Two Varieties of I)omaakl By MATTHIAS WEINREICH, SkoF{je :oomaald(Oo.)lst:he p6oma, a small ethnic minority scat- teredinextended family groups. among larger communities in Northern Pakistan. By the members of their host communities these groups are com- monly regarded as outsiders. 1 Informer times the pooma were traditionally working as. blacksmiths, musicians and craftsmen. Nowadays they are also engaged ina variety of other professions. In almost all places of their set- tlement thepooma have long since given up their original in favour of the surrounding Dardic Shina; Only in the Burushaski speak- ingarea, in the former principalities of Nagerand Hunza (Gilgit District, Northern Areas of Pakistan), has po. survived until the present day. From a· historical point of view po. is a language of the North .Indian Plains, affiliated to the Central Group of NIA languages (BuDDRuss 1983). 2 However,. due to its long-standing separation from its place of origin and (stilton-going and ever increasing) intense contacts with other languages po. has lost or transformed many of its Central Group related features. This now places the language in many aspects much closer to its Dardic neigh- bours than to its Midland cousins. Presently po. counts less then 350 (mostly elderly) speakers - approx. 300 of them related to Hunza;around 40 related to Nager 3 - .and is thus to be 1 During his studies in Hunza LORIMER (1939, p. 7) was told that the ancestors of the p60ma had come from Kashmir via Baltistan. A family history recorded by me in Nager . also mentions a migration from Kashmir, but through Afghanistan, the Dare! Valley and Gilgit.The Germanethno-musicologist A. 5CHMID (1997, pp. 54-76) quotes a number of lIunza genealogies which suggest that the p60ma had been arriving to the Burushaski .. speakiI;lg area over an extended period of time, as individuals Ot" in small groups via Baltistan, Gilgit, Darel, Tangir,Punyal and even Kashghar. , 2 The language name is based on the self appellation of the speakers, which in its turn is connected to OIA r/i5mba- "man of low caste living by singing and music" (T. 5570» NIA." musici,m, craftsman, low caste person". Another name used by some speakers when referring to their mother tongue is r/omad, in analogy to 5h. $ir.zad "language of the Sii1.l- people". 3 .. Thenumbers for Nager were obtained by my language consultants in autumn 2004; ill spring 1995 I had still estimated 40-50 speakers (WEINREICH 1999,p. 212). The num- bersfor Hunza pomaaki spe<1.kers are.aprojection (counting 7-8 members per household)
Transcript
Two Varieties of I)omaakl
By MATTHIAS WEINREICH, SkoF{je
:oomaald(Oo.)lst:he 1~nguag~6{th~ p6oma, a small ethnic minority scatteredinextended family groups. among larger communities in NorthernPakistan. By the members of their host communities these groups are commonly regarded as outsiders.1 Informer times the pooma were traditionallyworking as. blacksmiths, musicians and craftsmen. Nowadays they are alsoengaged ina variety of other professions. In almost all places of their settlement thepooma have long since given up their original mot~ertoIlguein favour of the surrounding Dardic Shina; Only in the Burushaski speakingarea, in the former principalities of Nagerand Hunza (Gilgit District,Northern Areas of Pakistan), has po. survived until the present day.
From a· historical point of view po. is a language of the North .IndianPlains, affiliated to the Central Group of NIA languages (BuDDRuss 1983).2
However,. due to its long-standing separation from its place of origin and(stilton-going and ever increasing) intense contacts with other languagespo. has lost or transformed many of its Central Group related features. Thisnow places the language in many aspects much closer to its Dardic neighbours than to its Midland cousins.
Presently po. counts less then 350 (mostly elderly) speakers - approx. 300of them related to Hunza;around 40 related to N ager3 - .and is thus to be
1 During his studies in Hunza LORIMER (1939, p. 7) was told that the ancestors of thep60ma had come from Kashmir via Baltistan. A family history recorded by me in Nager .also mentions a migration from Kashmir, but through Afghanistan, the Dare! Valley andGilgit.The Germanethno-musicologist A. 5CHMID (1997, pp. 54-76) quotes a number oflIunza genealogies which suggest that the p60ma had been arriving to the Burushaski
.. speakiI;lg area over an extended period of time, as individuals Ot" in small groups viaBaltistan, Gilgit, Darel, Tangir,Punyal and even Kashghar. ,
2 Thelanguage name is based onthe self appellation of the speakers, which in its turnis connected to OIA r/i5mba- "man of low caste living by singing and music" (T. 5570»NIA."musici,m, craftsman, low caste person". Another name used by some speakers whenreferring to their mother tongue is r/omad, in analogy to 5h. $ir.zad "language of the Sii1.lpeople".
3 .. The numbers for Nager were obtained by my language consultants in autumn 2004;ill spring 1995 I had still estimated 40-50 speakers (WEINREICH 1999,p. 212). The numbersfor Hunza pomaaki spe<1.kers are.aprojection (counting 7-8 members per household)
300 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
considered.a highly endangered.language. Neverthel~ss,until nowlingpistic,science did notpay muchattentionto:Qo.Gj{IERsof'sLinguistic.5tfrtve'yo!India does not mention it at all. The first and still the most extensive. studyavailable is D. L. R. LORIMER'sThe I)umaki Langu~ge (1939). This pioneering work, based on the author's field· studies carriecl out in 1935 in Hunza,provides a richly illustrated overall vieW" of the basic n;lOrphologicalstructureand the lexicon of the language. LORIMER~s.work also supplied the pO'1TIate~
rial for TURNER'SlA Dictionary (1966-197nandFus~MAN'sAtlas (1972).Almost 50years later, in 1982, G .• BUDDRUSS conducted.detailecl field re
search in Gilgit, assisted by a language consultant from the speakers' Hunza. community. As a result of his studies he· published three papers,. whichmostly dealt with selected aspects of the language's phonology and lexicon(BUDDRUSS 1983, 1984, 1986).
A basic word list elicited· from a·Hunza po. speaker was published byP. C. BACKSTROM (1992) in addition to his report on po. in volume 2 of theSociolinguistic Survey ofNorthern Pakistan.
In autumn 1995 B. TIKKANEN worked with several language consultantsin Hunza. Preliminary results of this study he published in form of a handout: Domaki: an endangered archaic CentrallAlqnguage in Karakorumillustratinga lecture held by him on the 12th of DeceinberJ995 at Oslo University. The hand-out contains a short outline ofthe language's phonologyand morphology. as well as some dialogues.and. phrase samples (TIKKANE:N1996). A larger collection of phrase samples was kindly put by Mr. TIKKANENat my disposal through a letter dated 2nd of June 1999 (TIKKANEN 1999).
