A facies model for an Early Aptian carbonate platform (Zamaia, Spain)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A facies model for an Early Aptian carbonate platform(Zamaia, Spain)

Pedro Angel Fernandez-Mendiola • Jone Mendicoa •

Sergio Hernandez • Hugh G. Owen •

Joaquın Garcıa-Mondejar

Received: 15 February 2012 / Accepted: 19 June 2012

� Springer-Verlag 2012

Abstract The Cretaceous (Early Aptian, uppermost Bed-

oulian, Dufrenoyia furcata Zone) Zamaia Formation is a

carbonate unit, up to 224 m thick and 1.5 km wide, which

formed on a regional coastal sea bordering the continental

Iberian craton. A high-resolution, facies-based, stratigraphic

framework is presented using facies mapping and vertical-

log characterization. The depositional succession consists of

a shallow estuarine facies of the Ereza Fm overlain by

shallow-water rudist limestones (Zamaia Fm) building relief

over positive tectonic blocks and separated by an intraplat-

form depression. The margins of these shallow-water rudist

buildups record low-angle transitional slopes toward the

adjacent surrounding basins. Syn-depositional faulting is

responsible for differential subsidence and creation of highs

and lows, and local emplacement of limestone olistoliths and

slope breccias. Two main carbonate phases are separated by

an intervening siliciclastic-carbonate estuarine episode. The

platform carbonates are composed of repetitive swallowing-

upward cycles, commonly ending with a paleokarstic sur-

face. Depositional systems tracts within sequences are rec-

ognized on the basis of facies patterns and are interpreted

in terms of variations of relative sea level. Both Zamaia

carbonate platform phases were terminated by a relative

sea-level fall and karstification, immediately followed by a

relative sea-level rise. This study refines our understanding of

the paleogeography and sea-level history in the Early Cre-

taceous Aptian of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin. The detailed

information on biostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy provides

a foundation for regional to global correlations.

Keywords Early Aptian � Carbonate platforms �Basque-Cantabrian Basin � Stratigraphy � Facies analysis �Depositional sequences

Introduction

The Early Aptian marine sediments record, globally, is

characterized by turn-overs in marine floras and faunas

(Caron 1985; Coccioni et al. 1992; Erba 1994; Aguado et al.

1997; Mutterlose and Bockel 1998). These changes are

coeval with paleoceanographic events such as marine anoxia

(Schlanger and Jenkyns 1976; Arthur et al. 1990), drowning of

carbonate platforms (Schlager 1989), volcanic superplumes

and intense volcanic degassing with rapid release of methane

hydrates (Larson 1991), pelagic biocalcification crises (Erba

1994) and sea-level changes (Hallam 1992), all during a time

of greenhouse climate (Larson 1991). An accurate timing of

these complex events is needed to improve correlations

between them (Erba 1994; Bischoff and Mutterlose 1998).

Similarly an understanding of the characteristics of each

major carbonate platform developed in the Early Aptian is a

prerequisite for the reconstruction of the paleoceanographic

changes reported above (e.g., Skelton and Gili 2012).

The main aim of this investigation is to present a strati-

graphical-sedimentological analysis of a late Early Aptian

carbonate succession in the Zamaia Mountains of northern

Spain, in order to construct a sedimentary model of how

the platform carbonates developed and disappeared. The

P. A. Fernandez-Mendiola � J. Mendicoa (&) � S. Hernandez �J. Garcıa-Mondejar

Dpto. Estratigrafıa y Paleontologıa, Universidad del Paıs Vasco,

Apdo 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

P. A. Fernandez-Mendiola

e-mail: [email protected]

H. G. Owen

Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum,

London, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK

123

Facies

DOI 10.1007/s10347-012-0315-3

particular feature of this model is the presence of banks of

rudists growing in a coastal setting, surrounded by silici-

clastic sediment; this arrangement allows an evaluation of the

episodic growth and demise of the shallow-water platforms.

The Early Cretaceous Zamaia Fm, present to the south

of Bilbao in the Bizkaia province of northern Spain

(Fig. 1), is a W–E-trending rudist buildup with 200 m

average thickness. Paleogeographically, the Zamaia car-

bonates formed on the edge of a shallow-marine ramp

bordering the coastal area of the Iberian craton.

This rock-based study generating a stratigraphic model

will also help to refine our understanding of Aptian stra-

tigraphy. It will provide clues to an understanding of the

causes of the episodic pattern of carbonate platform growth

in low paleolatitudes punctuated by periods of crisis linked

with oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) (e.g., Dercourt et al.

1993, 2000; Philip et al. 1995; Skelton 2003a). These crises

involved changes in platform biota, especially rudists,

which are common dwellers of carbonate environments

throughout the Tethys Ocean (Masse and Philip 1981;

Masse 1989; Ross and Skelton 1993; Follmi et al. 1994;

Scott 1995; Weissert et al. 1998; Steuber and Loser 2000;

Skelton 2003b; Burla et al. 2008, among others).

Methodology

Fieldwork with facies mapping was undertaken and three

logs were measured to generate the model presented here.

Thin-section studies provided facies characterization.

Sequences and their boundaries and maximum flooding

surfaces were distinguished in the logged sections. Sequence

boundaries were interpreted at significant erosional surfaces

above shallowing-upward vertical successions. Maximum

flooding surfaces were placed within the deepest-water facies

within the sequences. In order to correlate sedimentary units

from different sections, the top of the limestones was used as

a datum for the cross section. High-resolution stratigraphic

analyses were used to interpret the tectono-sedimentary

evolution of the sequences deposited in adjacent structural

blocks with characteristic subsidence rates.

Previous work

The Aptian-Albian carbonates in the Basque-Cantabrian

Basin have traditionally been known as the Urgonian

Complex (Rat 1959). This is characterized by micritic

limestone with rudists, corals, and orbitolinids, and reaches

up to 7 km in thickness (Camara 1997). Rat (1959) was the

first author to give a brief description of the Zamaia

limestones near Bilbao, establishing their parallelism with

other limestones in the nearby area. These limestones

replace siliciclastic deposits of the Ereza Fm and change

laterally to a terrigenous facies towards the Cadagua River

(Fig. 2). Garcıa-Mondejar and Garcıa-Pascual (1982)

described in greater detail the limestone outcrops of the

Urgonian complex in the central area of the Basque-Cantabrian

Tertiary

Late Cretaceous

Aptian-AlbianJurassic &Early CretaceousKeuper (diapir)

Permian & Triassic

Main faults

Palaeozoic

BAY OF BISCAY

Fig. 1 Geological map with the location of the Zamaia Mountain (w) in the central part of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Northern Margin of

Iberia south of the Bay of Biscay)

Facies

123

Basin. They contributed further, describing the Zamaia

Mountain outcrop as the growth of two carbonate banks,

separated by a siliciclastic episode and with facies changes

to marlstones and siltstones towards the flanks. They also

studied other limestones in the nearby area (Ordaola, San

Roque, Santa Lucıa) and concluded that they belong to the

same episode dated as late Early Aptian. They proposed a

stratigraphic framework with diachronism towards the

margins of the carbonate banks. The following studies of

EVE (1990) established a geological map of the area

(1:25,000), which correlated all the Aptian carbonate banks

mentioned in the previous works.

More recently (Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009a) studied

three sections in the San Roque-Bolintxu area equivalent to

the Zamaia sections, with thicknesses ranging from 57 to

220 m. The San Roque-Penascal limestones were dated as

upper Bedoulian based on the presence of Orbitolina

(Mesorbitolina) parva (Douglass) and Iraqia simplex

(Henson). The base and top of this unit are diachronous.

Three growth stages of formation have been identified,

separated by two short interruptions that show karstification

and subsequent drowning, the final drowning being

widespread. Finally, sections of this age have been studied

recently in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin in the Aralar

Mountains (Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009b), where for the

first time in this basin the four classic ammonite Zones of

the Early Aptian (e.g., Hancock 1991) were identified.

