3)

However as will be shown in this discussion imple-mentation of renewable energy technologies like any other production process entails the consumption of energy and raw materials as well as the release of envi-ronmental pollutants In fact in some situations the car-bon-intensive production and mining methods used for construction of renewable energy plants and manufacture of products designed to lower the overall carbon footprint are a lugubrious trade-off Furthermore negative impacts related to some life cycle phases (installation mainte-nance recycling) of these technologies are not factored in or adequately investigated such that there is no prepared-ness in facing the new hazards brought about by the new jobs new products and waste emanating from the rapid roll-out of these new technologies Also considering the global capacity to generate electricity from renewables (Figure 1) (4) and the fact that many countries around the world have adopted at least one type of renewable energy target (5) both environmental and health impacts are indeed bound to be an issue In fact in some regions of the world (China for example) a wide population has already been exposed to these technologies within too short a timescale to determine their possible health and

Authenticated | pulengmatatieleniohnhlsacza authors copyDownload Date | 53016 1056 AM

2emspenspenspenspthinspemspMatatiele and Gulumian A cautionary approach in transitioning to ldquogreenrdquo energy technologies

safety impacts with resultant dire health and environ-mental consequences (6 7) In addition it is often the case that a disproportionate percentage of jobs in the clean industry are staffed by workers with relatively little formal education which in most cases is associated with expo-sure to exploitation and abuse thereby augmenting their potential exposure to both health and safety hazards especially considering the wide range of risks (biological and chemical electrical fire and explosion physical and mechanical) associated with green technologies Other such disadvantaged subpopulations of workers include the usually marginalized waste-pickers (8) migrant labor-ers and often the essential unskilled workers in develop-ing countries where even if the job is obviously not green it may be more desirable for the relief of poverty (9 10)

The design and construction of green technologies continually results in a wide range of novel materials including nanomaterials being incorporated while the health risks related to these materials are not yet fully known or understood Therefore identifying the hazards associated with green technology designs assessing the risks to worker health and safety and either eliminating the hazards or minimizing the risks is essential to the sus-tainability of green technologies Some hazards associated with this growing industry include familiar health and safety issues for which standards on and information about already exist but the customization of materials for par-ticular applications could result in the creation of no such thing as a standard material making the transfer of old or setting new standards difficult Many developing countries are recognizing green technology as one of the key drivers of national economic growth and as such are currently

Gigawatts2008

History Projections

Hydroelectric

Wind

Other

GeothermalSolar

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

02005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Figure 1enspGlobal electric generating capacity by renewable sourceGlobal installed power generation capacity by renewable source Source US Energy Information Administration International Energy Outlook 2011 (4)

reorienting their policies to promote and develop green energy production It is absolutely essential that these emerging economies realize that new risks have appeared in the field of green technologies and that the costs of poor or non-existent occupational safety and health could be very high (11) As will be highlighted in this paper the immense benefits of green technologies can be realized only if policymakers businesses and the occupational health and safety community could successfully deal with the associated trade-offs It should be emphasized that this paper attempts to outline the disadvantages that should be considered when renewable energy technologies are being implemented This is not to discourage their use but rather to encourage their safe and responsible use especially con-sidering that renewable energy technologies are likely to become our predominant source of energy as we transition over to cleaner alternatives in the near future

Review of green technologies in energy generationThe problems of pollution global warming and the dangers represented by nuclear energy production have reversed the worldrsquos energy reliance on fossil fuels towards the use of renewable energy resources as the alternative in power generation Alternative energy refers to energy sources that are naturally replenishable do not pollute the environment as much as fossil fuels or do not gen-erate waste materials that are harmful to people and the environment (12 13) These include biomass energy wind energy solar energy geothermal energy and hydroelec-tric energy sources A variety of methods including materi-als and techniques which are non-combustion based are used to convert these renewable resources into electricity as well as ensure energy efficiency Combined with the use of recycling alternative energy technologies are also referred to as clean or green technologies in light of their provid-ing a human benefit ie they generally use fewer resources and minimally impact the environment in comparison to other means with which they are economically competitive (14) However as will be shown in the following discussion despite all the benefits each green technology comes with its own unique set of challenges with regard to either the environment or human health or both

Solar energy

Solar energy is one of the best sources of renewable energy because it is free infinite and does not create pollution


Matatiele and Gulumian A cautionary approach in transitioning to ldquogreenrdquo energy technologiesemspthinspenspenspenspemsp3

However as will be shown below manufacture of the technology used to harness solar energy produces as by-products potent gases and a multitude of other harmful materials that pose significant environmental and occu-pational health risks (12 15 16) In addition the fact that as much as 80 of the initial metallurgical grade silicon is lost in the production of silicon wafers as well as the high temperatures required for the process makes it an extremely energy-intensive and expensive process that also produces large amounts of waste (17) For example the same toxic by-products as those found in semicon-ductor production (called e-waste) such as silicon tetra-chloride silica dust and greenhouse gases like sulphur hexafluoride are a product of solar panel production The following examples further illustrate this point

Silicon chips silica and silane gas

Production of silicon chips crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafers begins with the mining of silica found in the environment as sand or quartz (17) Metallurgical grade (polycrystalline or solar grade) silicon (silicon dioxide SiO2) is obtained by the smelting of silica to produce trichlorosilane gas a precursor to elemental silicon which is purified further by heating to obtain pure silicon (12 17) The by-product of this chemical process is condensed silica fume which though primarily amorphous contains a small proportion of crystalline silica (18 19) Exposure to crystalline silica is a matter of grave concern for human health The health effects of crystalline silica have been well characterized in occupational settings and they include many lung diseases such as silicosis emphysema chronic obstruc-tive pulmonary disease tuberculosis lung cancer and several autoimmune diseases (20 21) Silane gas on the other hand is extremely explosive and presents a poten-tial danger to workers and local communities (22 23)

Nanomaterials in solar collectors

Nanofluids have been shown to have enhanced heat trans-fer properties and thus have a great potential to improve solar collector efficiency Even though the technology is yet to overcome commercial application barriers solar collectors based on nanofluids are made from a variety of nanomaterials including graphene silver aluminium copper carbon nanotubes and carbon nanohorns (24ndash26) Scientists and researchers agree that nanotechnol-ogy offers enormous potential benefits to transform our lives however they are also concerned that nanomaterial

residues may present detrimental health risks to humans and to the environment Information is still lacking on the toxicity of many nanomaterials thus affecting sustain-ability of this technology As a result potential regula-tory environmental and health risk issues associated with nanomaterials still hold for nanofluids In addition the production of solar collectors causes direct emissions of metals (iron manganese molybdenum chromium etc) related to cutting and welding phases (26 27) Some of these heavy metals are carcinogenic mutagenic terato-genic and endocrine disruptors while others cause neuro-logical and behavioral changes