As it appears from the above, until the very endof the last century po.related publications were exclusively based 011 lang~age material collectedfrom speakers. pertaining· to the Hunza. community. However, LORIMER(1939, p.6) had already been well aware ofthe fact thatpo. was also to befound on the other side of the Hunza river, in the principality of Nager.From the statistics available to himhe quqtes"avillage,'Dumyal' with18households or a population of 80 souls'; and notes: "The pom of Hunzaand. Nager 4re regarded by. themselves and. by othe.rs as.one people. Theybothspeakl)umaki,and·.theyintermarry,"·Also·•.BA.cKsTROM.mentiol1s.theexistence of a p60ma village in Nager and observes: "None of the DOlnaquestionnaire respondents [all of them belonging to the Hunzacommu-
basedon an'enquiry in the village MominabadinSeptember 2002. Atthat timelwastoldthat there were around 40 households in Hpnza, Danyor and Gilgit in whichat least onefamily member would still speak 1;)0. The data given by KREUl'ZMANN (2005, p.10) for1991 under the heading "Domaaki"for the Yasin and PunyaIYalleys (305 andJ88person,.srespectively) relates to the ~ocio-ethnicbackground of the res~ondents,not to their actpa.llanguage use. i
Two Varieties of 1)omaakf 301
nity -:N.LW.] reportedthatthereis any dialect vari~tioninany()fthe locations where Domaaki is presently spoken" (1992, Pi 78; p. 81, n. 5). At.thesam~time,neitherLORIMER, BACKSTROM, nor any pftheothermentionedresearchers had the possibility to compare his notes on HunzaI)p. with thelanguage of theI)6oma from Nager.
In the years 1992 to 1995 I was given the opportunityto V;'0rk as a member,ofthe c;erman-Pakistani "Culture Area Karakoram"iresearchproj~ct,based
in G-ilgit~~w~~capital oft~e.N"~rt~e~~~reas.P.lthou~~e~~a~eclmpstl!withthe study ofthelocal J?ashto speakers' community, my int~test-vrasalso ,-_... . __ -directed towards other languages spoken in the region.. In spring19951had
'the good fortune and the great pleasure to beintrodu<zed to Mr. S~ABANALlNAGERI, a ca. 30-year-old mother tongue 1)0. speaker, born in Sikanderabad (Nager). At the age of 15he had moved from~his(nativevalleyto Gilgitand since then had worked as a car electrician and welder. SHABAN ALl, whobesides po. was also fluent in Shina, Burushaski and Urdu, turned out to bea connoisseur and tireless promoter ofhis mother tongue as well as an excellent language consultant. With his helpI could record a numbet of Nagerpo. texts and go through the Hunza po. material published byLORIMERand BUDDRUSS. In the years to follow, first during a privately founded fieldresearch in Gilgit and Nager in 1996.....1997 (this time exclusively devoted toI)omaakf), and then, in the course of a professional sojourn in Islamabadfrom 2002 until 2005, I was able to continuemyI)o. studies with the help ofSHABAN ALl and. with members of his extended family who assisted me incross checking the existing material and enlarging my text collection.4
The language material collected over these years' enabled me to draft ashort grammatical outline of po. which is forthcoming in volume 16 of the]azykiMira series. Owning to the focus ofmy field :work thisstudyis ex..,clusivelydevoted to Nager po. But how close is this variety to its Hunzacounterpart? "It's just the same thing!", - my Nagerlanguage consultantswould always insist, and thus indirectly confirm the;above quoted opinionfroIn BAcKsTRoM's.questionnaire respondents.· Indeed, observingI)o. speak.:ersfrpm bothvalleys .exchanging.simple phrases one could easily arrive atth~conclusion that their language is almost identical. However, a more detailed
.. comparison of both· po. varieties reveals an impressive number of systelllaticdifferences on.morphological, syntactical and lexical level. These differences may not disturb the speakers too much in their basic communication (if
I would like to take this opportunity to thank alLmembers ofthe NagerI)60macommullity involved into my linguistic inquiries fortheirco.oJinuoush~lp.and hospital"itY.M()reoyer,; I want to express my ~pesialgra6~udeto I)AD9PHAZAL.t\.LI,his grand~el?hevvA~J3As.ALl and, ()f course,toIP-rdear frie~dSHABANA;Ll for their.l()n,g-sranding
"support and truly endless patiel1ceinproviding anSwers to' alb:py strange questions'.
302 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
neededthey :cananyway always·.switchtoBurushaskiand/orShina),butananalysis of them might help to shed some light on the more recent historicaldevelopment ofpo" especially on it's interaction with the various languagesit had been and still is in close contact with. To facilitate· further studies inthis direCtion· I hereunder list and illustrate some characteristic differencesbetween Nager and Hunza :Oomaaki, whichin my opinion allow these varietiestobe regarded .as two distinctive dialects,po.(Ng.) andpo.(Hz.)5
1. Nouns
1.1. In po.(Ng.) nouns ending in accented -a can have their Nominative plural form in -e as well as in -a?Ja, e.g. NOM.SG ~aulam."liver",NOM.PLkaule and kaulaa?Ja;NOM.SG meewa m. "fruit", NOM.PL meewe andmeewaa?Ja.
In po.(Hz.) the Nominative plural of these nouns shows only the suffix-e, e.g. NOM.SG kaula "liver", NOM.PL kaulc; NOM.SG barpa m. "poplar", NC?M.PL barpe (LORIMER 1939, p. 28; see alsoTIKKANEN 1996, p. 2).
1.2. In po.(Ng.) nouns ending in unaccented-o can have their Nominative plural form in -eas well as in -u?Ja, e.g. NOM.SG j6to m. "chick; boy",NOM.PLj6te andj6tu?Ja; NOM.SG chumom."fish", NOM.PLchumeandchumu?Ja.
Inpo.(Hz.) the Nominative pluralofthese nouns shows only the suffix-e, e.g. NOM.SG j6to m. "boy", NOM.PLj6te (TIKKANEN 1996, p. 2); NOM.?G chumo "fish",NQM.PL chumc; NQM.SGbt\co·tom. "calf", NOM.PLbt\co·te (LORIMER 1939, p. 28).
