Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169
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Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /pepi
pper mantle structure and dynamics beneath Southeast China
houchuan Huanga,b,∗, Liangshu Wanga,∗∗, Dapeng Zhaob,∗∗, Mingjie Xua, Ning Mia,ayong Yua, Hua Lia, Cheng Lia
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, ChinaDepartment of Geophysics, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 9 October 2009eceived in revised form 6 July 2010ccepted 26 July 2010
a b s t r a c t
We applied teleseismic tomography to 5671 relative travel-time residuals from 257 teleseismic eventsrecorded by 69 seismic stations to determine the 3D P-wave velocity structure of the upper mantleunder Southeast (SE) China. Our results show prominent low P-wave velocity (low-Vp) anomalies underSE China which may reflect the remnant magma chambers and channels of the Late Mesozoic igneous
rocks, which may be reheated by the upwelling mantle flow from the lower mantle driven by the deepsubduction in East Asia during the Cenozoic. High-Vp anomalies are revealed in the upper mantle to theeast of Taiwan, which represent the subducted Eurasian plate. Our result also suggests the break-off ofthe subducted Eurasian plate caused by its interaction with the Philippine Sea plate under Central andNorth Taiwan. The slab break-off may have created a mantle window through which the asthenospheric
igh h
ubducted Eurasian plateeep earthquakes
flow arises, causing the h
. Introduction
Southeast (SE) China is located at the southeastern margin ofhe Eurasian plate which is strongly interacting with the Philip-ine Sea (PHS) plate near Taiwan. The PHS plate moves toward theorthwest at a rate of ∼82 mm/year (Seno et al., 1993; Yu et al.,997), resulting in the Taiwan orogen which is one of the youngestnd most active orogens in the world (Sibuet and Hsu, 2004). Thetructure and tectonics around Taiwan have been of interest to sci-ntists all over the world. Many researchers have investigated theetailed bathymetry, seismicity, and earthquake source parametersnd studied the distribution of morphological features, seismo-enic structures and the state of strain and stress in and aroundaiwan (e.g., Kao et al., 1998, 2000; Chen et al., 2009; Wu et al.,009). Global and local seismic tomography revealed the structuraleterogeneities in the crust and upper mantle and provided clearvidence for the subduction of the Eurasian and PHS plates (e.g.,
ijwaard et al., 1998; Zhao, 2004; Wang et al., 2006; Wu et al.,007; Cheng, 2009; Li et al., 2009). Several tectonic models haveeen proposed to illustrate the plate interactions around Taiwanased on seismicity, submarine observations, tomographic images
∗ Corresponding author at: School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing Uni-ersity, 22 Hankou Road, Nanjing 210093, China. Tel.: +86 25 83593561;ax: +86 25 83686016.∗∗ Corresponding authors.
and GPS measurements (e.g., Teng et al., 2000; Lallemand et al.,2001; Malavieille et al., 2002; Sibuet and Hsu, 2004).
To the northwest of Taiwan, the Late Mesozoic igneous rocksexist widely in the Southeast of Mainland China, covering ∼39%of the entire area (Zhou et al., 2006). The nature and origin of theigneous rocks have attracted much attention (e.g., Jahn et al., 1990;Lapierre et al., 1997; Chen and Jahn, 1998). Zhou and Li (2000) andZhou et al. (2006) summarized the distribution of the igneous rocksin SE China based on the geological, geochemical and isotopic stud-ies. They suggested that the igneous rocks are closely related to thesubduction of the paleo-Pacific plate in the Late Mesozoic, and thedriving forces are the extension-induced deep crustal melting andthe underplating of basaltic magmas. Their results were obtainedfrom the analysis of rock samples from the surface and some xeno-liths from the lower crust and uppermost mantle. So far there havebeen few studies on the structure and dynamics of the crust andmantle under the study region, which hampers our understandingof the origin of the Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE China.
The upper mantle structure under SE China is important for usto understand the deformation within the Eurasian plate and man-tle dynamics associated with the interaction between the Eurasianand PHS plates. Furthermore, the India-Asia collision and the sub-duction of the Pacific plate controlled the tectonic activities of EastAsia in the Cenozoic. It is very interesting and important to clarify
how SE China has responded to the tectonic processes thousandsof kilometers away from the plate boundaries.