Solar photovoltaic (PV) panel end-of-life waste

It is estimated that 25000 tons of solar PV panel waste is expected by 2025 and this is expected to further increase to more than 1 million tons by 2035 (28) This will gener-ate a considerable amount of toxic waste since some solar panels currently on the market still contain toxic and envi-ronmentally dangerous chemicals (eg indium cadmium tellurium selenium) which may be released to the envi-ronment when the panels are damaged or disposed of (29 30) It has also been shown that additives can eventually diffuse out of polymer based solar domestic hot water systems (31) Improper disposal of solar energy systems at the end of their useful life therefore presents an environ-mental health and safety concern

Biofuels

There are several types of biofuel (eg solid biofuels biogas biodiesel vegetable oils algae-based biofuels bioalcohols and ethers etc) however the two most com-monly used biofuels are biodiesel and bioethanol which are derived mainly from vegetable oils seeds and lignocel-luloses Only biodiesel and bioethanol will be considered here Biodiesel can be used to substitute for diesel while bioethanol can be used in place of petrol Currently avail-able data indicates that environmental and human health risks associated with the use of biofuels and their spills cannot be ruled out Policy measures supporting biofuel production aim among other goals explicitly to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to significantly and positively affect global warming and the resultant climate change (32) On the contrary the practice of using nitro-gen fertilizers in the agricultural production of biofuels is associated with emissions of greenhouse gases particu-larly the mono-nitrogen oxide (NOx) gas and nitrous oxide



(N2O) which have a global warming potential around 300 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO2) (33 34) In addition scientific studies have revealed that in compari-son to fossil fuels different biofuels vary widely in their greenhouse gas balances depending on the methods used to produce the feedstock and process the fuel (35 36) As a result some crops generate more NOx gases than do fossil fuels In addition to being an essential precursor for the photochemical production of urban ozone NOx is also a respiratory irritant

Another environmental and human health risk associ-ated with the use and production of biofuels is particulate matter (PM) Though biodiesel use may result in reduced PM mass concentrations studies have shown that bio-diesel PM from exhaust emissions may be composed of smaller particles which when inhaled have the potential to penetrate deeper into the lung (37 38) Another study also reported that PM from biodiesel or its blend has a higher oxidative potential (39) and higher mutagenic potency than that of ultra-low sulphur diesel (40) both of which depend on the engine type engine operating condi-tions and exhaust after-treatment configurations A study in which rats were exposed to biodiesel particulate has also reported that there was an upregulation of inflam-matory cytokines chemokines and growth factors in the lungs of these rats The presence of lymphocytic infiltrate and impaired clearance with prolonged retention of bio-diesel particulate in macrophages was also observed in the lung tissue of the rats These adverse health effects are attributed to the fact that biodiesel fuel is mainly com-posed of unsaturated fatty acids which have the ability to readily oxidize Overall the chemical composition of biodiesel is more important than its physical properties in controlling exhaust particle emissions (41) It is therefore obvious that even low PM mass emissions from biodiesel might harbor a significant health-relevant toxic potential

The lsquogreennessrsquo of bioethanol for the environment arises from its potential to be carbon neutral on a lifecy-cle basis ie the CO2 emitted during its use is offset by the absorption from the atmosphere during its growth However when all elements are taken into considera-tion including the cost of changing the land use of an area transportation and the burning of the crop carbon emissions from burning bioethanol are still of concern (42) There are also concerns that production of bioetha-nol threatens world food security because a large amount of arable land required to grow crops for fuel production takes up land that could be used for growing food (43) In addition there is ecological damage when native vegeta-tion on land used to grow biofuel feedstock is cleared to make way This happens in two ways namely destruction

of local habitat and agricultural pollution from run-offs of fertilizers and other agrochemicals (44)

Wind energy

Wind energy employs turbine technology which due to it being new is constantly progressing creating new and ongoing challenges for workers during the production of turbines as well as while carrying out tasks such as instal-lations operation or maintenance Although wind energy is considered green and good for the environment several health hazards can be identified associated with a wind turbine life cycle ie from manufacturing transporta-tion installation operation and maintenance through to decommissioning and recycling

Nanofibres

Carbon nanotubes and polymer nanocomposites are used in the manufacturing of wind turbine blades as reinforce-ment material to improve the mechanical performance of the blades so that they are able to withstand bending compression tension and external loads during service (45) Consequently the use of engineered nanomaterials has definitely introduced new health hazards for workers in manufacturing maintenance decommissioning and recycling of wind turbines (46 47) The uncertainty due to lack of information adds more anxiety about the poten-tial negative impact of nanomaterials on the human body and on the environment when eventually these blades degrade and release the nanoparticles (48ndash50)

Rare earth elements

The key component of modern wind turbines is magnets made of rare earth minerals primarily neodymium and dysprosium (51) The mining and processing of these min-erals has been associated with adverse environmental and public health impacts on local communities (6 52) mainly due to the fact that rare earth elements are almost always found bound up in mineral deposits with the low-level radioactive element thorium (53) As a result there are unusually high rates of cancer osteoporosis and skin and respiratory diseases in local communities due to high radiation levels from the mines factories and dumping grounds associated with the rare earth industry (54 55) In particular young children living in areas with rare earth mining have been found to be the population most



susceptible to high exposure (55) Major occupational health issues are a result of poor adherence to set occu-pational safety and health standards and these relate mainly to lung liver bone brain and blood diseases skin disorders and reproductive health issues These problems for workers are because not only do rare earths create radioactive waste residue but also waste gas containing dust concentrate hydrofluoric acid sulphur dioxide sul-phuric acid and acidic wastewater These are well-known toxic and hazardous substances whose effects range from deep skin burns damage to the lungs and corneas of the eyes as well as systemic toxicity leading to cardiac arrest and death (54 55) Considering that manufacturing of wind turbines is a resource-intensive process requiring a tremendous amount of rare earth minerals exposure to harmful substances seems unavoidable in this process

End-of-life wind turbine waste

The booming wind energy industry has also created an accelerating waste problem resulting at different life cycle phases of a wind turbine namely manufacturing waste service waste and end-of-life waste as indicated in Figure 2 (56) Considering the complicated process to dismantle and transport aging massive turbines wind farm decommissioning has become a huge burden espe-cially for countries with many large wind farms Histori-cally waste composite components were disposed of in landfills or incinerated but currently this is not possible due to laws forbidding landfill disposal of composites in many countries (57 58) Consequently end-of-life waste has become a problem because due to its complexity com-posite material composing the bulk of wind turbine blades is very expensive to recycle (59)

Geothermal Energy

Generation of geothermal energy involves extraction of heat from geothermal fluids (gases steam and water) to create electricity Geothermal energy is abundant in highly active geothermal areas such as volcanoes earthquakes hot springs mud pools sinter terraces etc (60 61) Geo-thermal power has an important part to play in the energy systems of the world however in order to utilize it to its maximum potential one needs to understand about geothermal powerrsquos unique risks which are mostly asso-ciated with resources seismicity operation and mainte-nance (62ndash64) The process of capturing bedrock heat for geothermal power generation almost always is a nuisance