1.3. po.(Ng.) has no separate form for a Dative case. Its function is fulfilled by the Oblique case which is marked with the suffixes SG -raYs I PL-(eye, e.g. manisanjois heimunin "The man said this to the woman: ...";piya-maayaa mas, buusi danee che. Emili buut qhos huyi " '(My). parentshave givenme a cat'.Emily was veryhappy"; ayaa kamek sonapnes leei,e
.. _gaayC~Having.taken.some.gold for. herself, she went oft"; jumutibadsaayemakaaneejaas "'fomorrow(I) will go to the residence.of the king"; tukda
jaa chdai? ek k6okis,badsdan irega .cha "~Where ate you going?' 'To any-
5 As I did not make recordings with 00. speakers of Hunza myself, I will be referringfor.allmatters concerning thisdialecno the afore mentioneclstudies of LORIMER, BUDDRUSS and TLKKA.NEN. In all quotations the original transcription of the respective authorwill be used. The abbreviations employed in the following description are: SG - singular,PL- plural, NOM - Nominative, OBL - Oblique, GEN - G~nitive, ERGIN- ErgativeInstrumental, INEIL - Inessive-Illative, VS - verbstem,PFY - Perfective, IPFV - Im-perfective; Sh. - Shina, Bur. - Burushaski, Kho. - Khowar, Pers. - Persian,Urd. - Urdu.
one,'- answers the king"; badsaan peeyec.qao guwaain "The king calledfor (his) sons"; meeli wapas ?akaaiyadeenas geyi "The wife leftin orderto return the scale"; thaa-hei waqtas qhaa. "until this time";es haldena ~ai
raani, $apika girin "Cooking three ibexes for him, (he) prepared a meal"; esrosehu:ye "(They) got aAgry with·him".
In Oo.(Hz.) the Dative and the Allative function of a noun is markedby a case suffix unknown to. Oo.(Ng), SG -(a)Su {PL -(e)cu, e.g. ekaaribandaare(e) masu munineeche (TIKKANEN 1996, p.6) "Some people have
Irle(that)· .. ~";ko;su·de;s "To-whoIrl shall (I) give (it)?"-(LoR:IMER: 1939;p.82); ttpttncsu le'in "(He) took (it) for himself" (LORIMER 1939, p. 81); dukaa~nei damon apanei garasu gia chaaka (TIKKANEN 1996; p. 6) "The shopkeeperhad gone home (lit.: to his own house)"; csu qau c'r "caU(to) him" (LORIMER1939, p. 78); tU5u nuxsa'nttsu nia'nim chi's (LORIMER 1939,p. 62) "I have notbrought you (here) in order to do you harm"; ocesu qhaa tume mee saagirtachootaka "Until today you were my students" (TIKKANEN 1999,p. 4). The:Oo~(Hz.) Oblique case is, as in Oo.(Ng.), marked with SG -(a)s /PL-{e)C,e.g. goW'ttS pintein "He"mounted on the horse" (LORIMER 1939, p. 49); nUT(tSa,'szq huya' "He fell in love with his beauty" (LORIMER 1939, p. 50); tobttqMten'in "He shot (s.th.) with the gun" (LORIMER 1939, p. 50); mM ko·t a'ya cha
"He has come with me" (LORIMER 1939, p. 69); eyee ekekic teeye che "Theybeat each other" (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 2).
1.4. In Oo.(Ng.) the plural ofthe Inessive-Illative case always ends in -- (e)ma,e.g. boriiyema and baain·"He put (them) into the sacks"; ad?Zyema ~hiyee
yuulgi$ek girnee cheeka "Up in the (ibex's) horns the birds had built a nest";sanei tom cuuniyema ana bi!?i, e miniin jaai, chaartjna gati huya cha son
"The golden tree melted in •the (burning) firewood, flowed down (and) thegold gathered in the ashes"; thaa-haai dustakema meemama dubaara$apikanikhaa chis "I will not eat from these dishes for a second time".
Differently from that, Oo.(Hz.) has normally the Inessive-Illative pluralcase suffix -(e)mei, which is not to .be found in Oo.(Ng.), e.g. eka duka"garemeihdai baa$ ireye che "Injust a few houses they speak this language";
._eyemei ana lukibeetha "Having sat down hiding among them .. ."; jiipemeibutdiSanaa, basemei diSa buut chii "In the jeeps thereis not much space, inthe buses there is a lot of space" (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 2).po.(Hz.) also has theIne.ssive-Illative plural case suffix -(e)ma. However, it is used only occasionally, e.g.kisek ta kisek thi phulaarema kisek chi-chat iri "Picking somethinghere and there among the flowers" (TIKKANEN .1999, p~ 2).
1.5. In Oo.(Ng.) the plural suf1.ix ofthe Elative is -{e)rr;o, e.g. boriiyemo sonle "Take thegold out of the sacks"; ape'neigar~mo nikhila "Come out ofyourhouses!" - .
Two Varieties of 1)oIl1aakf 303
304 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
po.(Hz.) has the Elative plural suffix-(e)meyo, which is unknown to
po.(Ng.), e.g. gadmeyo aay60m "We came from the houses"; basemeyobandd nikhite1je che (TIKKANEN.1999, p. 2) ((People were·coming.out fromthe buses".
1.6. In po.(Ng.) the suffix -(e)ini « GEN.SG -(e)i + -ni?) denotes a movement "along (side1 through something", e:g.deo Gurzumei kunuweini andeka pdna chi "There is. a way (leading) through ]Jew Gurzum's intestine";sinii iteini munhanega chdaka "(He) was going along the shoreof the river";asmdaneinibdar kisek daga cha. "Somethingi$ moving [lit.: cominglthroughthe sky"; haldenak daareini and leeiaayd "(The dog) brought an ibex (right)through the door"; jdatapaa1jeini bdar pey£, chiika "(His) hair had grownuntil [lit.: alongsidel(his)legs".
In contemporary po.(Hz.) this suffix does not seem anymore in activeuse. Neither BUDDRUSS nor TIKKANEN listed it in their published material.However, LORIMER (1939, p. 128) still hasmllda·lc.asmane·ni hllnega cha'ka"He was wandering about up in heaven". Besides this, ~he suffix is preservedin both dialects in certain adverbial forms) e.g. po.(Ng.) hageini "in front";po.(Hz.) mineeni "below, underneath" (TIKKANE:N1996, p. 4, 1999, p. 3).