Geological setting

Regional geological setting

The Cretaceous Iberian sub-plate underwent tectonic warp-

ing and deformation to form various types of sedimentary

basin. Today, the Iberian Craton is bordered to the north by a

convergent margin with the Eurasian Plate, forming the fold

and thrust belt of the Pyrenees. This craton periodically

provided siliciclastic sediments to the Basque-Cantabrian

shelf located on the northern border of Iberia. The shelf

started life as an intra-cratonic rift in the Triassic and

developed into a passive margin in the Cretaceous. This

culminated in the active tectonic phase in the Cenozoic

(Montadert et al. 1979; Le Pichon et al. 1971; Rat 1959).

Galdakao

Bilbao

Seberetxe

Pagasarri

San Roque

Arraiz

Ordaola

Peñas Blancas

Zamaia

Ganekogorta

Eretza

Llodio

Basauri

Borto Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Lower Aptian carbonate platform

Igneous dyke

Fault

Reverse fault

Anticline

Syncline

Bilbao Anticline

axis

Zaramillo

Arrigorriaga

Sodupe

Zamaia area location

Zeberio

Castillo y Elejabeitia

Igorre

Lemoa

N

10 km 2 3

Arnotegi

Villaro(Areatza)

Cadag

ua R

iver

Fig. 2 Aptian limestone outcrops to the south of Bilbao

Facies

123

The area studied here is located in the Zamaia Moun-

tains, near Bilbao (Bizkaia province, N Spain) (Fig. 1).

Geologically it belongs to the western end of the Pyrenean

mountain chain. Structurally, the Zamaia Formation stands

on the northern margin of the NW–SE-trending Bilbao

Anticline. The Zamaia outcrops are divided by the NW–

SE-trending Zaramillo and Borto faults in two blocks:

western and eastern (EVE 1990) (Fig. 2). Each block has a

distinctive facies development with differences in thick-

ness and stratigraphic development. The regional structure

was mainly affected by NW–SE-trending faults parallel to

the Bilbao and Villaro lineaments. The present-day struc-

ture was developed in response to interplate compressional

tectonics in the Bay of Biscay-Pyrenees region.

Regional paleogeography

The Early Cretaceous is marked by the rifting between the

Iberian and Eurasian plates. The Iberian sub-plate started to

separate from Eurasia and moved towards the SE. It

developed passive margins on the north, west and southeast

margins of the sub-plate. The northern margin of the Ibe-

rian sub-plate faced the opening Bay of Biscay seaway, a

branch between the Atlantic and Neo-Tethys oceans. This

branch lay several degrees north of the Equator in sub-

tropical paleolatitudes (30�N according to Gerdes et al.

2010) (Figs. 1, 3). Climate modeling of the Aptian indi-

cates that the region was influenced by winds and waves

from the north to southeast (Poulsen et al. 1999) (Fig. 3).

Early Cretaceous intra-shelf basins were created as a result

of tectonic movements and Triassic salt migration (e.g.,

Garcıa-Mondejar 1990). Rudist banks, such as those seen

in the Zamaia area, were deposited on the margins of these

intra-shelf basins in the Aptian, on a margin attached to a

Hercynian craton to the south (the Iberian Massif) (Garcıa-

Mondejar op. cit.).

During the Aptian, this platform was located on the

northern margin of the Tethys-Atlantic seaway (Fig. 4).

During this time, carbonate platforms developed in the

central Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Rat 1959). Tectonics

played a key role in controlling sedimentation on this

platform, leading to rapid lateral facies changes in response

to differential basement subsidence. A shallow-marine

facies (0–50 m deep) was deposited in these coastal set-

tings in the Zamaia area.

Stratigraphic framework

In the Zamaia area, a complete section of late Early Aptian

sediments is present with a maximum thickness of 224 m.

It consists predominantly of limestones with rudists alter-

nating with and passing laterally into marlstones, siltstones

and sandstones. These facies are time-equivalent to the

Galdames Formation (Garcıa-Mondejar and Garcıa-Pasc-

ual 1982), which overlies the sandstones of the Ereza

Formation and underlie the marly facies of the Bilbao

Formation (Fig. 5).

80ºN

60º

40º

20º

0º

140ºW 80º120º 60º100º 20º20º40º 0º 40ºE

African-ArabianPlate

Tethys Ocean

South America

Eurasia

North America

Early Cretaceous (Summer)

Basque-Cantabrian Basin

Fig. 3 Aptian wind pattern (Poulsen 1999) and location of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (w)

Facies

123

Ente Vasco de la Energıa (EVE 1995) divided the

Lower Cretaceous shelf succession into four formations:

Weald, Ereza, Galdames, and Bilbao. The Weald consists

of continental fluvial–lacustrine deposits spanning the

Berriasian to Barremian. The Ereza sandstones and marls

and the Galdames/Zamaia limestones span the Early

Aptian. The Ereza Fm is here divided into three mem-

bers: (1) a lower sandy Ganekogorta Mb. with scarce

ammonites, (2) a middle siltstone-black shale ammonite-

bearing Nocedal Mb, and (3) an upper sandy Gongeda

Mb. The Ganekogorta and Nocedal sandstones display

channels, cross-beds with bidirectional orientation, flaser

and lenticular bedding, symmetrical ripples and Skolithos

ichnofacies trace fossils, suggesting deposition in near-

shore environments influenced by wave and tidal

currents.

The Bilbao Formation, composed of marls with amm-

onites, spans the Late Aptian to Early Albian. In the lower

part of the Bilbao Fm, ammonites indicate the base of the

Late Aptian (martiniodes Zone). The Zamaia limestones

contain Palorbitolina lenticularis (Bluemenb.), Iraqia

simplex (Henson), Chofatella decipiens (Schlumberger,

1904) and Orbitolina (Mesorbitolina) parva (Douglass).

The ammonite species Cheloniceras (Cheloniceras) mey-

endorffi (D’Orbigny) has been found at the base of the

limestone coeval to the Zamaia Fm in Arrigorriaga (see

Fig. 2, for location). This indicates a late Early Aptian age

(upper Bedoulian), more precisely the upper part of the

D. furcata Zone.

Zamaia Formation stratigraphy

The outcrops of the carbonate buildups in the Zamaia

Mountain area are elongate towards the northwest, and are

cut by NW- and W-trending Alpine faults. The Zamaia Fm

is subdivided into the lower (MB-1), middle (MB-2) and

upper (MB-3) Zamaia members, based on facies and

geometries indicative of distinct depositional environments

(Figs. 6, 7, 8).

Lower member (MB-1)

With a thickness of 63–70 m, this member comprises a

dominant rudist-coral limestone facies in Zamaia west and

east, and grades to siltstones and sandstones in the Zamaia

Central A and B sections (Fig. 8).

Middle member (MB-2)

The middle member ranges from 14 to 30 m in thickness

and is mainly composed of siltstones, marlstones and

sandstones with subordinate limestones. In the west

Zamaia section, it consists of 14 m of marls and marly

limestones lacking shallow-water carbonate benthos and

containing sponge spicules. In the east Zamaia section, the

succession reaches 30 m and is made up of silty marls,

marly limestones and sandstones (at the top). Two intervals

of carbonate breccia occur at meters 73 and 80 (Fig. 8).

The lower one contains a large clast (8 9 2 m) of coral-

Basque-Cantabrian Basin

Fig. 4 Global paleoceanography during the Early Cretaceous (120 Ma) (Blakey 2004), showing the approximate location of the Basque-

Cantabrian Basin (w)

Facies

123

0 m

100

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Limestone

Marlstone

Sandstone

Siltstone

Shale

Regression

Transgression

UP

PE

R A

PT

IAN

LOW

ER

AP

TIA

NB

AR

RE

-M

IAN

Low

er B

edou

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Bilb

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Gan

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Mb.

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Mb.

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Mb.

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Age

For

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ions

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rs

Upper Mb. (Mb-3)

Middle Mb. (Mb-2)

Lower Mb. (Mb-1)

SB

SB

Har

denb

ol (

1998

)

Upp

er B

edou

lian

Gal

dam

es F

m.