600

500

400

300

200

100

000China United states Europe Rest of the world

Manufacturing+service waste

Bla

de w

aste

Mt

End of life waste

Figure 2enspInventory of global wind turbine blade waste in 2034Estimates of cumulative global wind turbine blade waste in 2034 (56) Waste from the different life cycle phases of a wind turbine include manufacturing waste (process waste blades used for testing and faulty blades) service waste (from repairs and blade upgrading) and end-of-life waste (decommissioned blades)

to nearby communities because of the micro-earthquakes triggered by the aggressive fracturing required (61 65) Such significant environmental problems from geother-mal development are capable of a technical solution but this adds significantly to the cost of geothermal power Also even though emissions associated with generating electricity from geothermal technologies are negligible because no fuels are burnt several important health and environmental risks associated with geothermal technol-ogy can still be cited (66ndash70) Two main health and envi-ronmental concerns are air emissions and water pollution resulting from the release of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas and the disposal of some geothermal fluids which may contain low levels of toxic materials (71 72)

Air emissions

Geothermal fluids release into the atmosphere dissolved gases two of which are toxic namely carbon dioxide (CO2) and H2S (73 74) Both are denser than air can collect in pits depressions or confined spaces and are a recog-nized hazard for people working at geothermal stations or bore fields and can also be a problem in urban areas For example H2S often settles in low-lying areas where it can accumulate in concentrations high enough to cause poi-soning of livestock wildlife and human beings (75ndash77) Common symptoms of exposure to long-term low levels of H2S include headache skin complications respiratory and mucous membrane irritation respiratory soft tissue



damage and degeneration confusion impairment of verbal recall memory loss and prolonged reaction time These symptoms have been observed in H2S-exposed communities living in locations over a geothermal field (78ndash80) At high concentrations H2S is acutely toxic causing unconsciousness known as ldquoknockdownrdquo and can be lethal Though small there are also sulphur dioxide (SO2) and methane emissions from geothermal plants SO2 contributes to the formation of acid rain while methane is a highly potent global warming gas

Water pollution

Geothermal fluids contain elevated levels of arsenic lithium boron ammonia and minor quantities of other heavy metals especially antimony lead and mercury because of the underground contact between hot fluids and rocks (81) The diffusion of these toxic materials into groundwater and downstream crop fields constitutes a threat to aquatic life and the health of the local population (72 82 83) Arsenic is a potent carcinogen that can cause malignant skin lesions carcinoma and melanoma while chronic arsenic exposure can cause respiratory disease gastrointestinal disorder liver malfunction nervous system disorder haematological diseases like anaemia leucopoenia thrombocytopenia diabetes and severe car-diovascular malfunction Ingestion and dermal absorp-tion of antimony can cause symptoms like depression dizziness headaches vomiting kidney damage or liver damage while its inhalation in humans results in effects on the skin eyes and inflammation of the lungs Chronic bronchitis and chronic emphysema develop from long-term exposure to antimony in humans via inhalation (84) Other toxic elements and compounds associated with geo-fluids include silica fluoride mercury and the radioac-tive element radon which may lead to risks of acute or chronic toxicity (85 86)

Hydropower

Hydropower has been used for centuries by humans and has recently made a remarkable return to the global stage Some consider it an absolutely clean and lsquogreenrsquo source of energy that supports low-carbon development paths (87ndash89) Hydropowerrsquos green credentials come from these features water used to create hydroelectricity is not depleted but returned to its source of origin once hydropower plants are in place no waste by-products are produced in the generation of electricity and as long as

the water source does not dry up hydroelectric power can be generated indefinitely Also in times of high demand for power the dams constructed can shut their gates and conserve the water for use Small hydro plants where the civil engineering component (dam wall road construc-tion etc) is largely absent are the cleanest and greenest of hydropower Small hydro plants can serve communities in remote and mountainous regions or off-grid industrial applications and generate an upper limit of only 10 meg-awatts of electricity (90) As a result small hydropower plants improve the livelihood of the communities they serve while also having a relatively low environmental impact (91 92)

However the lsquogreennessrsquo of large hydropower plants is a highly controversial issue among decision makers engineers and ecologists (93 94) Hydroelectric projects worldwide are known to have resulted in considerable environmental economic and social damage (95ndash97) Generation of hydroelectric power is derived by captur-ing the energy in flowing water and often involves the construction of large dams on rivers This results in eco-system damage and loss of land including the need to relocate the people living where the dam is planned Also there are potential failure risks that can arise due to poor construction natural disasters or sabotage and can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infra-structure as indicated in Table 1 (98ndash100) Also hydro-power fares poorly with regard to curbing climate change due to some significant emissions of greenhouse gases that occur from reservoir power plants (101 102) The emission of methane and CO2 happens when vegetation in the dam starts rotting and decomposes These are plants and trees that were cut down to clear the area for construction of the reservoir Decaying plant material in flooded areas can also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions (103) Sediment is usually released from the dams to keep the reservoirs operational and this huge flux of sediment which is deposited downstream con-tains large amounts of heavy metals and polycyclic aro-matic hydrocarbons which are ecotoxically potent The release of these substances into the environment can result in contamination of both water and soil (104ndash106) Heavy metal poisoning is known in both aquatic and land animals including humans (107 108) Restrictions on fish consumption by public health authorities are as a result of potential mercury bioaccumulation in fish which undermine the health benefits of fish consump-tion (109 110) Hazardous effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are reported for all living organisms (111) and these include birth defects and cancers of the lung skin and stomach in humans (112)



Table 1enspSome international dam disasters that caused loss of life

Dam Dam type Country Height m Reservoir volume (106m3)

Date built Failure Deaths

Date Type

Vega de Tera CMB Spain 34 78 1957 1959 SF 144Malpasset CA France 66 22 1954 1959 FF 421Babii Yar Emb Ukraine 1961 OF 145Vaiont CA Italy 265 150 1960 1963 L 2600Baldwin Hills Emb USA 71 11 1951 1963 IE 5Frias Emb Argentina 15 02 1940 1970 OF 42+Banqiao Emb China 118 492 1953 1975 OF a

Teton Emb USA 93 308 1975 1976 IE 11Machhu Emb India 26 100 1972 1979 OF 2000Bagauda Emb Nigeria 20 07 1970 1988 OF 50Belci Emb Romania 18 13 1962 1991 OF 25Gouhou Emb China 71 3 1989 1993 IE 400Zeizoun Emb Syria 42 71 1996 2002 OF 20Camara RCC Brazil 50 27 2002 2004 5Shakidor Emb Pakistan 2003 2005 OF 135+Situ Gintung Emb Indonesia 16 2 2009 IE 100

Examples of some international dam disasters that caused loss of life (98) CA Concrete arch CMB Concrete and masonry buttress Emb embankment RCC roller compacted concrete IE Internal erosion FF foundation failure OF overtopping during flood SF structural failure on first filling L 270x106 m3 landslide into the reservoir caused overtopping of the dam by a wave 125 m high but remarkably the dam survived aIt has been reported that tens of thousands died in this disaster which involved the failure of a number of dams of which Banqiao was the largest