2. Pronouns·
2.1. In po.(Ng.) the Genitive plural form of the personal pronoun is e1je1je,e.g. e1je1je gdra giltdana che"Their houses are inGilgit"; e1je1je pdnaphatdkoidarasmo nikhilegi·chiika "Their path passed by the door·of·thebold.man's(house)".
In po.(Hz.) the same Genitive plural form now is e1je,e.g. e1je p60 ruuzi ukamaanee u ais"Earning my daily allowance from them I came" (TIKKANEN1999, p. 17). However, LORIMER still has 'erp'cnc / c1jY'c1Jc besides c1jc / c1je'i,e.g. c1jY'c1jc bir'sa cha "(It) is their land" (LORIMER 1939, p. 76f., 145).
2·3.J)ifI"~rel1tlY~~()lIl.I?().(I-Iz.)th~. r;>():(1'-Tg.)dia.l~ct .d()esD:()tp()s~~~~!hedemonstrative pronouns a~ei(m.) / a$aai (f.) (Cthis one here" and Mei (m.) /u$dai (f.) "that one there".
In po.(Hz.) these pronouns are used as synonyms to thaa-hei (m.) / thaahaai (f.) "this one here" and tuun-hei(m.)/ tuun;.;hddi(f.} "that one there"(TIKKANEN 1996, p. 3; BUDDRUSS 1983, p. 18). These pairs are also presentinpo.(Ng.)
2.3. In po.(Ng.) the Oblique form of the reciprocal pronoun ekek.,. is ekikec,e.g. nama ekekei salaam-kaIaamgirnee "Then (they) greeted each other".
Two Varieties of I;>ornaakf 305
In Oo.(Hz.) the Oblique.formof.the same pronoun isekekic, e.g. e!Jeeekekic tee!Je che "They beat each other" (TIKKANEN1999, p. 2).
3. Postpositions
3.1. Oo.(Ng.) is using the postposition mini(i)n (through Oblique case) "under (direction / place)", e.g. hei luu?umei tomas miniin haai boot apu gir
"Lift up this flat stone under this coraH tree!";katu"Ct-Ieei; lolotiri;carakasminin deei, bees "Take. the dress, fold (it) and having placed (it) under (your)bottom remain seated (on it)!"
Oo.(Hz.) does .not have this postposition. It employs instead the formsmineeni, mune'ni (connected through OBL or thrqugh OBL + -mo) andmun (through OBL + -mo), e.g. khlltAS mune'ni lwka "He hid underneaththe bed" (LORIMER 1939, p. 192); mi'zASmo mune'ni"underneath the table"(LORIMER 1939, p. 192); mi 'ZASmo mun "under the table" (LORIMER 1939,p.191).
3.2. In Oo.(Ng.) the postposition kaaro(o) Ikaaroo "forthe sake of; because _of" connects with the preceding word through the Oblique case suffix, e.g.badsaan mazduurec koot pU9as kaaro makaanu!J dularowaain '~The kingletthe workers build a castle for his son"; u sitaar basaanas karoo aas "1 willcome to play the lute"..
In Oo.(Hz.}the same postposition connects through the Genitive case suffix, e.g te ka'ryo tahaei krom ira's "I'll do this (job) for you" (LORIMER 1939,p.69); a$ei phutun bijaalinai kaaroo poi biis rupia jaa!Je che "It costs onehundred rupees to send this parcel"; Sostei kaaro-bas kaajeko laam "Wherecan we catch the bus for Sost?" (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 3).
3.3. To express the meaning "from the possession of (somebody); from(someone)" Oo.(Ng.) attaches the suffix -mo to the Oblique case form of therespective noun, e.g. e!Jecmo ?akaai!Ja aan "Bring the scales from them!";namabadsaasmo gaya "So (he) departed from the king"; tumaamamasmoboduni chis-e gir "Tell (me), was I born of your mother?"
In similar situationsOo.(Hz.) uses the postposition po(0) (connectedthrough OBL or NOM or GEN), which is unknown'to Oo.(Ng.), e.g.ko·spo "from whom" (LORIMER 1939, p. 70); hcez'llpo le "Take it from him, fromher" (LORIMER 1939, p. 69); zulum iripaadsaa poo. qharc lei "Taking forcefully the expenses from the king ..."; e!Je poo ruuzi u kamaanee u ais "Earning my daily allowance from.them I came" (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 3). Onlywith pronouns Oo.(Hz.) can, similarly to Oo.(Ng.), also use OBL + -mo, e.g.masmo Zein (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 3) "(He/She) took (it) from me".
306 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
4. Numerals
For the formation of ordinal numbers:Oo.(Ng.) is adding the suffix -muu1)oto the respective cardinal number, e.g. raimuu1)o "the third" (> rai "three").The ordinal number suffix in :Qo.(Hz.) is -yano (TIKKANEN 1996, p. 4).
5. Verbs
5.1.. In :Oo.(Ng.) the Present tense form of the copula ch- as well as the Perfective forms of all other verbs have the 1st person plural agreement suffix
-00, e.g. u-o-meelidui chaD "I and my wife, (we) are (only) two"; sap-nemaaziram choo, phariyaat iramchoo "(We) are offering prayer, (we) are lamenting"; ateikis asei suriyaar dakhoo "Until now (we) 'have seen (only) his happiness"; raajaakika tumec kisek-ta niguwaayoo ch60 "(Until now) (we) didnot impose any forced labour on you"; ame giltaas geyoo chooka "We hadgone to Gilgit".
In :Oo.(Hz.) the respective agreement suffix is.-oom, e.g. amee ekekicdekham choom (TIKKANEN 1996, p. 3); "We are seeing each other";(lmesoone ch60m "We are fine"; ame nigraaniiram choom "We are supervising";amegati irigioom·"Wewenttogether" (TIKKANEN1999, p. 3).
5.2. In :Oo.(Ng.) the pt person singular I plural and the 2nd -person singularIplural of the Past tense form of the copula ch- are chi(i)ska I ch60ka resp.chaaika I chootka, e.g. baapo u Nageres gai chiiska"Yesterday I had gone toNager";amee tu tataqiri, sinis bay60 chooka, tukihui aayaai "(But) we hadsmashed you and thrown (you) into the river, how did you re-appear?"; tee masbadSda iree chaaika"You (SG) had made me king"; tumee mee doono, martasmo mun baayoo chootka "You (PL) had thrown my bull from the,cliff".