In this study we use teleseismic tomography to determine thefirst high-resolution local tomography of the upper mantle under SEChina. Our results provide clear evidence for the deep origin of the
162 Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169
Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic background of the study area (dashed square). The bold arrowshows the motion direction of the Philippines Sea plate relative to the Eurasian plate(Yu et al., 1997). (b) The 69 seismic stations used in this study are shown in differentsymbols, and the observation periods are shown at the upper-right corner. WhitelbYF
Lpii
2
6(NJSotsws
abPt
Fig. 2. (a) Epicentral locations of the 257 teleseismic events (solid circles) used inthis study. The square denotes the present study area. The three circles show theepicentral distances of 30◦ , 60◦ and 90◦ , respectively. (b) Seismograms of a typicalteleseismic event recorded by some seismic stations. The station names and the
ines show major faults in SE China, while the dashed lines denote the provinceoundaries. F1: the Shaoxing-Jiangshan Fault which is the boundary between theangtze and SE China blocks; F2: the Zhenghe-Dapu Fault; F3: the Changle-Nan’aoault. FJ: Fujian province; JX: Jiangxi province.
ate Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE China and the subducted Eurasianlate under Taiwan. The present study also provides important
nformation for understanding the mantle dynamics of SE Chinan response to the Cenozoic collision and subduction in East Asia.
. Data and methods
We used arrival-time data from teleseismic events recorded by9 seismic stations of three arrays deployed in SE China and TaiwanFig. 1). The first array consists of 26 portable stations deployed byanjing University in Fujian and Jiangxi provinces (NJU-FJ and NJU-
X); the second array consists of 36 permanent stations of the Fujianeismic Network (FJ-NET); and the third array includes 7 stationsf Broadband Array in Taiwan for Seismology (BATS). These sta-ions were generally equipped with broad-band three-componenteismographs with the recording times of 8–16 months (Fig. 1),hile some stations of the FJ-NET are equipped with short-period
eismometers.
We selected earthquakes with epicentral distances between 26◦
nd 90◦ (Fig. 2a), which have magnitudes ≥5.5 and were recordedy more than 5 stations simultaneously. We picked manually the-wave arrival times from the original seismograms (Fig. 2b), andhe picking accuracy is estimated to be 0.1–0.2 s. As a result, we
corresponding epicentral distances are shown on the left side of the seismograms.The vertical lines show the P-wave arrivals we picked manually. The event location(star) and the corresponding stations (triangles) and ray paths are shown on theinset map.
collected 5671 P-wave arrival times generated by 257 teleseismicevents recorded by the 69 stations. The seismic rays of the collecteddata crisscross well in both the horizontal and vertical directionsdown to 700 km depth (Fig. 3).
We used the tomographic method of Zhao et al. (1994, 2006)to invert the relative travel-time residuals for the 3D velocitystructure under the study region. Theoretical travel times werecalculated by using the iasp91 Earth model (Kennett and Engdahl,1991). Travel-time residuals were obtained by subtracting the theo-retical travel times and origin time from the observed arrival times,and relative residuals were calculated for each event by subtract-ing its corresponding mean residual from the raw residuals (Zhao etal., 1994). Distribution of average relative residuals at each of thestations is shown in Fig. 4, which reflects the lateral heterogene-ity under the study area. The residuals vary significantly with theazimuth, suggesting the existence of significant high P-wave veloc-ity (high-Vp) materials under both Taiwan and Mainland China, andlow-Vp materials under the Chinese coastal areas and Taiwan Strait.
A 3D grid was set up in the study area. Velocity perturbations
from the 1D iasp91 Earth model at the grid nodes were taken asunknown parameters. The velocity perturbation at any point in themodel was computed by interpolating the velocity perturbationsat the eight grid nodes surrounding that point. A 3D ray tracing
Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169 163
F n thisc
tetpLui
3
tvihcsctat
srtatt
c
ig. 3. Distribution of the 5671 ray paths from the 257 teleseismic events used iross-sections. The squares in (a) denote the seismic stations used.
echnique was used to compute travel times and ray paths (Zhaot al., 1992). The large and sparse system of observation equationshat relate the observed relative residuals to the unknown velocityarameters was resolved by using a conjugate-gradient algorithmSQR (Paige and Saunder, 1982) with damping and smoothing reg-larizations (Zhao et al., 2006). The station elevations were taken
nto account in the 3D ray tracing and inversion.