ConclusionsThe transition to green technologies has the potential to create a multitude of new jobs reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase both energy efficiency and the market share of renewable energy This is particularly important for developing countries as they are the most vulnerable to climate change and tend to rely heavily on the exploitation of natural resources for economic growth as opposed to the advanced economies (113 114) In addition jobs thus created could be green jobs which contribute to healthy safe innovative and sustainable workplaces so that workers remain healthy and work longer However oversight of health matters relating to renewable energy production is becoming evident and as a result the assessment of occupational hazards and risks that might be associated with new green technolo-gies and related jobs (see Table 2) is now becoming part of many discussions The emphasis is that the immense benefits of green technologies can be realized fully only if policymakers businesses and the occupational health and safety community could successfully deal with the associated trade-offs So the most important challenge is to identify the research needs and expected outcomes so as to be able to keep abreast of the emerging trends and risks in this field

With regard to prevention risk assessment remains the key to devising adequate prevention measures and adds an important contribution to advancing sustainabil-ity The context-specific type of risk assessment takes into account the specificity of the green technology considered the environment and the workers involved For example due to poor modes of transport in many developing coun-tries during the duration of construction projects workers temporarily live in close proximity to the construction site and thus may experience all the occupational safety and health issues associated with working in remote areas such as extreme weather conditions confined spaces various aspects of work organisation and exposure to dan-gerous substances Therefore bearing in mind issues such as these right at the development stage of the new tech-nology product or process prior systematic assessment of health and safety over the entire life cycle would ensure anticipation and readiness to handle potential associated risks All possible health hazards that may be encountered should be identified before commencement of construc-tion work However as Othman indicated there are many challenges encountered in developing countries under-taking big construction projects (one example of which is the implementation of green energy technologies) (115) With regard to health and safety these challenges are reinforced by poor working conditions ignoring health



Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

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gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

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Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

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Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

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ourc

ing

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hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

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tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

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emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

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n fro

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fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

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r agr

oche

mic

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ecur

ity th

reat

cro

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r fue

l tak

e up

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that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

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emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)



and safety considerations as a result of a poor (fragmented and inadequately enforced) framework of existing occupa-tional health and safety standards It is thus imperative if the negative effects described previously are to be avoided or at least minimized that developing countries work on improving and reinforcing their occupational health and safety standards along with adopting green energy tech-nologies Exposure assessment to determine the real risk to public health could prove to be very useful especially to resource-limited countries where it is imperative to evaluate and prioritize risks This includes identification of subpopu-lations that may be more susceptible to harm (eg children pregnant women elderly etc) caused by environmental stressors arising from activities engaging in implementation use or waste processing of the green technologies It is also worthwhile to focus on the appropriateness of transferring old knowledge in terms of safety and health to the new work environments while research needs should be assessed in case of new and emerging risks

Other strategies include the use of communication tools to communicate the health and environmental performance of technology and products in a reliable accurate and simplified way (116) This would require incorporation of environmental performance into the design of products as a mandatory requirement In addi-tion to certifying compliance with the established ecologi-cal criteria in the quality of a particular product this also provides information about the whole life cycle including generation of inputs production processes consumption and waste disposal Publicizing environmental informa-tion about products and their performance would encour-age environmentally sound innovation and promote a more eco-friendly product and service market (117 118) The challenge here is attaining a balance in the technical accuracy of the information provided without overwhelm-ing the consumer Additionally the environmental and health information is well-received by consumers if it is perceived to be coming from a trusted source and espe-cially a third-party and not the manufacturer (119)

Minimizing energy consumption and waste genera-tion in the implementation of green technology is also another strategy for achieving environmental sustainabil-ity A systematic way of identifying and evaluating suit-able operating strategies is essential so that contradictory objectives can be identified enabling engineers and oper-ators to find the best trade-offs which would give weight to sustainability over economic objectives (120) However others argue that it is not always economically possible to consider all these factors at the beginning without ham-pering implementation especially in the poor developing countries so much that such countries are encouraged

to walk the traditional path of ldquopollute first clean up afterwardsrdquo (121) However this perception has been rub-bished by examples indicating that it is possible for poor countries to start implementing environmentally sound practices while transitioning to green technologies in line with their technological development and overall eco-nomic growth (121)

While this review does not provide specific answers to handling negative effects associated with adopting various green technologies it argues that much benefit will come from focusing efforts not only on production but on the life cycle of each technology There are a number of key health and safety concerns surrounding the implementation of green technology and the creation of green jobs Identify-ing the hazards associated with these green design ele-ments assessing the risks to worker health and safety and either eliminating the hazards or minimizing the risks are essential to the design construction operation and main-tenance of green technologies There are fears that environ-mental concerns currently predominate and there is a high possibility that risks can be transferred to workers With this in mind many would agree that taking a preventable approach to occupational health and safety issues associ-ated with green technologies rather than a reactive one is a far more sustainable way of dealing with the wide range of risks that can stem from transitioning to these technologies It is vital that policymakers understand that while we must resolve the key issue of reliance on fossil fuels we should acknowledge the potential contribution of green technolo-gies to ill health and environmental pollution Thus an integrated and holistic policy response with regard to this issue is one which incorporates environmental and human health hazard assessment as well as assessment of the life-cycle of a new product technology or process at the early developmental stage prior to its introduction into work-places and the general environment

Acknowledgments We acknowledge the researchers who have contributed to the understanding of the potential contribution of green energy technologies and associated practices to ill health and environmental pollution and whose works have not been cited here due to space limi-tations We also acknowledge support from the National Health Laboratory Service (South Africa)

Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests

Authorsrsquo contributions PM conceived designed and pre-pared the manuscript MG did the overall supervision All authors read and approved the final manuscript



References

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2 Barbier E The policy challenges for green economy and sustain-able economic development In Natural resources forum 2011 Wiley Online Library 233ndash45

3 ILO (International Labour Organization) What is a green job In Geneva Switzerland International Labour Organization 2013 httpwwwiloorgglobaltopicsgreen-jobsnewsWCMS_220248lang--enindexhtm Accessed 18 Jun 2015

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6 Li X Chen Z Chen Z Zhang Y A human health risk assessment of rare earth elements in soil and vegetables from a min-ing area in Fujian Province Southeast China Chemosphere 201393(6)1240ndash6

7 Brand U Green economyndashthe next oxymoron No lessons learned from failures of implementing sustainable development GAIA 201221(1)28ndash32

8 Marello M Helwege A Solid waste management and social inclusion of waste pickers opportunities and challenges In Social-Inclusion-Working-Paper Global Economic Governance Initiative Paper 7 September 2014

9 Azadi H de Jong S Derudder B De Maeyer P Witlox F Bitter sweet how sustainable is bio-ethanol production in Brazil Renew Sust Energ Rev 201216(6)3599ndash603

10 Phillips T Brazilrsquos ethanol slaves 200000 migrant sugar cut-ters who prop up renewable energy boomrsquo The Guardian 2007 9 httpwwwtheguardiancomworld2007mar09brazilrenewableenergy Accessed 06 Jul 2015

11 Mulloy KB Sumner SA Rose C Conway GA Reynolds SJ et al Renewable energy and occupational health and safety research directions a white paper from the energy summit Denver Colorado April 11ndash13 2011 Am J Ind Med 201356(11)1359ndash70