In :Oo.(Hz.) the corresponding forms are ch(isaka I choomaka resp.chaayaka I chootaka, e.g. dukaanasu gai chiisaka (TIKKANEN 1996, p. 6)"(I) had gone to the shop"; teitaqht haram choomaka h~l teibaqht haramCk?0m:a,ka"Have(~re~~~~11.11stlrpillgY()tlr•.thr()l1e,:()rllave(\Ve)h~~n~!eal:'
.- ~ .. ing your luck?" (TIKKANEN1999, p.3); tu· kaa gida chaayaka (TIKK.ANiN1996, p. 6) "Where had you (SG) gone to?"; ocesuqhaa tume mee saagirtachootaka "Until today you (PL) were my students" (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 4).
5.3. In :Oo.CNg.) the Optative is formed according t() the scheme: "vs +Optative suffix -(w)onta". The Optative paradigma only includesa form forthe 3rd .person; no formal distinction is made between singular and plural,e.g. khodaan tus sa gironta "May God protect you! e1)jangalasjonta"Maythey go to the forest!".
Two Varieties of Oornaaki 307
In 'Oo.(Hz.) the Optative is also limited to the 3rd person. However, aformal distinction is made between singular: "VS + -(w)6ta"; and plural:
"VS + -(w)on(ta)", e.g. eta awo·ta "Let him come here"; e!Je tus to'n "Maythey strike you!" (LORIMER 1939, pp. 105,106); honta(TIKKANEN 1996,p. 4)
"May they he (e.g. lucky)". .
5.4. 'Oo.(Ng.) has a Switch-reference converb in -(i)neebel, which is formedaccording to the scheme "VS + -(i)neebel", e.g. girineebel "while doing"
_.... (<.gir-. "to do, to·. make,,); munineebel"whilespeaking'~(<..mun-."to speak,,).In 'Oo.(Hz.) the form of the same suffix is -(i)neebelo, e.g.• aaneebelo
"while arriving" (< aa- "to come, to arrive"); huineebelo· "while becoming"« hu- "to be(come)"; TIKKANEN 1996, pp. 5, 6).
5.5. Another Switch-reference converb in 'Oo.(Ng.) has the suffix -(i)na!Jo /.-(i)namo and is formed according to the scheme "VS + -(i)na!Jo l-(i)namo",e.g. jaana!Jo "while going" «jaa- "to go"); r;odinamo "while striking" « r;od
"to hit, to.strike"). The verb stem Used is always the one which is employedfor the formation of the Imperfective base.
In 'Oo.(Hz.) this Switch-reference converb can be constructed in thesame way, e.g. ja'nA!Jo "in the time of going" « jaa- "to go") (LORIMER1939, p. 113). Besides this, in 'Oo.(Hz.) it can also be formed according tothe scheme> "VS + -(i)a!Jo"; e.g. te. 'A!JO "while beating" « tee- "to .strike")(LORIMER 1939, p. 113); aaya!Jo"while arriving" « aa- "to come, to arrive");huya!Jo "while becoming" « hu- "to be(come)"; TrKKANEN 1996, pp. 5, 6).Sorp.etimes the verb stem used in this scheme is the one employed for theformation of the Perfective base, e.g. mOYA!JO "while dying" « marina / mu-"to die") (LORIMER 1939, p. 112), nAthA!Jo "while loosing" « nasina / nath"to be lost, to disappear") (LORIMER 1939, p. 112).
5.6. In 'Oo.(Ng.) the Infinitive of the verb "to do, to make" is girind; the verbstem used for the formation of the Imperfective and the Perfective base. isgzr-.
In 'Oo.(Hz.) the respective forms are irina / ir- (TIKKANEN 1996,p. 5).However, in fast speech and in compound verbs also 'Oo.(Ng.) tends towardsthe irina / ir- form, e.g. sikiim irna "to scheme, to plan" « sikiim "scheme,plan"); cas ir(i)na "to pull out" (~ Bur. cas -t- "do."). " .
5.7. In'Oo.(Ng.) the verb{g)irina / (g)ir- "to do, to make" has two causativeforms: 1) (g)uraana / (g)uraa-, e.g. PFV.3SG (g)uraain, IPFV.1SG (g)uraas;and 2) (g)uwaana / (g)uwaa-, PFV.3SG(g)uwaain, IPFV.1SG (g)uwaas.
InI)o.(Hz.) the causative form of the same verb is iraana / iraa- (TIKKANEN1996,p. 5), e.g. PFV.3PL ir'a'ne, PFV.3SG ir'e'i!J (LORIMER 1939, p. 146).
308 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
5.8. In order to express the meaning "to appear, to show up" :Qo.(Ng.) employs the construction: dekhuloo jaana « Passive participle of dekhul- [connected to dekhina "to look, to see (trans.)", dekhulaana "to show{caus.),,] +jaana I jaa- "to go"), e.g. har haptei ekdafa amec dakholoo ja"(You) (haveto) show up in front of us once every week!"
:Qo.(Hz.) is using for the same purpose the primary verb '~dikh(i)loona Idikh(i)l-, e.g. tu irii k(r)ombuutsadikhilooga cha. u irim k(r)om citeyek sanda "The work you have done seemsver,ygood. The work I havedone is notas good." (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 4).
5.9. In :Qo.(Ng.) "to urinate" is expressed through the compound verb muur;deend « muur; m. "urine" + deend "iogive"). :Qo.(Hz.) employs the primaryverb muur;ina (BUDDRUSS 1983, p.17).
6. Adverbs
:Qo.(Ng.) is using the adverbs mini(i)n "down (place I direction)" andminiino "upwards, from down; (in adjectival sense) lower ...", e.g. sanei tomcuuni!Jema ana bihi, e miniin jaai, chaaruna gati huya cha son "The goldentree melted in the (burning) firewood, flowed dowp (and) the gold gatheredin the ashes"; ek doos geya miniin siniiilas "One day (he) went down to theriver bank"; meniino ek Ciisek asi hali?a hUi ldam huya cha "From below(the ashes) something was shining yellowish"; miniino ooto "lower lip".