. Analysis and results
Teleseismic tomography cannot determine the 3D crustal struc-ure well because the teleseismic rays arrive at stations nearlyertically and so they do not crisscross near the surface. Hencet is necessary to correct the teleseismic relative residuals for theeterogeneous crustal structure. In this work we made the crustalorrection using the model CRUST2.0 (Bassin et al., 2000) which ispecified on a 2◦ × 2◦ grid for the lateral velocity variations of therust and Moho topography. We also made detailed analyses of therade-off between the data variance reduction and the model normnd selected the final 3D velocity model based on the result of therade-off analysis (Fig. 5a).
Figs. 6 and 7 show our final tomographic model. The root-mean-quare (RMS) value of the travel-time residuals is significantlyeduced after the inversion (Fig. 5b). The tomographic images showhe existence of two prominent high-Vp anomalies under Taiwan
nd Mainland China, while low-Vp anomalies spread widely underhe coastal areas and Taiwan Strait, being consistent with the dis-ribution of the relative residuals (Fig. 4).
To confirm the main features of the tomographic results, weonducted detailed resolution analyses. The checkerboard resolu-
study in the plan view (a) and in the (b) north-south and (c) east-west vertical
tion test (Zhao et al., 1992) is a well-used synthetic test. Positiveand negative velocity perturbations (3%) are assigned to the 3Dgrid nodes that are arranged in the modeling space, the image ofwhich is straightforward and easy to remember. Therefore, by justexamining the inverted images of the checkerboard, one can eas-ily understand where the resolution is good and where it is poor.In this work, we performed many such tests by adopting differ-ent grid spacings and found that the optimal grid spacing for thetomographic inversion of our data set is ∼100 km in the horizontaldirection and 50–100 km in depth (Fig. 8). The test results show thatthe checkerboard pattern is recovered well at depths greater than200 km under most of the study area, while at shallower depths itis only well recovered right beneath the seismic network.
The restoring resolution test (Zhao et al., 1992) is another way ofsynthetic test. In this test the obtained tomographic image is usedto construct the input model (Fig. 9a–e). The velocity perturbationsat the grid nodes with those ≥+1.5% and ≤−1.5% are changed to+3% and −3%, respectively, while those between −1.5% and +1.5%are changed to 0%. The inverted results (Fig. 9a′–e′) show that thevelocity anomalies in our images are well recovered. Through thesesynthetic tests, we believe that the main features of the tomo-graphic results (Figs. 6 and 7) are reliably resolved by our data setand inversion.
4. Discussion
The most prominent feature in the tomographic images is theextensive low-Vp anomalies under SE China (Figs. 6 and 7). This fea-ture is consistent with the thinner lithosphere (An and Shi, 2006)and higher heat flow (Hu and Wang, 2000; Hu et al., 2000) in this
164 Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169
F mic stC e res
rinawaa(SthMp
ig. 4. Distribution of the average relative travel-time residuals at each of the seisrosses and dots denote the early and delayed arrivals, respectively. The scale for th
egion. Two low-Vp anomalies are imaged in the upper mantle: ones located under the inland area (Fig. 7c), the other more promi-ent one is located under the coastal area (Figs. 6 and 7). A low-Vpnomaly is visible in the mantle transition zone and it is connectedith the low-Vp anomalies in the upper mantle. Fig. 10 shows
n east-west vertical cross-section of P-wave tomography alongprofile passing through SE China determined by Huang and Zhao
2006), which shows that low-Vp anomalies extend widely under
E China from the surface down to the lower mantle, similar tohat under the Philippine Sea. Around the low-Vp anomalies areigh-Vp zones which represent the subducting Pacific plate underariana, the Burma plate under Tibet and Tengchong, and the PHS
late under Taiwan. These high-Vp anomalies in the lower mantle
ations for the teleseismic events in each quadrant (a–d) and for all the events (e).iduals is shown beside (e).
suggest that the subducted slabs have penetrated the mantle tran-sition zone and entered the lower mantle (Zhao, 2004). The low-Vpanomalies under SE China and the Philippine Sea may represent themantle upwelling flow driven by the deep slab subduction.
Thus the question: why does the mantle flow arise under SEChina but is it bounded by the Yangtze Block to the northwest(Fig. 7)? Our tomographic results reveal prominent low-Vp anoma-lies in the upper mantle under the Yangtze Block which may
represent the root of the stable block with widespread Archeanbasement (Figs. 6 and 7) (Yang et al., 1986; Chen and Jahn, 1998;Zheng et al., 2006). In contrast, the Late Mesozoic igneous rockswidely spread in SE China (Zhou and Li, 2000; Zhou et al., 2006).Magma chambers and channels are thus required in the upper man-
Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169 165
Fig. 5. (a) Trade-off curve for the variance of velocity perturbations and root-mean-square (RMS) travel-time residual for the tomographic inversions with different valuesof the damping parameter. The numbers beside the dots denote different damping values from 1.0 to 100.0. The thick arrow represents the optimal damping value used inthis study. (b) Distribution of the relative travel-time residuals of our teleseismic data before (gray columns) and after (thick lines) the tomographic inversion.