12 Mulvaney D editor Green technology an A-to-Z guide USA SAGE publications 2011 10 doi httpdxdoiorg1041359781412975704

13 Dresselhaus M Thomas I alternative energy technologies Nature 2001414(6861)332ndash7

14 Clift R Clean technology ndash an introduction J Chem Technol Biotechnol 199562(4)321ndash6

15 McEvoy A Castantildeer L Markvart T Solar cells materials manu-facture and operation UK Academic Press 2012

16 Fthenakis V Kim HC Frischknecht R Raugei M Sinha P et al Life Cycle Inventories and Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaic Systems International Energy Agency (IEA) PVPS Task 12 Report T12-022011 In International Energy Agency (IEA) PVPS Task 12 Report T12 vol 4 2011 httpswwwbnlgovpvfilespdf226_Task12_LifeCycle_Inventoriespdf Accessed 23 Nov 2015

17 Xakalashe BS Tangstad M Silicon processing from quartz to crystalline silicon solar cells Chem Technol 2012 (April)32ndash7

18 Mikhail SA Turcotte A-M The determination of low levels of crystalline silica in slag and silica fume Thermochim Acta 1997292(1)111ndash4

19 Fletcher A Phillips D Barrow I Determination of crystalline silica in silica fume Talanta 199441(10)1663ndash8

20 Steenland K One agent many diseases exposure-response data and comparative risks of different outcomes following silica exposure Am J Ind Med 200548(1)16ndash23

21 Calvert GM Rice FL Boiano JM Sheehy JW Sanderson WT Occupational silica exposure and risk of various diseases an analysis using death certificates from 27 states of the United States Occ Environ Med 200360(2)122ndash9

22 Soo J-C Li S-R Chen J-R Chang C-P Ho Y-F et al Acid gas acid aerosol and chlorine emissions from trichlorosilane burning processes Aerosol Air Qual Res 201111(3)323ndash30

23 Ngai EY Photovoltaic specialty materials safety In Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC) Austin Convention Center Austin Texas 2012 38th IEEE 2012 IEEE 2012 000619ndash000624

24 Otanicar TP Phelan PE Prasher RS Rosengarten G Taylor RA Nanofluid-based direct absorption solar collector J Renew Sustain Ener 20102(3)033102

25 Krajnik P Pusavec F Rashid A Nanofluids properties appli-cations and sustainability aspects in materials processing technologies In Seliger G Khraisheh MMK Jawahir IS editors Advances in sustainable manufacturing Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2011107ndash13

26 Mlinar V Engineered nanomaterials for solar energy conversion Nanotechnology 201324(4)042001

27 Song T Lee S-T Sun B Prospects and challenges of organicgroup IV nanomaterial solar cells J Mater Chem 201222(10)4216ndash32

28 Ardente F Beccali G Cellura M Brano VL Life cycle assessment of a solar thermal collector sensitivity analysis energy and environmental balances Renew Energ 200530(2)109ndash30

29 Jordan DC Kurtz SR Photovoltaic degradation rates ndash an analyti-cal review Prog Photovolt Res Appl 201321(1)12ndash29

30 Mittelman G Davidson JH Mantell SC Su Y Prediction of poly-mer tube life for solar hot water systems a model of antioxidant loss Sol Energy 200882(5)452ndash61

31 Camisa W Mantell SC Davidson JH Singh G Prediction of deg-radation of polyolefins used in solar domestic hot water com-ponents In ASME 2010 4th International Conference on Energy Sustainability Phoenix Arizona USA 2010 301ndash8 American Society of Mechanical Engineers

32 Timilsina G Mevel S Biofuels and climate change mitigation In Timilsina GR Zilberman D editors The impacts of biofuels on the economy environment and poverty New York Springer 2014111ndash2233

33 Ogle SM Del Grosso SJ Adler PR Parton WJ Soil nitrous oxide emissions with crop production for biofuel implications for greenhouse gas mitigation In Joe L Outlaw David P Ernstes editors The Lifecycle Carbon Footprint of Biofuels Proceedings of a conference January 29 2008 in Miami Beach FL Oak Brook Illinois USA Farm Foundation 200811ndash8

34 Ravishankara A Daniel JS Portmann RW Nitrous oxide (N2O) the dominant ozone-depleting substance emitted in the 21st century Science 2009326(5949)123ndash5

35 Hoefnagels R Smeets E Faaij A Greenhouse gas footprints of different biofuel production systems Renew Sust Energ Rev 201014(7)1661ndash94



36 Boumlrjesson P Tufvesson LM Agricultural crop-based biofuels ndash resource efficiency and environmental performance including direct land use changes J Clean Prod 201119(2ndash3)108ndash20

37 Travis N Breathing easier The known impacts of biodiesel on air quality Biofuels 20123(3)285ndash91

38 de Oliveira BF Ignotti E Artaxo P do Nascimento Saldiva P Junger W et al Risk assessment of PM25 to child residents in Brazilian Amazon region with biofuel production Environ Health 201211(1)64

39 Cheung KL Ntziachristos L Tzamkiozis T Schauer JJ Samaras Z et al Emissions of particulate trace elements metals and organic species from gasoline diesel and biodiesel passenger vehicles and their relation to oxidative potential Aerosol Sci Technol 201044(7)500ndash13

40 Kisin ER Shi XC Keane MJ Bugarski AB Shvedova AA Muta-genicity of biodiesel or diesel exhaust particles and the effect of engine operating conditions J Environ Eng Ecol Sci 20132(1)3

41 Pourkhesalian AM Stevanovic S Rahman MM Faghihi EM Bot-tle SE et al Effect of atmospheric ageing on volatility and ROS of biodiesel exhaust nano-particles Atmos Chem Phys Discuss 201515(5)6481ndash508

42 Johnson E Goodbye to carbon neutral getting biomass foot-prints right Environ Impact Assess Rev 200929(3)165ndash8

43 HLPE Biofuels and food security A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Commit-tee on World Food Security Rome 2013

44 Pimentel D Ethanol fuels energy balance economics and environmental impacts are negative Nat Resour Res 200312(2)127ndash34

45 Elkurtehi BS Processing and characterization of fiberplastic composite for turbine blade Sci J Phys 2014 doi 107237sjp155

46 Zhang B Misak H Dhanasekaran P Kalla D Asmatulu R Environ-mental impacts of nanotechnology and its products In Proceed-ings of the 2011 Midwest Section Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education Lake Point Conference Center Arkansas Tech University Russellville Arkansas 20111ndash9

47 Ging J Tejerina-Anton R Ramakrishnan G Nielsen M Murphy K et al Development of a conceptual framework for evaluation of nanomaterials release from nanocomposites environmental and toxicological implications Sci Total Environ 2014473 9ndash19

48 Kingston C Zepp R Andrady A Boverhof D Fehir R et al Release characteristics of selected carbon nanotube polymer composites Carbon 20146833ndash57

49 Miseljic M Olsen SI Life-cycle assessment of engineered nano-materials a literature review of assessment status J Nanopart Res 201416(6)1ndash33

50 Iavicoli I Leso V Ricciardi W Hodson L Hoover M Opportuni-ties and challenges of nanotechnology in the green economy Environ Health 201413(1)78

