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Beyond
Hor i zons
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Hor i zons
Hal f Cent ur y of i r For ce Space Leader shi p
i sed
Edi t i on
avi d
N
Spi res
ni or Edi t or
ge
Bradl ey
ci at e Edi t or s
ck
Sturdevant
chardS Eckert
r Force Space
ommand
associ at i on wth
r Uni ver si t y
Press
998
For
sal e
by the
US Government Pr i nt i ng Off i ce
Superi ntendent of Documents Mai l
Sl op
SSOP
Washi ngton
D
20402 9328
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Li brary
of Congress Cat al ogi ng i n Publ i cat i on
ata
S pi r e s Davi d
N
eyond
Hori zons
a
hal f
cent ury
of
Ai r
Force space
l eadershi p
Davi d N
Spi res
;
Seni or
e d i t o r
Geor ge
Br adl ey I I I ;
a s s oc i a t e
e d i t o r s Ri ck
St urdevant Ri char d S
Eckert
I ncl udes
bi bl i ographi cal references and
i ndex
Ast r onaut i cs M l i ta r y Uni ted
S t a t e s
Space
Warf are
3
Space Weapons
98 125908
S N 1 58566 060 4
F i r s t
Pri nti ng J u l y
1998
Second Pri nti ng
Sept ember 2001
Thir d
Pri nti ng
J u l y
2002
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o
t he menn women
whom e r
or ce
space
hi s tory
n
t hose
who
recorded t i r achi evement s
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Contents
Foreword
Pref ace
Edi t or s Note
I ntroducti on TheDawnof theSpaceAge
Arnol dandvonKarmanForm
a
Partnershp
2
N C
and the Rocketeers
Lay
theGoundwork
Rocketeers Lead
the Wy
4
Wrti me
Provi des the Momentum rnoldandvonKarman
Establ i sh
the
Foundati on 7
i Before
Sputn k
The
Ai r
ForceEnters the SpaceAge
1945- 1957
RandProposes
a
Wrl d-C rcl i ng
Spaceshp
14
TheAi r Force
Shuns Bal l i s t i c M s si l es 6
Bal l i s t i c M ssi l es
Rece veNew
L i f e 21
TheAi r
Force
Studi es
Satel l i tes
24
Satel l i tes
Rece veNewL i f e 27
Ei senhower
Facesthe
Threat
of
Surpri se
Attack
29
Trevor Gardner
Energ zes the
M s s i l e Program
The
Ai r Force Commts
t o
the
F irst
Ml i tary
Satel l i te
35
The
Admn strati on
Commts
t o
the
F i r s t Ci vi l i an Satel l i te
38
The
Ai r
ForceReconsi ders
a
Ci vi l i an Satel l i te
43
Retrenchmnt on the
Eve
of
Sputn k
44
Retrospecti ve
Fromhe
Threshol dof Space 47
2
From
Ei senhower t o Kennedy TheNati onal
Space
Program
and t he Ai r
Force s
Quest f or theM l i t ar y
SpaceMssi on
958
1961
50
Sputn k
Creates a
Nati onal
Cr i s i s
5
The
Ai r
Force
Sei zes
the
I ni t i at i ve
5
The
Government Organ zes
f or
Space 56
RPTakes Control 57
N S J oi ns theCometi ti on
6o
N S
Takes Shape 65
Renewng
theQuest
f or
the
Ml i tary
SpaceMssi on 68
The
Ai r
Force
Seeks t o Consol i date I t s Posi t i on 8o
vn
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v i i i
The
Ml i tarySpace
Mssi onGoes t o
the
Ai r Force
86
TheAi r Force
Ri se
t o
Ml i tary
Space
Preemnence
93
3
TheAi r
Force
i n
the
Era
of
Apol l o A
Deam
Unf ul f i l l ed
96
The
Ai r
ForcePositi on i n
the
Spri ngof
1961 97
Sei z i ng
the
I n i t i a t i v e
101
Confronti ng
the McNamara