Fig. 5 Synthetic cross section

of the Lower Aptian in the

central area of the Basque-

Cantabrian Basin. Hardenbol

(1998) transgressive–regressive

sequences have been defined

Facies

123

0 m 250 500 750

Rudist limestonesCarbonate platform

Mixed siliciclastic-carbonateMarly siltstones (sandstones)Shallow-water platform basin

Mixed siliciclastic-carbonateSiltstones, marls and sandstonesCoastal clastics

Gongeda Mb.Sandstones and marlstonesNearshore clastics

MarlstonesBasin

Sandstone beds

SC1

SC2

Sandstone ridge 1

Sandstone ridge 2

Borto fault

Zaramillo fault

Lower Member

Middle Member

Upper Member

Middle Member Upper

Member

Lower Member

Limestones of the Middle member

SC1

SC2

Road

Road

BArea showed in Fig. 7Zamaia East

section

Zamaia Central B section

Zamaia Central A section

Zamaia West section

A

Fig. 6 Areal photography (a) and geological map (b) of the Zamaia area

Facies

123

rudist limestone embedded in truncated underlying marls.

In the Zamaia central-A section, this middle member

consists of 20 m of dominant rudist-coral limestones with

minor marly limestones on top. Two paleokarstic surfaces

are located at meters 52 and 68.

Upper member (MB-3)

The upper member reveals a significant thickness variation

from 64 m in the west to 123 m in the east (Fig. 8). It is

formed by rudist-coral lime mudstones. It grades to silty

marls at various margins (Fig. 6b). Three separate rudist-

coral lithosomes are respectively distinguished in the west,

central and eastern sectors (Fig. 6b).

Facies analysis

Based on lithological characteristics, fossils, textures, and

structures, seven facies types were differentiated which

represent distinct depositional environments (Table 1;

Figs. 9, 10).

Three major types of rudist were recognized in the

Zamaia buildups. These are requieniid, polyconitid and

caprinid rudists. Requieniids are forms that occur attached

to the substrate and to other rudists or metazoans (Figs. 9c,

10f). They are the most abundant rudists in Zamaia and can

occur anywhere within the carbonate bank facies. Poly-

conitid rudists are elevated forms that make up a minor

component of the Zamaia limestones (Fig. 9e). They occur

commonly on the bank tops and in shallow lagoons,

forming densely packed beds and bioherms. They belong

to the newly defined species Polyconites hadriani

(P. W. Skelton Personal Communications; Skelton et al. 2010)

(Fig. 9e). Caprinid rudists are recumbent forms and occur

as a minor component among the requieniids (Fig. 9d).

The rudist facies on the Zamaia platforms formed banks

within accumulations of mud with skeletons lacking a rigid

framework structure. Exceptionally, there occur horizons

where the bioherms of rudist-coral-microbialite form

boundstones (Fig. 9f). The facies described below are

summarized in Table 1.

Facies type 1: lime mudstones with requieniid rudists

(shallow lagoon)

Description: Wackestones and floatstones occur throughout

the Zamaia buildup. They are massive to wavy layered

beds composed of skeletal peloidal grains with large

amounts of lime mud. They contain diverse assemblages of

benthic foraminifera. The carbonate succession is mostly

composed of lime mudstones with rudists (Fig. 9c–e, g).

Subordinate taxa within this facies include branching and

massive corals, gastropods, nerineids and echinoderms

(Fig. 10f).

At the base of the second carbonate unit (upper Member

MB-3) and in the upper part of the first carbonate unit

(lower Member MB-1) rudists form mound structures

(Fig. 9f), in contrast to the more tabular stratiform

appearance of strata in the rest of the succession.

Limestones with corals and rudists

Siltstones and sandstones

Marlstones

Limestone olistolith

Lower Member

Middle Member

Ereza Fm.

(Gongeda sandstones)Bilbao Fm.

Upper Member

Quaternary landslide

Ereza Fm.

Zamaia Fm.

Zaramillo Fault

Stratification lines in sandstones

Fault

Olistolith

Zamaia mine

0 m 50 150100

NS

Fig. 7 Lateral view of the eastern section of the Zamaia limestones

Facies

123

WE

0 m20406080100

0 m204060

1,2

m

5 m

2 m

0 m20406080100

120

140

160

180

200

220

0 m204080100

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C1

C2

C4

C1

C1

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C2

C2

C2Dee

peni

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(Par

t)

SB

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TS

T

HS

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Fig. 8 Correlation between the western, central, and eastern sections, with their respective sedimentary cycles

Facies

123

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Facies

123

Interpretation: These wackestone-packstone to float-

stone with dominant requieniid rudists were formed in a

shallow lagoonal environment in shallow photic water

depths (e.g., Masse and Philip 1981). The fine grain-size

indicates low-energy conditions.

Facies type 2: lime mudstones with corals (open-marine

lagoon)

Description: Coral floatstone occurs at the base and top of

the lower carbonate unit (lower Member MB-1) as a 5-m-

thick unit that has both platy and branching corals and some

massive head corals, in a wackestone-mudstone matrix

(Fig. 9h, j). The corals range from 3 to 50 cm in diameter.

Gastropods, echinoderms, bivalves and calcareous sponges

are also present as subordinate fossils (Fig. 10a, i).

Marly laminae are locally more abundant than in the

requieniid facies, which gives these limestones a slightly

wavy character. In the upper part of the first carbonate unit

(lower member (MB-1), massive coral-head assemblages

form carbonate mounds (Fig. 9h). Corals locally occur

independently of the rudists, otherwise both are found

together in the same biotope.

Interpretation: Coral lime mudstones usually form in

slightly deeper water than the rudist facies, in relatively

low-energy lagoonal settings or foreslopes flanking rudist

buildups (e.g., Masse 1992; Gili et al. 1995; Johnson and

Kaufman 2001; Scott 1990; Skelton and Gili 2012). The

coral facies formed along the flanks of rudist buildups but

in slightly deeper waters.

Facies type 3: orbitolinid-miliolid pack-grainstones

(shallow lagoon)

These packstones and grainstones occur in the middle part of

the upper carbonate Unit (MB-3) interbedded with requieniid

lime mudstones (Fig. 9g). The thickness of the miliolid-orbi-

tolinid facies varies from 0.5 m in the western section to 2 m in

the eastern one. They are composed of fine sand-sized, mod-

erately sorted, skeletal miliolid and orbitolinid grains with

variable amounts of mud (Fig. 10e). Fragments of rudists,

corals, gastropods and echinoderms are minor components.

P. lenticularis, I. simplex, O. (M.) parva and Ch. decipiens

indicate a latest Early Aptian age (Fig. 10d, e) (e.g., Masse

1995; Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009a, b; Skelton and Gili 2012).

Interpretation: Orbitolinid-miliolid grainstones formed

in a moderate to high energy environment in a platform

interior (Scott 1981; Husinec et al. 2000; Hartshorne 1989).

Facies type 4: marlstones (Intra-shelf basin)

Marlstones have been found in the Zamaia area, particu-

larly in the intermediate unit (MB-2) and in the lateral

facies transition between both limestone units (MB-1 and

MB-2). The exposures are rather scarce due to the vege-

tation cover in the area (Figs. 9b, n–p, 10h). These marl-

stones are silty, show some bioturbation and contain

benthic forams, rare ostreids, brachiopods, echinoderms

and bivalves.

Interpretation: This facies was deposited in an intra-

shelf basin adjacent to rudist buildups with fine-grained

terrigenous input (Fig. 9a).

Facies type 5: limestone breccia (slope)

This facies has been found only at two levels within the

intermediate marly unit of the eastern section (MB-2). It is

made up of large olistoliths up to 1.9 m high and 8 m long

of lime mudstone with requieniids and corals, within the

marlstones (Fig. 9p). The lower contact with the underly-

ing marlstone of both levels is a structured surface.

Interpretation: This facies was deposited on a carbonate

slope adjacent to a carbonate margin as a major debris-flow

deposit.