Fig. 6. Plan views of P-wave tomography obtained in this study. The layer depth is shown below each map. Red and blue colors denote slow and fast velocities, respectively.The velocity perturbation scale is shown at the bottom. The gray bold lines and the black thin lines denote major faults and province boundaries in Mainland China, whilethe red triangles show the active volcanoes.
166 Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169
Fig. 7. Vertical cross-sections of P-wave tomography along the five profiles shown on the inset map. Red and blue colors denote slow and fast velocities, respectively. Thevelocity perturbation scale is shown below (e). The three long-dashed lines in each panel denote the Moho, 410- and 660-km discontinuities. The bold bars at the top of eachcross-section denote the land areas, while the reverse triangles indicate the trench locations (Bird, 2003). White dots and red triangles denote the earthquakes (Engdahl etal., 1998) and active volcanoes within 30-km width along each cross-section. The short-dashed lines show the inferred outline of the subducted slab. EUR: Eurasian plate;PHS: Philippine Sea plate.
Fig. 8. Results of a checkerboard resolution test. Open and solid circles denote fast and slow velocities, respectively. The velocity perturbation scale is shown at the bottom.The layer depth is shown below each map.
Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169 167
F e profir re the
tetflvSimr(ci
at
ig. 9. Results of a restoring resolution test (see text for details). Locations of thespectively. The velocity perturbation scale is shown at the bottom. Other labels a
le to cause the related magmatism. The chambers and channels,ven after 100 Ma, are good passages for the rising mantle flowhat is driven by the subduction in the Cenozoic. Thus the mantleow can reheat the chambers and channels and reduce the seismicelocity there. From this viewpoint, the low-Vp anomalies underE China may also represent the deep origin of the Late Mesozoicgneous rocks. The low-Vp anomalies under the coastal area are
ore prominent than that under the inland area. The contrast mayesult from the much stronger (more volcanic rocks) and younger142–67 Ma compared with 180–142 Ma) magmatism along the
oastal area in the Late Yanshanian than that in the inland arean the Early Yanshanian (Zhou and Li, 2000; Zhou et al., 2006).
A significant high-Vp zone is imaged in the uppermost mantlelong the coastal area (Fig. 6), which was also revealed by Sn-waveomography (Pei et al., 2007). Although extensive rising mantle
les are shown in Fig. 7. White and black colors denote low and high velocities,same as those in Fig. 7.
flow occurred under SE China in the Cenozoic, the Cenozoic volcan-ism with extreme high heat flow took place in only a few limitedsites along the active faults (Liu et al., 1995; Hu et al., 2000; Fedorovand Koloskov, 2005). At the same time, low heat flow and low tem-perature around the Moho are also found in some sites in the coastalarea (Hu and Wang, 2000; Hu et al., 2000). These results suggestthat the crust and uppermost mantle under SE China are not signif-icantly affected by the Cenozoic rising mantle flow as mentionedabove. Since the Late Mesozoic igneous rocks exist widely along thecoastal area with extensive volcanism, we interpret that the high-
Vp anomalies are caused by the cooled igneous rocks in the upper-most mantle. Nishimoto et al. (2008) made a similar interpretationfor the high-Vp anomalies in the lower crust under Northeast Japan.
High-Vp anomalies are revealed in the upper mantle to the eastof Taiwan, which vary significantly from north to south (Fig. 7).
168 Z. Huang et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 182 (2010) 161–169
Fig. 10. An east-west vertical cross-section of P-wave tomography along a profile passing through Southeast China (Huang and Zhao, 2006). Location of the profile is showno on thet elocity6
TfBtaaTtcqsntNas2id
dwDaHotia
n the inset map. The surface and seafloor topography along the profile is shownhe profile. Red and blue colors denote slow and fast velocities, respectively. The v60-km discontinuities.