51 Chakhmouradian AR Wall F Rare earth elements minerals mines magnets (and more) Elements 20128(5)333ndash40

52 Weber RJ Reisman DJ Rare Earth Elements A Review of Production Processing Recycling and Associated Environ-mental Issues In US EPA Region 2012 Available at httpsclu-inorgdownloadissuesminingweber-presentationpdf Accessed 07 Dec 2015

53 Ragheb M Tsoukalas L Global and USA thorium and rare earth elements resources In Proceedings of the 2nd thorium energy alliance conference the future thorium economy Google Cam-pus Mountain View California 20101ndash17

54 Zu-yi C Accumulation and toxicity of rare earth elements in brain and their potential effects on health Rural Eco-Environ 20054014

55 Rim KT Koo KH Park JS Toxicological evaluations of rare earths and their health impacts to workers a literature review Saf Health Work 20134(1)12ndash26

56 Liu P Barlow C An update for wind turbine blade waste inven-tory In EWEA (European Wind Energy Association) 2015 Porte de Versailles Pavillon 1 Paris France European Wind Energy Association 2015PO010

57 Jacob A Composites can be recycled Reinf Plast 201155 45ndash6

58 Cherrington R Goodship V Meredith J Wood BM Coles SR et al Producer responsibility defining the incentive for recy-cling composite wind turbine blades in Europe Energy Policy 20124713ndash21

59 Ortegon K Nies LF Sutherland JW Preparing for end of service life of wind turbines J Clean Prod 201339191ndash9

60 Hurter S Schellschmidt R Atlas of geothermal resources in Europe Geothermics 200332(4)779ndash87

61 Giardini D Geothermal quake risks must be faced Nature 2009462(7275)848ndash9

62 Matek B The manageable risks of conventional hydrothermal geothermal power systems a factbook on geothermal powerrsquos risks and methods to mitigate them In Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) 2014 httpgeo-energyorgreportsGeo-thermal20Risks_Publication_2_4_2014pdf Accessed 03 Dec 2015

63 Majer E Nelson J Robertson-Tait A Savy J Wong I Protocol for addressing induced seismicity associated with enhanced geothermal systems US Department of Energy 2012 Available at httpswww1eereenergygovgeothermalpdfsgeother-mal_seismicity_protocol_012012pdf Accessed 15 Nov 2015

64 Mena B Wiemer S Bachmann C Building robust models to forecast the induced seismicity related to geothermal reservoir enhancement Bull Seismol Soc Am 2013103(1)383ndash93

65 Douglas J Edwards B Convertito V Sharma N Tramelli A et al Predicting ground motion from induced earthquakes in geother-mal areas Bull Seismol Soc Am 2013103(3)1875ndash97

66 Bravi M Basosi R Environmental impact of electricity from selected geothermal power plants in Italy J Clean Prod 201466301ndash8

67 Huang S Liu J Geothermal energy stuck between a rock and a hot place Nature 2010463(7279)293

68 Stewart C Geothermal energy ndash Effects on the environment Te Ara ndash the Encyclopedia of New Zealand updated 13-Jul-12 [httpwwwTeAragovtnzengeothermal-energypage-5] Accessed 02 Dec 2015

69 Bayer P Rybach L Blum P Brauchler R Review on life cycle environmental effects of geothermal power generation Renew Sust Energ Rev 201326446ndash63

70 Olafsdottir S Gardarsson SM Impacts of meteorological factors on hydrogen sulfide concentration downwind of geothermal power plants Atmos Environ 201377185ndash92

71 Birkle P Merkel B Environmental impact by spill of geother-mal fluids at the geothermal field of Los Azufres Michoacaacuten Mexico Water Air Soil Poll 2000124(3-4)371ndash410

72 Aksoy N Şimşek C Gunduz O Groundwater contamination mechanism in a geothermal field a case study of Balcova Tur-key J Contam Hydrol 2009103(1)13ndash28



73 Loppi S Nascimbene J Monitoring H2S air pollution caused by the industrial exploitation of geothermal energy the pitfall of using lichens as bioindicators Environ Pollut 2010158(8)2635ndash9

74 Thorsteinsson T Hackenbruch J Sveinbjoumlrnsson E Jaacutehannsson T Statistical assessment and modeling of the effects of weather conditions on H2S plume dispersal from Icelandic geothermal power plants Geothermics 20134531ndash40

75 Kage S Ito S Kishida T Kudo K Ikeda N A fatal case of hydrogen sulfide poisoning in a geothermal power plant J Clin Forensic Med 19985(4)214ndash5

76 Daldal H Beder B Serin S Sungurtekin H Hydrogen sulfide toxicity in a thermal spring a fatal outcome Clin Toxicol 201048(7)755ndash6

77 Bassindale T Hosking M Deaths in Rotoruarsquos geothermal hot pools hydrogen sulphide poisoning Forensic Sci Int 2011207(1ndash3)e28ndash9

78 Bates MN Garrett N Shoemack P Investigation of health effects of hydrogen sulfide from a geothermal source Arch Environ Health 200257(5)405ndash11

79 Kristbjornsdottir A Rafnsson V Incidence of cancer among resi-dents of high temperature geothermal areas in Iceland a census based study 1981 to 2010 Environ Health 201211(1)73

80 Carlsen HK Zoeumlga H Valdimarsdoacutettir U Giacuteslason T Hrafnkels-son B Hydrogen sulfide and particle matter levels associated with increased dispensing of anti-asthma drugs in Icelandrsquos capital Environ Res 201211333ndash9

81 Clark C Harto C Sullivan J Wang M Water use in the develop-ment and operation of geothermal power plants In Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) 2010 Available at httpwww1eereenergygovgeothermalpdfsgeothermal_water_use_draftpdf Accessed 16 Nov 2015

82 Bundschuh J Maity JP Geothermal arsenic Occurrence mobil-ity and environmental implications Renew Sust Energ Rev 2015421214ndash22

83 Gunduz O Simsek C Hasozbek A Arsenic pollution in the groundwater of Simav Plain Turkey its impact on water quality and human health Water Air Soil Poll 2010 205(1ndash4)43ndash62

84 Sundar S Chakravarty J Antimony toxicity Int J Environ Res Public Health 20107(12)4267ndash77

85 Sharma S Geochemical interaction of fluorite and geofluid crip-ples life in parts of India Geochim Cosmochim Acta 2008(Suppl 72)851

86 DiPippo R Chapter 19 ndash environmental impact of geothermal power plants Geothermal power plants 2nd ed Oxford Butterworth-Heinemann 2008385ndash410

87 Barta B Van Dijk M Van Vuuren F Renewable energy hydro-power J S Afr Inst Civ Eng 201119(5)37ndash41

88 Harris M Hydroelectric power other renewables emphasized at G20 summit In Hydroworldcom Tulsa 2015 Available at httpwwwhydroworldcomarticles201510hydroelectric-power-other-renewables-emphasized-at-g20-summithtml Accessed 13 Oct 2015

89 Harris M National Hydropower Association joins other energy advocates to push renewables before COP21 In Hydroworld-com Tulsa Hydro Review 2015 Available at httpwwwhydroworldcomarticles201511national-hydropower-associ-ation-joins-other-energy-advocates-to-push-renewables-before-cop21html Accessed 13 Oct 2015