Facies type 6, 7: calcareous siltstones and sandstones

(estuarine basin)

Fine-grained siltstones and sandstones occur in the inter-

mediate mixed carbonate-siliciclastic unit of the Zamaia

Formation (MB-2) (Fig. 9a). These are generally quite

micaceous and contain ostreids (Figs. 9k, 10b). They show

cross-bedding and ripple-lamination (Fig. 9k), and are

commonly bioturbated. The measured directions of the

structures point to asymmetric bidirectional paleocurrents,

in which the westward current (N257�E) is dominant.

Locally, sandy limestones with fragments of corals, rudists

and echinoderms occur at the margins of the Zamaia upper

member, as lateral transitions of platform rudist limestones

(Figs. 9a, 10d, g).

Interpretation: These terrigenous facies were formed in

narrow seaways between carbonate banks. The seaways

were filled with land-derived sediments brought to the sea-

shore and transported by waves and tidal wave currents in

coastal areas.

In the geological record, there are various types of

mixed siliciclastic-carbonate cycles. Sea-level changes and

availability of terrigenous material are the major controls

(see Mount 1984; Doyle and Roberts 1988; Tucker 2003).

Mixed lithology cycles are more typical of icehouse peri-

ods. At these times of high-amplitude sea-level falls, ter-

rigenous debris is supplied in abundance to shelves and

basins, and with successive sea-level rises and flooding of

coastal plains, carbonates are extensively deposited

(Tucker 2003). In areas with locally active vertical tecto-

nism and tropical latitudes similar cycles can be formed

Facies

123

(Tucker op. cit.). Terrigenous sediments usually have a

detrimental effect on carbonate production, affecting the

carbonate-secreting organisms in several ways. Turbidity

by fine-clastic sediment reduces light penetration and

affects feeding mechanisms. Sudden influxes of mud can

bury organisms and an increase in nutrient levels accom-

panying terrigenous input can lead to the flourishing of

eutrophic communities at the expense of metazoan reefs

(e.g., Doyle and Roberts 1988; Tucker 2003; Flugel 2010).

In the Mahakam delta of Indonesia coral patch reefs are

C

E F

B

A

D

10 cm

Marsltone

Marly laminae

Middle Member limestone

Upper Member

Middle member sandstone

crest-2 (SC2)

Middle member sandstone

crest-1 (SC2)

Lower Member

Limestone Sandstone Marlstone-Siltstone

EW

Facies

123

able to grow surrounded by terrigenous mud (Wilson and

Lokier 2002). The reefs form in shallow-water (\10 m)

since light penetration is reduced by the turbidity from

terrigenous mud. Ancient reefs growing on fan deltas have

also been described in the Tertiary of Spain (Santisteban

and Taberner 1988; Braga et al. 1990).

Several oyster beds occur within both sandstone and

limestone facies (Figs. 9i, 10c). At the base of the western

section, they are found within the first limestone facies, just

above the Gongeda sandstones and siltstones. Another

oyster-rich level has been found in the transition from lime

mudstones with corals and rudists to sandstones of the

intermediate unit (MB-2). Finally, oyster beds have also

been found in some levels of this intermediate unit. The

oyster facies tend to occur associated with environments of

intermittent water turbidity. The mixed carbonate-terrige-

nous sedimentation, the bimodal paleocurrents and the

turbid water associated oysters likely suggest estuarine-

type environments (oysters blanket the estuary floors where

they use their foot secretions for attachment). Oysters tend

to flourish in the brackish waters of estuaries (Nichols et al.

1991; Hudson 1963; Pufahl and James 2006).

Facies type 8: paleokarst facies

Irregular, thin sandy beds occur within the Zamaia lower

member MB-1. In the eastern section, one horizon appears

near the bottom of the section and several other levels

occur with horizontal sandy laminae (2 cm) in the last few

meters of MB-1. In the western section several horizons

occur with both horizontal and vertical irregular cavities

filled with fine-grained sandstones and siltstones (Fig. 9l).

Several terrigenous-filled irregular surfaces occur very

close together and the fill of sand reaches up to 20 cm.

There is also a similar facies within limestones of the

middle member MB-2 (Fig. 9m).

At the top of Zamaia upper member limestone MB-3 in

the eastern section, there is an irregular topography with

topographic depressions, erosional surfaces up to 0.5 m

deep, filled with marlstone of the overlying unit; these are

interpreted as karstic dissolution surfaces (meter-scale dis-

solution holes and cavities) (Fig. 9n). Sandy horizontal and

vertical laminae have been found in the lime mudstones

down to 8 m. Intraclast breccias and irregular topography

are also found in the same horizon of the western section.

Sediment cyclicity

Cycles ranging in scale from 0.5 to 10 m defined by mar-

ine-flooding surfaces are widely recognized in the Zamaia

Fm outcrops, and can be referred to as parasequences as

defined by Van Wagoner et al. (1988) and redefined by

Spence and Tucker (2007).

Ten types of cycle are identified (Fig. 11; Table 2): S1

and S2, and C1 to C8 (Figs. 8, 9). S1 and S2 are domi-

nantly siliciclastic or mixed carbonate-siliciclastic and C1

to C8 are dominantly carbonate. All cycles but one exhibit

a shallowing-upward facies pattern; the C8-type cycle has a

deepening-upward trend.

S1 cycles are composed of two facies: a lower siltstone

succeeded by an upper sandy limestone with quartz sand

grains and a lime mud matrix with scattered ostreids. These

upward-increasing energy cycles are broadly regressive in

nature and are interpreted as shallowing upward, but they

did not aggrade into intertidal-supratidal facies. In this

sense, they are similar to the keep-up cycles of Soreghan

and Dickinson (1994). Two S1-type cycles (average

thickness 20 m) are recognized in the Zamaia Central

section (Fig. 8).

There is one S2 type cycle, 8 m thick, and this is

composed of siltstones passing up into coral limestones

with bedding-parallel quartz sand laminae. A paleokarstic

surface caps the unit. This cycle, occurring in the Zamaia

Central A section (Fig. 8), is regressive and shows upward

increasing energy and diversity of organisms.

C1 cycle type is the most common of all cycles (32

cycles, average thickness 10 m). It consists of benthic

foraminiferal wavy-bedded limestones with discontinuous

mm-thin marl laminae, and no rudists; this is succeeded

by rudist wackestones with requieniids. The cycles are

regressive and shallow up within the subtidal domain.

Similar shallowing-upward cycles are described in

Fig. 9 a Zamaia 1 and Zamaia 2 limestone units separated by an

intervening unit (poorly exposed) of siliciclastic sediments. b Shal-

lowing-upward cycle: marlstone overlain by coral limestone. Upper

Zamaia Member (eastern section, 125–135 m). c Rudist (requienid)

lime mudstone. Zamaia Lower Member (eastern section). d Caprinid-

requienid wackestone. e Polyconitid floatstone. Zamaia Upper

Member (eastern section, 209 m). f Requienid carbonate mounds, at

the base of Zamaia Upper Member. Limestone breccias are interca-

lated in the marlstone succession below (eastern section). g Orbitol-

inid-miliolid packstone-grainstone (wavy fabric) overlain by

requieniid wackestone. Upper Zamaia member (eastern section,

160 m). h Deepening-upwards unit on top of Zamaia 1, punctuated

by paleokarst (A. Rudist-coral limestone; B. Coral limestone;

C. Oyster beds). Top of Zamaia Lower Member. i Oyster facies.

Top of Zamaia Lower Member. j Coral limestone. Base of Zamaia

Upper Member (eastern section, 100 m). k Calcareous siltstone-

sandstone, with bimodal cross-bedding (A) and cross-lamination (B).

Zamaia Lower Member (central section, 23 m). l Paleokarst cavities

filled with quartz sandstone (bed 2.5 m thick). Top of Zamaia Lower

Member (western section, 58.5 m). m Sandstone filling dissolution

cavities, forming parallel laminae (bed 3 m thick). Zamaia Middle

Member (central section, 50 m). n Paleokarst (Pk) on top of the

Zamaia Upper Member limestones (eastern section, 223 m). o Marl-

stone (M) with debris bed (DB), composed of broken rudist and coral

debris. Zamaia Lower Member (eastern section, 64 m). p Outcrop

photo (A) and drawing (B) of the limestone olistolith, up to 8 m long,

within the Zamaia Middle Member marlstones (eastern section, 73 m)

b

Facies

123

Gomez-Perez et al. (1998). Requieniid rudist wackestones

indicate stable seafloor conditions, weak bottom currents,

and low sedimentation rates (Ross and Skelton 1993).