he high-Vp anomalies under North and Central Taiwan extendrom the upper mantle down to the mantle transition zone (AA′,B′, CC′), while those under South Taiwan are mainly located inhe upper mantle (DD′, EE′). Considering the distribution of deepnd intermediate-depth earthquakes (Engdahl et al., 1998; Wu etl., 2008), we interpret the high-Vp bodies under North and Southaiwan as the subducted PHS plate and the Eurasian plate, respec-ively. Under South Taiwan, the subducted Eurasian plate looksontinuous from the Moho down to 400 km depth, and deep earth-uakes occur in the slab down to 200 km depth (Fig. 7d and e). Theubducted Eurasian slab has passed through the 410-km disconti-uity under Central Taiwan (Fig. 7b and c) and may have reachedo the mantle transition zone under the Ryukyu Trench beneathortheast Taiwan (Fig. 7a) (Teng et al., 2000). Receiver-functionnalyses show that the mantle transition zone is thicker with ahallower 410-km discontinuity to the east of Taiwan (Ai et al.,007). The result suggests that the Eurasian plate has subducted
nto the mantle transition zone, or at least down to the 410-kmiscontinuity, being consistent with our present results.
Our tomographic images also suggest the break-off of the sub-ucted Eurasian plate under Central and North Taiwan (Fig. 7b),hich has been proposed by the previous studies (e.g., Chai, 1972;avies and von Blankenburg, 1995; Teng et al., 2000; Chemenda etl., 2001; Lallemand et al., 2001; Malavieille et al., 2002; Sibuet and
su, 2004). The slab break-off plays an important role in the flippingf the subduction polarity (Teng et al., 2000). To the south of Taiwan,he oceanic part of the Eurasian plate (South China Sea (SCS) slab)s subducting under the PHS plate from the Manila Trench (Kao etl., 2000). The subducted SCS slab dragged the adjacent continental
top. White dots show the earthquakes that occurred within a 50-km width fromperturbation scale is shown at the bottom. The dashed lines denote the 410- and
lithosphere to subduct under Central and North Taiwan (Malavieilleet al., 2002; Sibuet and Hsu, 2004). As the PHS plate moved north-westward, strong interactions occurred between the PHS plate andthe subducted continental slab and caused the detachment of theslab (Lallemand et al., 2001; Sibuet and Hsu, 2004). As mentionedabove, the low-Vp anomalies in the upper mantle may have existedsince the Late Mesozoic, which must have been heating the aboveEurasian plate all the time and so weakened the plate, which madethe slab easier to break-off. The slab break-off may have created amantle window through which the hot mantle material or astheno-spheric flow arose into the crust, causing high heat flow and rapiduplift in the Taiwan orogen (Lee and Cheng, 1986; Teng et al., 2000).
5. Conclusions
We determined a detailed 3D P-wave velocity structure of theupper mantle under SE China by applying teleseismic tomographyto a large number of high-quality data recorded by many portableand permanent seismic stations. Our tomographic images showstrong structural heterogeneities under the study region. Promi-nent low-Vp anomalies are revealed in the upper mantle under SEChina, which may be closely related to the widespread Late Meso-zoic magmatism in the region. In the Cenozoic, active subductionsof the Pacific, Burma and PHS plates took place in East Asia. The
subducted plates have reached to the lower mantle, and subse-quently drove the lower mantle material to arise into the uppermantle through the Mesozoic magma chambers and channels. Thesubducted Eurasian plate under Taiwan is clearly imaged as high-Vp anomalies with significant lateral variations from south to north
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n the upper mantle. The Eurasian slab is continuous under Southaiwan, but it is broken-off under Central and North Taiwan. Thereak-off of the subducted slab created a mantle window throughhich the asthenospheric flow arises, causing the high heat flow
nd rapid uplift in the Taiwan orogen.
cknowledgements
We thank the Seismological Bureau of Fujian province, the Insti-ute of Earth Science of Academic Sinica, Taiwan, and the IRIS Data
anagement Center for providing the waveform data used in thistudy. Dr. G. Jiang kindly helped us at the data processing stage.rofs. G. Helffrich, C. Chiarabba and an anonymous referee providedonstructive review comments, which improved the manuscript.iscussions with Prof. Q. Wang, X. Zhou, J. Qiu and Dr. Z. Heere very helpful. We thank H. Zhu, Z. Li and others for theirelp during the field seismic experiments in Fujian and Jiangxirovinces. This work was supported by grants (40634021, DD09-3 and YPH08043) from the National Natural Science Foundationf China, the Scientific Research Foundation of Graduate School ofanjing University, and a grant (Kiban-A 17204037) to D. Zhao from
apan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Most of the figuresere made by using Generic Mapping Tools (Wessel and Smith,
998).
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