:Qo.(Hz.) does not seem to possess these adverbs. Instead it uses mineeni,rnuneeni and munasu "down (place I direction)" as well as mineenio "upwards, from down; (in adjectival sense) lower ... cc, e.g. u mineeni jaa chiis"I am going down (the valley or downhill)" (TIKKANEN 1999, p.4); mune'nisinino (LORIMER 1939, p. 192) "from the river down below"; yaa munasuyda apu "Either down or up the valley" (TIKKANEN 1999,p. 4); khAtAsminano nikhita "He came out from under the bed"· (LORIMER 1939, p. 192);mineenio ooto "lower lip" (BUDDRUSS 1984,p. 17).
7. Syntax
7.1. In Oo.(Ng.) the subject (agens) of a sentence with a transitive verb isalways marked with the Ergative-Instumental case suffix, e.g. tee diya meegif/,da chis "I am asking for your daughter"; tee u nibijaaraai "Don't youscare me!"; manisan maaye pur;ei jagra nisaain "The man settled the argument between mother and son"; amee moos cukuloo "We will cut the meat
Two Varieties of l)omaaki 309
into pieces"; tumee mee pen qosulaagut naa mas doo"Before you (PL) willbreak my pen, give it (back) to me!"; meebori $ek giraas "1 will fill up thesack"; tee khatuwa taas baai "Put the cloths into the sun (for drying)!"; bi-raaree nikigirnee "The brothers said: 'No!'''. .
:r;>o.(Hz.) tends to use inthese .cases .the 1st and 2nd person singular in itsNominative form, e.g. tu irii k(r)om buut sa dikhilooga cha. U irim k(r)omateyek sa naa "The work you (SGr have done .seems very good. The work 1have done is not as good." (TIKKANEN 1999, p. 4); u suunaak dekhim (BUD
21)"1 had [lie: saw] a dream";ubras khaa chiis(BuDDRUSS·1984, p. 21) "1 am eating rice".
8. Vocabulary
Both dialects can also be distinguished by a number of varying words andword forms, e.g.6:
:Qo.(Hz.) NOM.SG bariSa"do.", NOM.PL bariso!} (H). -'- T. 11392.2; Sh.bari$ m.
8.2. :Qo.(Ng.) <;eedoos "after tomorrow" « <;ai "three" + doos m. "day") ~:Qo.{Hz.) NOM.SG <;eedo "do." (12). LORIMER 1939, p. 159 still has <;e8dos.T. 5994, 6333; Sh. (Gurez) "{i(j,i "day after tomorrow".
8.3. :Qo.(Ng.) NOM.SG bi?oon f. "rainbow", NOM.PL bi?oona~ :Qo.(Hz.)bii?oi bi?ooni f. "do." (13). - Sh. bi?oon f. "rainbow", bee?i f. "fine weather;sunshine during rain"; T. 12052. .
8.4. :Qo.(Ng.) NOM.SG khdsa f. "mouth", NOM.PL khaso!}, GEN.SGkhasei~ :Qo.(Hz.) NOM.SG khasa f. "do." (23).
8.5. :Qo.(Ng.) NOM.SG phUla m. "ashes", NOM.PL phule and phulo!} ~:Qo.(Hz.) NOM.SG phula m. "do.", NOM.PL phute (26). - cf. BUDJ)RUSS1986.
6 Where not specially indicated the Oo.(Hz.) samples are taken from BUDDRUss1984and referred to by the numbers in brackets. In most cases the same number also indicatestheir respective place in FUSSMAN 1972. References to TURNER'S lADictionary (abbreviated as: T.) as well as to Burushaski (BERGER 1998), Shina (if not marked otherwise BAILEY1924) and to otherlanguagesare given as help for orientation in the material, not as state- .ments about the immediate origin of the respective 00. word.
310 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
8.6.:Oo.(Ng.) NOM.SG buusi f."cat",NOM.PL,buusi!Ja. - Sh. buusi f.;Bur. bus; T. '8298. f-4. :Oo.(Hz.) NOM.SGphitiisi f."do." (30), pitiSi "do."(TIKKANEN 1999, p. 4). In :Oo.(Ng.) phitiisiis used as the name of afairy.
8.7. :Oo.(Ng.} NOM.SG bambu1aa m."tomcat", NOM.PL bambu1aa!Ja,GEN.PL bambu1aa!Je!Je f-4 :Oo.(Hz.) NOM.SG bambu1aay m. "do." (30). Sh. bambu1aa m~ (RADLOFF 1999, p. 118); Bur.(Ng.) bambula m.
8:18. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG hundekuna m. "winter", NOM.PL hundekunaa!Ja,GEN.SG hundekunai; besides NOM.SG hunda m., NOM.PL hunde, GEN.SG hundei; besides NOM.SG hunde m., NOM.PL hundee!Ja, GEN.SGhundei, INEIL.SGhundena "in the winter" ~ po.(Hz.) NOM.SG hunde
"do.",INEIL.SG hundena (73). - T. 14164.
8.19. po.(Ng.) aCimoo I miniino 55to m. "upper I lower lip" « aCimoo Iminiino "from above I from below"; 55to m.· "lip") ~ p6.(Hz.) aczmo Imineenio 55to "upper I lower lip" « atsimo "upper, pertaining to the upperside; from above", mun'e·ni.o "pertaining to the lower side", LORIMER 1939,pp. 144, 192)(81). - She 55tu m. "lip; upper lip"; T. 2563.
8.20.po~(Ng.)NOM.SG khot m. "bed frame",NO~1.PLkhdta, GEN.SGkhatei ~ I;>o.(Hz.) NOM.SG khat m. "bed", NOM.PL khdta (82). - Shekhat m., khat f. (BUDDRUSS 1996, p. 45); T. 3781.
8.21. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG/PL miniindeenaa!Ja "bedding" « mini(i)n "down(place I direction)" + deena "to give") .•~ po.(Hz.) NOM.SG t..tside·ni "upper~bedding" (LORIMER1939, pp. 144) « ad "up; up above" + deena "togive").
8.22.I;>o.(Ng.) NOM.SG {:on{:f. "moon", GEN.SG {:an?ei; besides NOM.SG{:on{:a f., GEN.SG {:on{:ei, INEIL.SG (:on{:ana "in the moon" ~ po.(Hz.)NOM.SG con{: f. "do.", GEN.SG can?ei, INEIL.SG can?ana (84).- d.BUDDRUSS 1983,p. 17.
8.23.I;>o.(Ng.) NOM.SG aaino m. "mirror", NOM.PL aainu!Ja, GEN.SGaainui; besides NOM.SG aaina f., NOM.PL aaino!J +7 I;>o.(Hz.) NOM.SG~'J!inaf. "do.", NOM.PL ayino!J (88). - Bur. aiina ; She ayino m.; Pers.!Urd.ama.