C2 cycles are the second most common cycle (12

cycles). Average cycle thickness is 4 m. It begins with coral

limestones with argillaceous laminae succeeded by rudist

wackestones (requieniid dominated), ending with a paleo-

karstic surface, locally filled with sandstones and siltstones.

These cycles are regressive, building up to sea-level, and

culminate in subaerial exposure. However, they do not

record the final phase of high-energy waters above wave-

base, since sediments of the shoreface are not preserved.

G H

K.a K.b

JI

Bedding planeOrbitolinid-miliolid

packstone

Requieniid wackestone

B

C

A

5 cm

Fig. 9 continued

Facies

123

Cycle C3 is a variation of cycles C1 and C2, with a basal

marlstone facies succeeded by a coral wackestone with

argillaceous laminae and finally requieniid rudist wackestone.

Cycle 4 is a variation of cycles S1 and C2. It starts with

a marlstone basal member followed by rudist requieniid

limestones with paleokarst at the top. Sandstone-filled

pipes and bedding-plane parallel sandstone laminae are

present.

Cycle 5 is a variation of cycles C3 and S1, with a basal

marlstone unit succeeded by a calcareous sandstone facies,

overlain in turn by coral limestones with wavy argillaceous

laminae.

Limestone olistolith

Dark marlWavy limestone

Marl

2 m

Coral

Onlapping marls Minor limestone breccias

50 cm

M

P.bP.a

L

N O

Sandstone fill

M

DB

M

Pk cavity filling

Olistolith

Fig. 9 continued

Facies

123

All three cycles C3, C4, and C5 suggest shallow-

ing up and cycle C4 culminates with subaerial

exposure.

Cycle C6 starts with packstone of miliolids, orbitolinids,

brachiopods and branching corals and is succeeded by

requieniid rudist and coral wackestone. This vertical

3 mm 3 mm

3 mm 3 mm

M

O

O

O

3 mm

A B C

D E F

C

C

Oy

3 mm

Oy

BrO

O

Fr

Bra

E

Fig. 10 a Coral (C) packstone. Zamaia Middle Member (eastern

section). b Chaetetid pack-grainstone with broken rudist shells.

Zamaia Upper Member (western section). c Oyster (Oy) sandy pack-

grainstone. Zamaia Lower Member (western section). d Sandy pack-

grainstone with bryozoans (Br) and orbitolinids (o). Zamaia Middle

Member (eastern section). e Orbitolinid (O)–miliolid (M) packstone.

Zamaia Upper Member (eastern section, 160 m). f Rudist packstone

with abundant angular shell fragments (Fr), brachiopod (Bra) and

echinoid spine (E). Zamia Lower Member (eastern section, 62.7 m).

g Calcareous sandstone. Top of Zamaia Upper Member (eastern

section, 223 m). h Marlstone. Bilbao Fm. i Coral lime mudstone (Cm)

with calcareous siltstone (Csi), karstic fills and bryozoans (Br).

Zamaia Upper Member (eastern section, 213 m). j Rudist-coral

wackestone breccia (lithoclast, Li) in a sandy pack-grainstone matrix

with bryozoans and oysters (Oy). Top of Zamaia Lower Member

(eastern section)

Facies

123

evolution has been interpreted elsewhere as a shallowing-

upward trend (e.g., Gomez-Perez et al. 1998).

C7 starts with marlstone succeeded by limestone debris

with olistoliths, and C8 starts with karstified requieniid

wackestone overlain by marlstone. This is the only cycle

that suggests a deepening-upward trend and is recorded in

the middle and upper part of the Zamaia section as two

distinct deepening episodes (Fig. 8).

Although individual cycles may not be traceable from

section to section (Fig. 8), there is a suggestion that trends

in cycle thickness are broadly correlatable. Cycles tend to

become thicker from west to east (Fig. 8), suggesting a

3 mm 3 mm

3 mm 3 mm

G H

I J

Cm

Csi

Br

Li

Br

Br

Oy

Fig. 10 continued

Facies

123

higher rate of accommodation space created in this direc-

tion. This trend is also expressed by the greater number of

cycles that end with subaerial exposure in the western

Zamaia, interpreted as an area of relatively lower subsidence.

Shallowing-upward cycles are the basic building block

of the Zamaia Formation, followed by a flooding surface

indicative of the beginning of the next parasequence

(Fig. 8). The lowermost part of each cycle has marlstone,

argillaceous limestone, wavy limestone, siltstone or coral

limestone with marly laminae. The corresponding upper

parts are more pure carbonate, encompassing wackestone

with rudists. This upper part of the cycle is locally (cycles

C2 and C4) capped by a subaerial exposure karstic surface.

The vertical evolution suggests decreasing influence of

terrigenous mud and silt. Each cycle represents deposition

in progressively shallower water as sediments build up to

sea-surface level.

Stratigraphic sequences on platforms where carbonates

have been deposited in progressively shallower water are

common. These sequences develop where the rate of car-

bonate deposition exceeds the rate at which the receiving

basin sinks, so that the sediment surface repeatedly rises

towards the water surface (James 1979; Wilson 1975;

Anderson and Goodwin 1980). The accumulation of sets of

shallowing-upward cycles requires repeated local trans-

gressions. The cause of the transgressions may be tectonic

activity or eustatic sea-level changes resulting from glaci-

ation or autogenic processes such as tidal-flat progradation

or tidal-island migration (see recent reviews in Bosence

et al. 2009 and Tucker and Garland 2010).

Cyclic sedimentation in the Zamaia Formation was most

likely affected by vertical tectonic movements during

deposition (or intermittent subsidence), in relation with the

North Iberian rifted continental margin. There is much

evidence that tectonic movements modified cyclic signa-

tures, and that differential subsidence on fault blocks gave

rise to condensed sequences; tectonism clearly influenced

Aptian platform development (Garcıa-Mondejar 1990).

Rudist limestone (wackestone) Coral limestone (wackestone) with marly laminae

Rudist limestone (wackestone)

Wavy limestone with thin millimetric marl laminae (wackestone)

Karst surface (quartz sand)C1 C 2

Rudist limestone (wackestone)

Marlstone

Rudist limestone (wackestone) with sandy laminae at top(locally rare corals)

Karst surface

Coral limestones (wackestone) with marly laminaeMarl

C3 C 4

C5 C 6

C7 C 8

Coral limestone (wackestone) with marly laminae

Calcareous sandstone

Marlstone

Rudist and coral limestone (wackestone) Packstone: miliolids, orbitolinids, gastropods, branching corals

Marlstone

Limestone olistolithMarlstone

Karstified limestone

Siltstone

Sandy (quartz) limestone with ostreids

Siltstone

Coral limestone (wackestone) with sandy laminae

S2S1

Karst surface

2 m

2 m

2 m

2 m

2 m 2

m

2 m 2 m

2 m

2 m

Fig. 11 Small-scale cycle-types recognized in the Aptian of the Zamaia sections

Facies

123

Stratigraphic model

Field mapping and careful stratigraphic correlation of

sections presented in Figs. 6 and 8 provide the basis for the

depositional model of Fig. 12. In this model local sequence

boundaries are identified by evidence of exposure or

unconformity development. Maximum flooding surfaces

were identified by the abrupt onset of a fine-grained, low-

energy, deeper-water marly facies. Syn-sedimentary

topography on the Zamaia platform resulted in a differen-

tiation of facies, with elevated rudist biotopes and marginal

gentle slopes into adjacent basins.

The sequence stratigraphic analysis provided a way to

reconstruct the evolution of the Zamaia platform. Two

main sequences (the lower one incomplete) have been

deduced (Fig. 8). Several drastic vertical and lateral facies

changes represent rapid lateral shifts in depositional

environments.