90 Klunne WJ Small and micro-hydro developments in Southern Africa In Energize 2012 Available at httpwwweecozawp-contentuploadslegacyenergize_201209_ST_01_Smallpdf Accessed 25 Nov 2015

91 Klunne W Sustainable implementation of microhydro to eradi-cate poverty in Africa In Proceedings of the World Energy Con-gress Conference Montreal Canada 2010 Available at httpwwwresearchgatenetpublication267384058 Accessed 25 Nov 2015

92 Klunne WJ Small hydropower in southern Africa-an overview of five countries in the region J Energy South Afr 201324(3)14ndash25

93 Carvalho GO Environmental resistance and the politics of energy development in the Brazilian Amazon J Env Dev 200615(3)245ndash68

94 Schwartzman S Alencar A Zarin H Santos Souza AP Social movements and large-scale tropical forest protection on the Amazon Frontier conservation from Chaos J Environ Dev 201019(3)274ndash99

95 Polimeni JM Iorgulescu RI Chandrasekara R Trans-border public health vulnerability and hydroelectric projects the case of Yali Falls Dam Ecol Econ 20149881ndash9

96 Premalatha M Tabassum A Abbasi T Abbasi SA A critical view on the eco-friendliness of small hydroelectric installations Sci Total Environ 2014481638ndash43

97 Hydro Review Dam safety and security In Hydro Review vol 34 Tulsa Hydroworldcom 2015 Available at httpwwwhydroworldcomarticleshrprintvolume-34issue-7depart-mentsdam-safety-and-securityhtml Accessed 30 Nov 2015

98 Charles JA Delivering benefits through evidence lessons from historical dam incidents In Project Report Bristol Environment Agency 2011 Available at httpswwwgovukgovernmentuploadssystemuploadsattachment_datafile290812scho0811buba-e-epdf Accessed 04 Dec 2015

99 Hogan CJ Hydroelectricity In Cleveland C editor Encyclope-dia of Earth 2014 Available at httpwwweoearthorgviewarticle153619 Accessed 03 December 2015

100 Imbrogno DF Analysis of dam failures and development of a dam safety evaluation program The Ohio State University 2014 Available at httpsetdohiolinkeduetdsend_fileaccession=osu1406168902ampdisposition=inline Accessed 30 Nov 2015

101 Li S Lu XX Greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs could double within 40 years In Science E-Letters 28 July 2011

102 Fearnside PM Greenhouse gas emissions from hydroelectric dams controversies provide a springboard for rethinking a supposedly lsquocleanrsquoenergy source An editorial comment Climatic Change 200466(1)1ndash8

103 Fearnside PM Carbon credit for hydroelectric dams as a source of greenhouse-gas emissions The example of Brazilrsquos Teles Pires Dam Mitig Adapt Strat Gl 201318(5)691ndash9

104 Bai J Cui B Xu X Ding Q Gao H Heavy metal contamination in riverine soils upstream and downstream of a hydroelectric dam on the Lancang River China Environ Eng Sci 200926(5) 941ndash6

105 Wang X Yang H Gong P Zhao X Wu G et al One century sedimentary records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons mer-cury and trace elements in the Qinghai Lake Tibetan Plateau Environ Pollut 2010158(10)3065ndash70

106 Zhao Q Liu S Deng L Dong S Wang C Longitudinal distribu-tion of heavy metals in sediments of a canyon reservoir in



Southwest China due to dam construction Environ Monit Assess 2013185(7)6101ndash10

107 Adal A Wiener SW Heavy metal toxicity httpemedicinemed-scapecomarticle814960-overview Accessed 30 Oct 2015

108 Inoue K Heavy metal toxicity J Clin Toxicol 2013s3007109 Larssen T Mercury in Chinese reservoirs Environ Pollut

2010158(1)24ndash5110 Schreier H Hsu H-H Amarasiriwardena C Coull B Schnaas L

et al Mercury and psychosocial stress exposure interact to pre-dict maternal diurnal cortisol during pregnancy Environ Health 201514(1)28

111 Eisler R Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon hazards to fish wildlife and invertebrates a synoptic review US Fish Wildlife Service Biological Report 198785(111)81

112 Choi H Harrison R Komulainen H Saborit JM Polycyclic aro-matic hydrocarbons In WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality Selected Pollutants Geneva World Health Organization 2010 6 Available at httpwwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK138709

113 Fankhauser S McDermott TK Understanding the adaptation deficit why are poor countries more vulnerable to climate events than rich countries Glob Environ Chang 2014279ndash18

114 Semenza J Ploubidis G George L Climate change and climate variability personal motivation for adaptation and mitigation Environ Health 201110(1)46

115 Othman E Ahmed A Challenges of mega construction projects in developing countries OTMCJ 20135(1)730ndash46

116 Ibaacutentildeez-Foreacutes V Bovea M A decision support tool for com-municating the environmental performance of products and organisations from the ceramic sector Clean Techn Environ Policy 201518123ndash38

117 Banegil T Chamorro A World trade and ecolabelling adverse implications and measures adopted ICE 2005824157

118 Urpelainen J Environmental regulation in the shadow of inter-national trade law University of Pittsburgh 2010 Available at httpsipecgspiapitteduPortals7PapersShadowUr-pelainenpdf Accessed 13 March 2015

119 Mudgal S Muehmel K Kong M Labouze E Gerstetter C et al Study on different options for communicating environmental information for products In Galatola M editor European Commission ndash DG Environment Final Report Paris BIO Intel-ligence Service 2012 Available at httpwwwecologiceusitesfilespublication2014different-options-for-communi-cation-environmental-information-for-products-2012_0pdf Accessed 12 August 2015

120 Toacuteth L Torgyik T Nagy L Abonyi J Multiobjective optimization for efficient energy utilization in batch biodiesel production Clean Techn Environ Policy 20151895ndash104

121 Bruneau J Echevarria C The poor are green too Int J Cooper Stud 200916(3)1ndash22



safety impacts with resultant dire health and environ-mental consequences (6 7) In addition it is often the case that a disproportionate percentage of jobs in the clean industry are staffed by workers with relatively little formal education which in most cases is associated with expo-sure to exploitation and abuse thereby augmenting their potential exposure to both health and safety hazards especially considering the wide range of risks (biological and chemical electrical fire and explosion physical and mechanical) associated with green technologies Other such disadvantaged subpopulations of workers include the usually marginalized waste-pickers (8) migrant labor-ers and often the essential unskilled workers in develop-ing countries where even if the job is obviously not green it may be more desirable for the relief of poverty (9 10)

The design and construction of green technologies continually results in a wide range of novel materials including nanomaterials being incorporated while the health risks related to these materials are not yet fully known or understood Therefore identifying the hazards associated with green technology designs assessing the risks to worker health and safety and either eliminating the hazards or minimizing the risks is essential to the sus-tainability of green technologies Some hazards associated with this growing industry include familiar health and safety issues for which standards on and information about already exist but the customization of materials for par-ticular applications could result in the creation of no such thing as a standard material making the transfer of old or setting new standards difficult Many developing countries are recognizing green technology as one of the key drivers of national economic growth and as such are currently