8.25. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG khakai f. "walnut", NO)l[.PLkhakai1J. ~Bur.khakhdayo; Sh. khakdai(BERGER 1998, p. 250) andkhakaaif.; besides po.(Ng.)NOM.SGakhoo m., NOM.PL akhoowa andakhoo1Ja, GEN.SG akhooweiHo Po.(Hz.) NOM.SG akhou m. and akhooy m. "do.", NOM.PL akhdaya(95). - T. 48; Sh. a~hoo m. (BUDDRUSS 1996, p. 40).
8.26. po.(Ng.) ~OM.SG ac(h) f. and ac(h)a f. "eye", NOM.PL ac(h)i1J ~po.(Hz.) ac f. "do.", NOM.PL achi1J, (98/9). - T. 43; Sh. a~hii f.
8.27. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG ciit. and Ciiya f. "pine tree", NOM.PLCii1Ja, GEN.SGciiye +-t po.(Hz.) NOM.SG Ciiy' "do." (110). -T. 4837; Sh. Cii(h) f.
8.28. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG poo m. "foot, leg", NOM.PL pda1Ja and pda ~po.(Hz.) NOM.SG poo m. "do.", NOM.PL pda (113). -T. 8056; Sh.pda m."foot; leg of bed".
8.29. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG boot f. "big, flat stone", NOM.PL baatu1J; besides NOM.SG boot m., NOM.PL bdata~ p().(Hz.) NOM.SG boot "do.",NOM.PL bdata (114). - Bur. bat "do"; Sh. bat m. 'i(round) stone"; T.11348.
8.30. po.(Ng.) NOM.SG giri f. "big stone, boulder", NOM.PLgiri1Ja,GEN.SG girii; besides NOM.SG giiri f., NOM.PL giiri1Ja, GEN.SG giiriiH po.(Hz.) NOM.SG giiri f. "do.'!' (1l4).i..-oT. 4161; Sh;giri f.
8.3Lpo.(Ng.) NOM.SG hangut m. "thumb".- T.);!37; Sh. agutom.; besidespo.(Ng.) ba(j[agula f. « ba(J[ "big, large (f.)"; agulaf. "finger")~ po.(Hz.)bdri agula f. "do." (119). - T. 11225;135.
8.39. I)o.{Ng.) NOM.SGkirmam. "worm", NOM.PL--kirme,-GEN.SG . kirmei~ I)o.(Hz.) NOM.SG kirma m. "snake", NOM.PL kirme(l43). -T. 3438 II I)o.(Ng.) for "snake" is NOM.SG jon m., NOM.PLjona, GEN.SG jonei. - Sh. jonm.; T. 5110.
8.40. I)o.(Ng.) NOM.SG toom. "sun", NOM.PL taa!Ja, OBL.SG taas~. I)o.(Hz.) NOM.SG too m. "do.", NOM.PL taa, OBL.SG taas (146).T.5767.
8.41. I)o.(Ng.) NOM.SG guuwo m. "heel", NOM.PL guuwe, GEN.SG guuwoi. - T. 4479.1; besides I)o.(Ng.) NOM.SG pini f. '~heel; leg from knee toankle, calf; instep", NOM.FL pini!Ja, GEN;SG pinii H I)o.(Hz.) NOM.SGpini "heel" (150); LORIMER 1939,p. 201 has pi'ni "the lower leg". - Bur.pini"menschlichesBein vomKnie his· zum Knochel'Wade";:Sh:pini (BERGER1998, p. 315); T. 8168.
8,42. I)o.(Ng.) NOM.SG bobok m. "buttock; thigh", NOM.PLb6boka,GEN.SG bobokei .~ I)o.(Hz.) NOM.SG bobok "calf" (150). -'- Bur.(Hz.)buboq, Bur.(Yasin) boboq "Fleischmasse, Hinterbacke, Wade"; Kho.bubuq(BERGER 1998, p. 60) If I)o.(Ng.) for "calf" is pini f.; see 8,41.
8,43.I)o.(Ng.) NOM.SG gita f. and git f. "vagina", NOM.PL gito!J, GEN.SGgitei.- Bur.(Ng.) git·~ I)o.(Hz.} NOM.SG cut "do." (150).,.-- T. 4860.
8A4.I)o.(Ng.) NOM.se siroota m. "head", NOM.PL siroote, GEN.SGsirootei~-T.12452 ~·I)o;(Hz.)NOM.SGchutom. "ao." (151). -Bur.-chuti"Gipfel(des Berges); Haarschopfder Hindus; Kopffedern deI' V6gel; Hahnenkamm" II In I)o.(Ng.) ichuti (f. or m.) denotes "(tuft of hair on the) top ofthe head".
313Two Varieties of Oomaakf
314 MATTHIAS WEINREICH
: I
8A7.00.(Ng.) S60" one hundred" - T.12278; besidespoi-biis «p~i "fire~' 4biis"twenty") _~Oo.(Hz.) poi biis "do." (TIKKANEN1996, p. 4).,- T.·7655, 11616.
As a postscript t would like to sharesome of my observations concerningthe language situation of NagerOomaaki. The village 'Dumyal'(Oo.{:Ng.)1)omyaal) mentioned by LORIMER stillexists.Itis situated on the leftside ofthe Nager river, slightly belowUytim Nager, the valley's administrative centre. Like its coumerpart Mominabad in Hunza :Oomyaal is only inhabitedby 060ma. In autumn 2004 it comprised sixhouseholds with less than 20mostly elderly inhabitants. Nine years before that, in spring 1995, therehadstill been 20-25 villagers in seven households. At that time I was told thatonly 15 years ago (i.e. around 1980}more than 50 people were permanentlyresiding in the village. Over the last decades, more and more younger 00.speakers had been leaving Oomyaal for good in search of better employment opportunities. This may be the reason why the village gave,in starkcontrast-to its surrounding scenic beauty, the impression of a rather forlornplace. According to the villagers, all inhabitantsot :po:myaalwereprbfici~ntin 00. as well as in Burushaski. On several occasions I cou"ld observe howeven women and> young children were switching in the middle of the con..versation effortlessly between the two languages. The use of 00. was strictlylimited to conversations within their own community. On the appea.ra.nceof non-Oo. speakers everybody present would-- automatically change- intoBurushaski.