The Zamaia lower member MB-1 has limestones capped

by a significant paleokarstic surface, which marks the

temporary demise of the initial phase of carbonate platform

growth in the upper part of the Dufrenoyia furcata Zone

(Cheloniceras meyendorffi Subzone). The limestones of this

member constitute the upper part of Sequence A (Fig. 8)

and are interpreted as highstand deposits. The lower part of

this sequence, encompassing the Gongeda sandstones, is not

the object of the present study, but preliminary data point to

a transgressive systems tract below the Gongeda sand-

stones, based on the occurrence of ammonite layers related

to marine flooding episodes. The Zamaia lower Member

developed in two separate locations (Figs. 13, 14) and

contracted in area as the buildups grew vertically.

The Zamaia middle member (MB-2) represents a

renewed episode of siliciclastic input to the basin linked to a

general deepening phase. MB-2 is subdivided into two dis-

tinct packages. Package-1 forms a wedge-shaped body

onlapping a slightly inclined surface, and consists of marl-

marly limestone, sandy limestone and debris-flow deposits

with limestone olistoliths, interpreted as the lowstand sys-

tems tract of the Zamaia Sequence B (Figs. 8, 12) (lowstand

Table 2 Facies cycle types and interpretation

Cycle Type Average

thickness

(m)

No

cycles

Facies association Vertical tendency Interpretation

Lower Upper

S1 Mixed

carbonate-

siliciclastic

20 2 Siltstone Sandy limestone Shallowing without

subaerial exposure

Regressive

S2 Mixed

carbonate-

siliciclastic

8 1 Siltstone Coral limestone

(quartz sand laminae)

Shallowing ending with

karstification

Regressive

C1 Carbonate-

dominated

10 32 Wavy-bedded

limestone (mm

marl laminae)

Rudist wackestone Shallowing without

subaerial exposure

Regressive

C2 Carbonate-

dominated

4 12 Coral limestone

(mm marl

laminae)

Rudist wackestone Shallowing ending with

karstification

Regressive

C3 Carbonate-

dominated

20 2 Marlstone Coral

wackestone

(mm marl

laminae)

Rudist wackestone Shallowing without

subaerial exposure

Regressive

C4 Carbonate-

dominated

5.5 2 Marlstone Rudist wackestone

(paleokarst with quartz sand

filling)

Shallowing ending with

karstification

Regressive

C5 Carbonate-

dominated

24 2 Marlstone Calcareous

sandstone

Coral limestone

(argillaceous

laminae)

Shallowing without

subaerial exposure

Regressive

C6 Carbonate-

dominated

3 1 Miliolid-

orbitolinid

packstone

Rudist-coral wackestone Shallowing without

subaerial exposure

Regressive

C7 Carbonate-

dominated

6 1 Marlstone Limestone olistolith (rudist-

coral wackestone)

Shallowing from

intraplatform basin to

foreslope

Regressive

C8 Carbonate-

dominated

6 2 Rudist wackestone

topped by

paleokarst

Marlstone Deepening after

karstification

Transgressive

Facies

123

1500

1000

500

100

0 m

0 m50100

150

200

WE

Bor

to F

ault

Zar

amill

o Fa

ult

ADEGNOGREBMEMREBMEM REWOLREBMEM REPPU ELDDIM

REBMEM

Dat

um

OABLIB.mF

.mF AIAMAZUNITS

AGE

SYSTEMTRACTS

atacruf ( enoZ iffrodneyem )enozbuS atacruf).p.p( enoZ

ETALNAITPA NAITPA YLRAE

TST SB TSH TST SB TSH

AZERE.mF

TSL

Rud

ist m

icrit

ic li

mes

tone

Car

bona

te m

ound

s

Pal

aeok

arst

Clin

ofor

ms

Mar

lsto

nes

Cal

care

ous

silts

tone

Cal

care

ous

sand

ston

e

Cor

al li

mes

tone

San

dy li

mes

tone

Orb

itolin

id-m

iliol

id c

alca

reni

te

Lim

esto

ne b

recc

iaO

yste

r be

ds

Mixedsiliciclastic-carbonate

facies association

Mis

sing

out

crop

Mis

sing

ou

tcro

p

Fig. 12 Diagram showing the

correlation of the three studied

sections (west, central, and east)

and their spatial and temporal

distribution

Facies

123

W E

1rst S

tage

2nd S

tage

3rd5

egatS

th S

tage

6th S

tage

7th8

egatS

th9

egatS

th01

egatS

th S

tage

Micritic limestone Calcareous siltstone

Calcareous sandstoneMarlstone Limestone breccia

Carbonate MoundPaleokarst

Oyster Beds

4th S

tage

Widespread estuarine stageTop Ereza Fm.(Lower Aptian - Upper Bedoulian)

Early carbonate platform development stageTwo carbonate banks with narrow intervening seaways in the Borto-Zaramillo fault-line zones.(Lower Aptian - furcata)

Two domain carbonate platform growth stageEastward tilting: increasing subsidence towards the east.Progressive narrowing-upwards of platforms and interve-ning estuarine facies in central and marginal seaways.Multiple karst surfaces at successive horizons, filled with estuarine sandstones (more abundant in W-platform)

Platform drowning stageEarliest Late Aptian widespread drowning in the area.

Karstification stageEnd of Zamaia 1 limestones due to subaereal exposure.

Limestone breccia stageIncreasing eastward tilting and deposition of olistoliths on the newly formed eastern slope.

Isolated platform stageMarginal carbonate central platform growth.Continuing eastward tilting and dominant marlstone and limestone deposition.

Carbonate mound stageWidespread carbonate platform development, except in the Cadagua and Borto seaways.Eastward tilting continues.

Carbonate platform and intra-platform trough stageNew intra-platform trough development in the eastern side. Thicker limestone sequences towards the East, related to maintained tilting.

Platform karstification stageEnd of carbonate platform development in the Zamaia area.

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Borto Fault

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Cadagua

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Zaramillo Fault

Terrigenous seaway

Fig. 13 Diagram showing the main stages in the development of the three Zamaia Members, as well as the final part of the Ereza Fm (Gongeda

Fm), and the initial part of the Bilbao Fm marlstone, just above the Zamaia Fm

Facies

123

wedge sensu Van Wagoner et al. (1988), or forced regres-

sive wedge sensu Hunt and Tucker 1992; Catuneanu et al.

2009, 2011). Package-2 consists of marl and siltstone-

sandstone (20 m thick) interpreted as the transgressive sys-

tems tracts of Sequence B (Fig. 8). An isolated carbonate

platform developed in the central area within this tract.

The Zamaia upper member (MB-3) represents the suc-

ceeding highstand systems tract of sequence B (Fig. 8), in

turn capped by an erosional unconformity interpreted as a

sequence boundary (SB-2). This boundary reflects subaerial

exposure and paleokarst development causing the final

demise of the Lower Aptian carbonate platform. The

Zamaia upper member (Fig. 12 MB-3 stage) developed in

three separate areas forming three different banks. Each of

these banks displays a narrowing-upward trend with a

progressive restriction in the area of the buildups. The

thicker limestones towards the east are a reflection of syn-

sedimentary differential subsidence (Fig. 12).

The depositional history of the Zamaia buildups is

summarized in Fig. 13. In stage 1, Early Aptian (Upper

N

E

S

W

Main palaeocurrent direction

Requienid

Rudist limestone:Carbonate banks

Mixed siliciclastic-carbonate:Estuarine

Siltstones, sandstonesand marlstones

Slope

Olistolith

Basin

Mixed siliciclastic-carbonate:Estuarine

Terrigenous passageway

Eastward Tilting

Zaramillo Fault

Borto Fault

Eastward Tilting

Terrigenous passageways

Basin

Zaramillo Fault

Borto Fault

A Lower Member formation stage

B Middle Member formation stage

C Upper Member formation stage

Fig. 14 3-D reconstruction for the three main stages of the Zamaia platform. Each stage corresponds to the formation of one of the members:

A. Lower Member; B. Middle Member; C. Upper Member

Facies

123

Bedoulian, probably lower furcata Zone), terrigenous

sedimentation was dominant in a coastal area subject to

wave and tidal influence in a large estuarine embayment

(Stage 1, Fig. 13).