Gigawatts2008

History Projections

Hydroelectric

Wind

Other

GeothermalSolar

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

02005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Figure 1enspGlobal electric generating capacity by renewable sourceGlobal installed power generation capacity by renewable source Source US Energy Information Administration International Energy Outlook 2011 (4)

reorienting their policies to promote and develop green energy production It is absolutely essential that these emerging economies realize that new risks have appeared in the field of green technologies and that the costs of poor or non-existent occupational safety and health could be very high (11) As will be highlighted in this paper the immense benefits of green technologies can be realized only if policymakers businesses and the occupational health and safety community could successfully deal with the associated trade-offs It should be emphasized that this paper attempts to outline the disadvantages that should be considered when renewable energy technologies are being implemented This is not to discourage their use but rather to encourage their safe and responsible use especially con-sidering that renewable energy technologies are likely to become our predominant source of energy as we transition over to cleaner alternatives in the near future

Review of green technologies in energy generationThe problems of pollution global warming and the dangers represented by nuclear energy production have reversed the worldrsquos energy reliance on fossil fuels towards the use of renewable energy resources as the alternative in power generation Alternative energy refers to energy sources that are naturally replenishable do not pollute the environment as much as fossil fuels or do not gen-erate waste materials that are harmful to people and the environment (12 13) These include biomass energy wind energy solar energy geothermal energy and hydroelec-tric energy sources A variety of methods including materi-als and techniques which are non-combustion based are used to convert these renewable resources into electricity as well as ensure energy efficiency Combined with the use of recycling alternative energy technologies are also referred to as clean or green technologies in light of their provid-ing a human benefit ie they generally use fewer resources and minimally impact the environment in comparison to other means with which they are economically competitive (14) However as will be shown in the following discussion despite all the benefits each green technology comes with its own unique set of challenges with regard to either the environment or human health or both

Solar energy

Solar energy is one of the best sources of renewable energy because it is free infinite and does not create pollution











Biofuels








Wind energy


Nanofibres


Rare earth elements







Geothermal Energy


600

500

400

300

200

100



Bla

de w

aste

Mt

End of life waste



Air emissions





Water pollution


Hydropower









Date Type








Tabl

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mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References











































































































































Biofuels








Wind energy


Nanofibres


Rare earth elements







Geothermal Energy


600

500

400

300

200

100



Bla

de w

aste

Mt

End of life waste



Air emissions





Water pollution


Hydropower









Date Type








Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References







































































































































Wind energy


Nanofibres


Rare earth elements







Geothermal Energy


600

500

400

300

200

100



Bla

de w

aste

Mt

End of life waste



Air emissions





Water pollution


Hydropower









Date Type








Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References






































































































































Geothermal Energy


600

500

400

300

200

100



Bla

de w

aste

Mt

End of life waste



Air emissions





Water pollution


Hydropower









Date Type








Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References




































































































































Water pollution


Hydropower









Date Type








Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References






































































































































Date Type








Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References



































































































































Tabl

e 2

enspSum

mar

y of

hea

lth s

afet

y a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s of

conc

ern

amon

g va

rious

rene

wab

le e

nerg

y te

chno

logi

es

Rene

wab

le

ener

gy

tech

nolo

gy

Life

cycl

e st

age

Know

nsp

ecul

ated

haz

ards

Refe

renc

es

Sola

rPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash P

hoto

volta

ics

man

ufac

turin

g w

aste

ndash Si

lica

dust

inha

latio

n ndash

Sili

con

tetra

chlo

ride

ndash S

ilane

gas

ndash S

ulph

ur h

exaf

luor

ide

(12

17ndash

23)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

g

Sola

r PV

pane

ls a

nd o

ther

so

lar s

yste

ms

e-w

aste

ndash

Pol

luta

nts-

sili

con

silv

er c

oppe

r al

umin

ium

and

gla

ss ndash

nan

opar

ticle

s ndash

toxi

c che

mic

als

(eg

ind

ium

cad

miu

m t

ellu

rium

sel

eniu

m)

ndash h

eavy

met

als

(24ndash

31)

Win

dPr

oduc

tion

ndash R

aw m

ater

ial s

ourc

ing

ndash W

ind

turb

ine

man

ufac

ture

ndash Ra

diat

ion

was

te fr

om ra

re e

arth

ele

men

ts m

inin

gndash

Nano

part

icle

s(6

45ndash

55)

Deco

mm

issi

onin

gW

ind

turb

ine

was

te (c

ompo

site

mat

eria

l)(5

6ndash59

)Hy

drop

ower

Prod

uctio

n

Cons

truct

ion

of in

frast

ruct

ure

ndash Ec

osys

tem

s da

mag

e(9

5ndash10

0)

Use

En

ergy

pro

duct

ion

ndash Em

issi

ons

met

hane

car

bon

diox

ide(

CO2)

ndash Se

dim

ent r

elea

se h

eavy

met

als

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(1

01ndash1

06)

Geot

herm

al

ener

gyPr

oduc

tion

ndash

Frac

turin

g ndash

geo

ther

mal

flui

ds

ndash La

nd tr

emor

s an

d m

icro

-ear

thqu

akes

ndash Em

issi

ons

CO 2 a

nd h

ydro

gen

sulp

hide

ndash W

ater

pol

lutio

n w

ith to

xic c

hem

ical

s an

d he

avy

met

als

(eg

ant

imon

y le

ad m

ercu

ry e

tc)

(62ndash

70 7

3ndash82

72

83ndash

86)

Biof

uels

Prod

uctio

n

ndash D

efor

esta

tion

and

farm

ing

ndash B

iofu

el p

rodu

ctio

n

ndash Ec

olog

ical

dam

age

whe

n cl

earin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n on

land

use

d to

gro

w b

iofu

el fe

edst

ock

in 3

way

s emsp

ndash D

estru

ctio

n of

loca

l hab

itat

emsp ndash

Cre

atio

n of

carb

on d

ebt

emsp ndash

Agr

icul

tura

l pol

lutio

n fro

m ru

n-of

fs o

f fer

tiliz

ers

and

othe

r agr

oche

mic

als

ndash Fo

od s

ecur

ity th

reat

cro

ps fo

r fue

l tak

e up

land

that

coul

d be

use

d fo

r gro

win

g fo

od

ndash B

iodi

esel

pro

duct

ion

uses

som

e po

tent

ially

leth

al ch

emic

als

incl

udin

g m

etha

nol

caus

tic s

oda

and

conc

entra

ted

sulp

huric

aci

d

(32ndash

36)

Use

ndash Em

issi

ons

bur

ning

bio

fuel

s pr

oduc

es ca

rbon

dio

xide

par

ticul

ates

and

pol

ycyc

lic a

rom

atic

hyd

roca

rbon

s(3

7ndash40

42ndash

44)













References













































































































































References



































































































































References







































































































































































































































































































Date post:	05-Dec-2023
Category:	Documents
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A cautionary approach in transitioning to 'green' energy technologies and practices is required.pdf

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