In 2004Oo.(Ng.)speakingfamilies were also living in Rabat/Chalt{threehouseholds) as well as in Danyor{two households) and in Gilgit (four households).7 All these families have their roots in Oomyaal. The ancestors of the060ma in Rabat had been settled in Chalt around70 years ago by the Tham(ruler) of Nager, so thatthey would provide their services as blacksmiths tot~~ 10~alviIIClger~..Ih~.fCllllilies.in:PClllYQrCl,tlc:l§iIgita.I'~ ~c,:Ql1Q1l:1icJnigrants
. who had moved to these places over the last decades.
7 - In 1995 Rabat still counted four and Gilgit five pb.(Ng.) speaking households(WEINREICH 1999,>p. 212). The disappearance of two entire,householdsfr()mou:r2004statistics is linked to the fact, that at the time of my first assessment only one elderlymember of each of the household was still using po. on a daily basis. With the demiseof these speakers the remaining family members switched completely -to Shina. OtherN ager pooma households where.po. is'not spoken anymore are to be found inAshqurdas,Budalas, Ghulmet, Minapin, Pisan, Rabat, Sikanderabad, Sumayar (all in or belonging toNager), Danyor und Gilgit.
References
8 Asimilar picture of rapid language decline could also be observed in Hunza, wherelocal-. community leaders have for years. been actively encouraging the remaining .1)0.speakers to discontinue the uScl of their traditional mother tongue in favour ofBurushaski.
.l).~ aresllhof this not entirely ~.mpopular measure only a few children c.ontjnued to speakthe langll,age of their parents. For more details on thelanguagesituati(m inHunza as pre-vailing in the beginning of the11990S, see BACKSTROM 1992. .
BACKSTROM, P. C. 1992: "Domaaki;" In: P. C;BACKSTROM/C. F. RADLOFF (eds.):Languages ofNorthern Areas. Sociolinguistic Survey ofNorthern Pakistan. Is,lamahad,voL 2, pp. 77-83; 293-295.
:B.(\ILRY, T. G. 1924: Grammar of the Shzna Language, consisting of it full grammar,with. texts and vocabularies ofthe .main or Gilgiti dialect and. briefer grammars (with vocabularies and textsJofthe Kohistani, G;lIresi and Dtasi dialects.London.
315TwoVarieties of Oomaakf
Most·members of the mentioned households knew 00. as well as Shinaand/orBurushaski. Some of the younger ones still understood 00. but spokeonly Shina. In all cases the use of 1)0. was restricted to the family domain.In Rabat. members of the older generation normally communicated witheverybo<lyin the fall1ily in. th~irt:r_aditipnaLrnother tongue. .The:y:ounger .generation showed a preference for the use of Shina IBurushaski while talk..ing roeach other and to their children. In Danyor and Gilgit 00. was onlyu,sed by the elderly, mostly to talk to each other. Although most members6ftheyollngeT generation weI'estillableto-uri.dersfaiidOo~;fort1ieir···active
inter-familiar communication all of them had almost completely switchedto Shina, even while talking to their parents}
All in all, as for 2004 the total number of Oo.(Ng.) speakers could beestimated at around 40 persons, most of them older then 50 years of age. Withthe prominent exception of SHABAN ALl, nobody _.ofrhe Oooma I spoketo had anything positive to say about his or her mother tongue. On thecontrary, especially younger speakers perceived 00; as nothing else than anobstacle on the. way to the desired full integration into their respective hostcommunity. For this reason most of the parents I met with had made theconscious choice not to speak 00. to their.childrenanymore,communicating with them instead in Shina or Burushaski.
The very limited size ofthe remaining speakers' community, its high per,..centage of elderly members and almost everybody's.strongly negative attitude towards the use of their original mother tongue makes it quite probablethat in one to two generations Oomaaki - in form of both of its dialects will cease to exist as a living language.
MATTHIAS WEINREICH316
BERGER,H. 1?98: DieBurushaski-SprachevonHun7-a undiNager. Ten III:W6rter-bl1ch. Wiesbaden. .
BlJDDRuss, G. 1983: "Pomaaki chot 'Ton'. Mit I3eitragen zur historischenLaut-lehre." In:MSS 42, pp. 5-21.
- 1984: "pornaaki-Nachttage zum Atlas derDardsprachen." In: MSS43, pp. 9-24.- 1986: "Hindiphul, pomaakiphute." In: MSS 47, pp. 71-77.- 1996: "Shina-Ratsel." In: D.B. Kapp (ed.): Nanvidhaikata. Festschrift fur Her"-
mann BergelWiesbaden, pp. 29.-54..FUSSMAN; G.. 1972:Atlaslinguistique·despctrtersDardesetKafirs.2volumes;Paris.·KREUTZMANN, H. 2005: "Linguistic diversity in space and'time: A survey iritne .
Eastern Hindukush and Karakorum." In:. Him'rzlayanLinguistics 4, http://www.1inguistics.ucsb.edu/HimalayanLing·uisticslarticles/HLJ04.html.
LORIMER., D. L. R. 1939: The l)umakiLanguage; Outli17esofthe Speech a/the l)oma,·or Berfcho, ofHunza. Nijmegen.
MASICA, C. P. 1991: The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge.RADLOFF, C.F. 1999: Aspects of the sound system ofGilgiti Shina. Islamabad (Stud-
ies in Languages of Northern Pakistan 4). .SCHMID, A. 1997: Die Dom zwischen sozialerOhnmacht und kultureller Macht.
Interkulturelle Beziehungen in Nordpakistan. Stuttgart.TIKKANEN, B.1996: Domaki: an endangered arqhaicCentrallndo-Aryan language
in Karakorum. Some notes on its strl1cture and development. Hand-out illustrating a lecture at Oslo University, dated 12 De~ember 1995 [rev. version 11April 96].6 pp.
-1999: Letter, dated 2 J~ne 1999. 4pages.TURNER, R. L. 1966-1971: A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan .languages.
London...WEINREICH,.M. 1999: c'Derpomaaki-DialekrvonNager." In:·StII 22, pp, 203-214.;~ .(forthconming): "The pomaaki language. An outline of its phonology, morphol
ogyand syntax." In: T. ORANSKAIA (ed.):]azyki Mira. Vol. 16. Moskva.ZOLLER, C. P. 2005: A Grammar and Dictionary afIndus Kohistani. Volume 1: Dic-