Following a marine transgression, carbonate platform

sedimentation ensued. Two rudist carbonate banks devel-

oped (Zaramillo and Cadagua) with a narrow sea-way

between them marked by further terrigenous sedimentation

(the Borto passage (Stage 2, Fig. 13).

The carbonate banks continued to grow cyclically (Stage

3, Fig. 13). The western bank was subjected to several

phases of subaerial exposure. As a consequence, carbonate

production stopped abruptly until a new transgression

allowed it to start up again and reach sea-level, producing a

shallowing-upward facies trend. The eastern carbonate bank

developed fewer paleokarstic surfaces and this is interpreted

as a result of a more continuous pattern of subsidence. This

is in accordance with the upward narrowing and areal

restriction of the eastern carbonate bank (Stage 3, Fig. 13).

In stage 4, the Zamaia limestones of the lower member

stopped growing as a consequence of subaerial exposure

and both eastern and western areas were karstified.

A sudden pulse of tilting towards the east affected the

area, so that the western part remained exposed whereas

the eastern part flooded. Terrigenous sandy sediments filled

the karstic cavities on the elevated block and the interbank

eastern areas, and limestone debris with olistoliths slumped

down the low-angle slope just created (Stage 5, Fig. 13).

A transgressive phase with marl deposition then invaded

the whole area (Stage 6, Fig. 13). In the central area only,

an isolated platform developed in a slightly less subsident

area, probably linked to early movement on the Borto fault.

The partial cessation of terrigenous sedimentation per-

mitted the commencement of the second widespread car-

bonate phase (Zamaia upper Member), except in the

central, perhaps more tectonically subsiding zone of Borto.

Rudist carbonate mound development is widespread sug-

gesting that the former tilted topography had been com-

pensated by sedimentation (Stage 7, Fig. 13).

The two carbonate banks continued to grow upward,

while narrowing in area. The eastern bank is subdivided in

two sub-banks separated by a narrow passageway of ter-

rigenous sediment. The eastern bank grew thicker than its

western counterpart, suggesting that subsidence was sig-

nificantly stronger in the eastern block (Stage 8, Fig. 13).

At the top of the Early Aptian, a major phase of kars-

tification ended carbonate platform development in the

Zamaia area (Stage 9, Fig. 13). A subsequent relative sea-

level rise resulted in widespread flooding of this Early

Aptian carbonate platform at the beginning of the Late

Aptian (Stage 10, Fig. 13). Therefore there is not much of a

time gap, as uppermost furcata Zone ammonites are suc-

ceeded by martinioides Zone ammonites.

Syn-depositional tectonic activity

The relatively uniform thickness of the lower part of the

Zamaia Formation across the region suggests approxi-

mately constant subsidence rates. Thereafter, the thickness

of the sequences and their facies distribution suggest syn-

depositional tectonic activity. As a result of this, the area to

the east of the Borto alignment underwent more extensive

down-warping than the western area. The intervening

Borto fault is the boundary between these two blocks

(Figs. 6, 12). In addition, the overall wedge-shaped

geometry of the depositional sequences, thinning from east

to west in Fig. 12, points to early movement on the Zara-

millo fault. Similar examples of lithosome thinning away

from tectonic alignments and depositional facies changes

across faults are reported in the Aptian of the Basque-

Cantabrian Basin (e.g., Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009b), in

the Albian of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (e.g., Garcıa-

Mondejar and Fernandez-Mendiola 1993) and elsewhere

(e.g., Al-Ghamdi and Read 2010; Burchette 1988; Wil-

liams et al. 2011; Dorobek 1995, 2008; Chen et al. 2001;

Ruiz-Ortiz et al. 2004).

Paleoclimate and eustasy

The late Early Aptian was a period characterized by warm

climates and there is a record of latest Bedoulian thermal

instability, with several phases of cooling as in the Duf-

renoyia furcata ammonite Zone (Kuhnt et al. 1998;

Peropadre et al. 2011; Skelton and Gili 2012). The absence

of ooids and evaporites in the carbonate-dominated Zamaia

Fm, the abundance of siliciclastic deposits (marl, siltstone,

and sandstone) in the adjacent interbuildup areas and the

presence of paleokarst surfaces indicate a humid climate

during deposition. The Cretaceous period has long been

considered a warm, greenhouse climate. However, several

studies favor a Cretaceous with intervals of global cooling

(Frakes et al. 1995; Johnson and Kaufman 1996; Frakes

1999; Stoll and Schrag 2000). Very cold conditions affected

Australia and high latitude regions in the Aptian, with

winter freezing of lakes and some glacier development

(Kemper 1987; De Lurio and Frakes 1999; Alley and Frakes

2003; Price and Nunn 2010). High-frequency, moderate-

amplitude sea-level changes (tens of meters) driven by

Milankovich rhythms, have been recognized in Shu’aiba

sequences in the Middle East in a period with some ice at

the poles (Read 1998). Rohl and Ogg (1998) also inter-

preted high-frequency sea-level changes based on sequence

stratigraphy of the Pacific Ocean guyots. The problem with

Pacific guyots is that they are tectonically active and this

could have also played a significant role in the sedimenta-

tion patterns. Six sea-level fall events are placed

Facies

123

respectively by Rohl and Ogg (op. cit.) in the Early Aptian

at 121, 120.5, 119.8, 119.5, 118.9 and 118.1 Ma. The first

one corresponds to the Barremian-Aptian boundary and the

last one to the Early/Late Aptian boundary and this could be

correlated to the top of Zamaia Formation and likely to part

of Shu’aiba Formation, too (Immenhauser et al. 2001;

Greselle and Pittet 2005; Granier et al. 2011; Granier and

Busnardo 2012; Rameil et al. 2012). Ogg and Ogg (2006) in

the Early Cretaceous revised time-scale identified four

global sea-level falls in the Early Aptian at 125.0, 124.6,

124.0 and 121.0 Ma. The first sequence boundary at

125.0 Ma corresponds to the Barremian-Aptian boundary

and the 121.0 Ma sequence boundary corresponds to the

Ap4 at the Bedoulian-Gargasian boundary (Early to Middle

Aptian boundary). This last sequence boundary would be

represented by the topmost Zamaia paleokarst surface

immediately followed by a significant transgression at the

furcata-martinioides boundary. Granier and Busnardo

(2012) also recognized a Shu’aibaian maximum flooding

surface at the Bedoulian-Gargasian boundary, which is in

agreement with the top Zamaia flooding event.

Aptian environmental change and carbonate platform

development: the Zamaia significance

The Aptian stage was a time of significant environmental

changes. They include: (a) plume-related volcanism, per-

turbations of the global carbon cycle with a global negative

excursion of d13C possibly enhanced by massive release of

methane (Jahren et al. 2001; Beerling et al. 2002; Jenkyns

2003; Renard et al. 2009), (b) a major oceanic anoxic event

1a (OAE 1a) (Mehay et al. 2009; Tejada et al. 2009 Follmi

2012), (c) pelagic biocalcification crises (Erba 1994; Erba

et al. 2010), (d) episodic growth and demise of carbonate

platforms, with turn-over of shallow-marine biotas (Masse

1989; Skelton 2003a, b) and (e) extreme climatic fluctua-

tions (Hay 1995; De Lurio and Frakes 1999; Erbacher et al.

1996; Mutterlose and Bockel 1998; Premoli Silva and

Sliter 1999; Larson 1991; Larson and Erba 1999; Hesselbo

et al. 2000; Kemper 1987, 1995; Weissert 2000; Jahren

et al. 2001; Berner 1991; Haq et al. 1988; Hardenbol et al.

1998; Ruffell and Worden 2000; Steuber and Rauch 2005;

Dumitrescu et al. 2006; Ando et al. 2008).

Within the Aptian, a faunal extinction event is dated to ca.

116 or 117 million years ago, termed the mid-Aptian extinc-

tion event by Masse (1989). It is classified as a minor

extinction event and is most significantly detected among

marine rather than terrestrial faunas. Nonetheless, the Aptian

Extinction Event is an episode of importance, and deserves a

higher status among other minor events (Masse 1989). The

Aptian event may have been causally connected with the

Rahjamal Traps volcanic episode in the Bengal region of

India, associated with Kerguelen ‘‘hot spot’’ volcanic activity.

To establish the nature of the interactions of the pro-

cesses involved in the environmental changes of the Early

Aptian, a detailed temporal and spatial knowledge of the

pattern of change is required.

Aptian carbonate platforms are extensive in the Tethyan

subtropics and respond to environmental and oceanographic

changing conditions with episodic growth modes. The

growth and demise of carbonate platforms in the Cretaceous

reveal an important crisis event in the mid-Aptian (Skelton

2003a) (Fig. 15). This coincides with the demise of the

Zamaia buildups, which were analyzed and dated with or-

bitolinids, rudists and ammonites.

The Galdames Formation described by Garcıa-Mondejar

and Garcıa Pascual (1982), equivalent to the Zamaia Fm,

was originally considered a synchronous shallow-marine

carbonate platform unit. Nevertheless, careful work in the

Aralar region of North Spain (Garcıa-Mondejar et al.

2009b), and more recent work in Zamaia, revealed at least

three phases of carbonate platform development (Fernan-

dez-Mendiola et al. 2010) (Fig. 15b: Madotz (Abrevadero

Mb), Sarastarri Fm and Zamaia Fm).

The first phase of Lower Bedoulian age spans the

oglanlensis Zone and a part of the lower weissi Zone. Its

principal representative is the Madotz platform of Aralar

(Millan et al. 2011) and this can be correlated with: (1) the

lower Orbitolina beds of Martin-Closas and Wang (2008)

in the Subalpine Chains and Jura Mountains, (2) the Xert

Fm in the Maestrat platform of Iberia (Bover-Arnal et al.

2010), (3) the Ponta Alta Member in Portugal (Burla et al.

2008), and (4) the Upper Schratenkalk of Switzerland

(Follmi et al. 2007).

The second phase corresponds to the early Late Bed-

oulian (Late deshayesi-furcata transition Zone) carbonate

platform, and includes the Sarastarri limestones of Aralar

(Spain) (Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009b), the top of the Mont

Ventoux-Languedoc sections in France (Masse et al. 2001),

the Praia da Lagoa Member in Portugal (Burla et al. 2008),

and the top of the Cupido Fm in Mexico (Longoria and

Monreal 1991). The Shu’aiba Fm in the Middle East also

displays a condensed section within the furcata Zone.

Granier and Busnardo (2012) interpreted the later as a

condensed HST bearing ammonites: Gargasiceras sp.,

Cheloniceras sp. and Pseudohaploceras liptoviense. These

ammonites are assigned to the furcata Zone and are cor-

relatable with furcata Zone ammonites from the Lareo Fm

in Aralar (Spain) (Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009a, b) and

with the Dufrenoyia justinae ammonite Zone of Mexico

(Barragan 2001). The base of this episode corresponds to

the ‘‘couches superieures a orbitolines’’-upper Orbitolina

beds (Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 2008).

Facies

123

The third carbonate platform phase of the Early Aptian

is of late Dufrenoyia furcata Zone age and includes the

Zamaia limestones, which are correlatable with part of the

Villarroya de los Pinares Fm in Maestrat (NE Spain,

Bover-Arnal et al. 2010), with the top of reservoir 1A of

the Shu’aiba limestones (Granier and Busnardo 2012).

Rameil et al. (2012) also reported a coincident timing for

the top of the Shu’aiba Fm.

The record of three carbonate platform phases in the

Basque-Cantabrian Basin reflects a punctuated develop-

ment style with growth phases ending with subaerial

exposure followed by marine flooding in all three episodes.

Fig. 15 a Temporal distribution of the Zamaia carbonate banks

compared to the distribution of carbonate platforms in Europe and

America during the Cretaceous (Skelton 2003a). b Stratigraphic

framework of the Zamaia carbonate platform in the latest Early

Aptian and two other carbonate platform growth phases in the

Basque-Cantabrian region: the Early Bedoulian Madotz (Abrevadero)

platform and the early Late Bedoulian Sarastarri platform

Facies

123

Deciphering individual histories of platforms and their

chronostratigraphic time-window is crucial in the under-

standing of local, regional and global factors governing

their appearance, development and demise. In this respect

the Zamaia platform is highly significant. Recent work by

Skelton and Gili (2012) attempted to establish the timing of

the episodes of carbonate platform growth and demise in

the Tethyan Early Aptian. They established two phases of

carbonate platform demise in the mid-Early Aptian and top

Early Aptian. The first demise affected most northern

Tethyan and New World platforms. This first phase is

linked to global carbon cycle perturbations, although causal

relationships remain contentious. The recovery of Tethyan

carbonate platforms in the late Early Aptian formed Cap-

rinid-rich margins in central and southern Tethys, together

with more calcite-rich rudists in northern Tethys around

Iberia. We emphasize that this late Early Aptian carbonate

platform of North Iberia (Basque-Cantabrian Basin)

developed in two phases. The first phase corresponds to the

Sarastarri platform (Garcıa-Mondejar et al. 2009a, b;

Millan et al. 2009) dated to the deshayesi-furcata transition

Zone and overlain by transgressive outer platform-basin

shales of the furcata Zone sensu stricto (Lareo Fm). This

Sarastarri phase coincides with the uppermost Lower

Aptian transgression reported in Mexico and Maestrazgo

(eastern Iberia) (Moreno-Bedmar et al. 2012). Neverthe-

less, a second phase of carbonate platform growth in the

latest furcata Zone corresponds to the Zamaia platform

described here. The top of this second carbonate platform

phase is assigned to the top of sequence Ap3 of Hardenbol

et al. (1998), at the Early to Late Aptian limit (furcata-

martinioides boundary). Therefore, the late Early Aptian

carbonate platform of North Iberia developed in a step-like

mode providing the potential for prospective high-resolu-

tion global correlation.

Conclusions

The Early Aptian (late Dufrenoyia furcata ammonite Zone)

in the Zamaia Mountain region of Northern Spain is rep-

resented by a complex rudist platform, formed on a

structural high with surrounding intrashelf basins. The

close interplay of siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentation

allowed the recognition of a complex carbonate buildup

architecture, with carbonate banks hundreds of meters wide

separated by terrigenous passageways. Seven major facies

types have been distinguished: (1) lime mudstone with

requieniid rudists, (2) lime mudstone with corals, (3) or-

bitolinid-miliolid pack-grainstone, (4) marlstone, (5)

limestone breccia, (6) calcareous siltstone and sandstone

and (7) paleokarst facies. These facies are mostly arranged

into meter-scale parasequences, most of which are

shallowing upward. The Zamaia buildup is composed of a

western and an eastern block separated by an intraplatform

depression, formed by syn-sedimentary tectonic move-

ments. The commencement of Zamaia deposition was

associated with a relative sea-level rise, which pushed back

the land-derived terrigenous input. A pulse of relative sea-

level fall interrupted the uniform development of the car-

bonate platform. Back-tilting resulted in re-sedimentation

of earlier deposits on the eastern slope. The termination of

Zamaia deposition was associated with a new pulse of

relative sea-level fall that caused the last Early Aptian

unconformity on the top of the Zamaia Formation. Open-

sea terrigenous marls were deposited during a subsequent

rise of sea level and also infiltrated karstic cavities within

the Zamaia limestone beneath the unconformity.

Acknowledgments This project was supported by the Spanish

Science and Innovation Ministry project CGL2009-11308. It was also

supported by PhD grant BFI09.122 from the Basque Country Gov-

ernment. We thank M. Tucker and two anonymous reviewers for their

constructive criticism and valuable suggestions, which helped us to

improve the manuscript.

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A facies model for an Early Aptian carbonate platform (Zamaia, Spain)

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