DefenseDepartment
TheAi r Force
Pl ans
andProgram
f or
SpaceLeadersh p
6
Deve opi ng
a Partnersh p wthNASA 9
TheAi r Force
Pursues a Dyna-Soar
and
SpaceStat i on 120
Set t i ng
Course
on
a Manned
Orbi t i ng Laboratory 126
AnEndanda
Beginni ng
33
4 From
he Gound
Up
The
Pathf rom
Experiment t o
Operati ons
136
Ar t i f i ci al EarthSatel l i tes BecomeOperati onal
137
Gound-BasedSpace
Survei l l ance
Comes
of
Age
6
AFl eet
of
Space
Vehi cl es
Sets
the
Course
162
SpaceI nf rastructure Provides the
Support
165
Organi zati on
Provides the Focus f or Space 168
V etnam
O fers the
Fi r s t
Ml i tary
Space
Test
169
The
Ml i tarySpaceCommuni ty i n
Transi t i on 7
Organi zi ng f or
Space
TheAi r Force Commts toSpaceand
an
Operati onal
Space
Command
174
ASpaceCommuni ty i n Dsarray
176
The
Nati onal Debateover DetenteandArmControl
178
The
Ai r
ForceCommts
to a
Space
Shuttl e
18o
The
Gow ngPromnence
of SpaceSystem i n the Late 1970s
184
Sovi et ASATTesti ng
Prompts
Space I ni t i at i ves 188
ADCOMsDemse
andthe
Search f or Space
Consensus 193
TheOrgani zati onal Pre ude
to
anAi r ForceSpaceCommand 196
The
Reagan
Admni strati on s Pl an f or Space i n 1981
2
The
Ai r
ForceForm
a Space
Command
2 2
An
Endi ngand
Poi nt
of Departure
2 7
6 FromSt ar Wars
t o t he
Gul f War
TheAi r
Force Moves t o
Create anOperati onal Capabi l i ty f or
Space 2 9
SpaceCommandSets
an
Operati onal
Agenda
A
Uni ted
St at es Space
Command
J oi ns the
Space
Communi ty 217
TheGow ng
Confl i ct
Over
Space
Roles
and
Mssi ons 219
The Chal l enger
D saster
Creates
anUncertai nLaunch Future 221
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The
Response
t o
the
Chal l enger ShockWves
8
General Piotrowski Chami ons
Operati onal Space 23
The
Bl ue
R bbon Pane
Provi des
SpaceAgenda
4
Ai r
Force
Space
Commnd
Gai ns
the
Space
Launch
Mssi on
8
TheDecade n Retrospect
4
7
Comng
of
Age
Operati on Desert Stormand Norml i zi ng
M l i t ar y SpaceOperati ons 243
Operati on Desert Sh e d Preparati on
45
Operati on
Desert
StormComat
55
Lessons Learned and Norml i zi ng
Ml i tary
Space
59
8 nAi r ForceVi si on
f or
t he
M l i t ar y
Space
Mssi on
Roadmp
t o the st
Century
27
A
Generati on
of
Leadersh p
i n
Ml i tary
Space
Act i vi t i es
27
n
Ar
Force
Vi sion
f or Another Generati on
of
SpaceLeadersh p 75
Appendi ces
85
Notes
299
Gossary
4
Bi b i ography
346
I ndex
369
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publ i c
t
l arge
s im l a r l y wi l l
gai n i nsi ght s
i nto i ssues andevent s
ei t her mnimzedor
omtted f rommai nstreamAi r Force
hi s tory
eyondHor i zons promses t o open t he door somewhat wder t o
s to ry that
t o
date
has
f or var i ous
reasons
not
r ecei ved
t he
at t ent i on
i t
deserves andr equi r es
Unquest i onabl y t he growng
avai l abi l i ty
of of f i c i l
records f romt he earl i er years
of
t heAi r For ce spaceprogramwi l l a l l o w researchers
t o i l l
i n
detai l s
m ssi ng
from
hi s
st udy andoffer new nterpretat i ons of some i ssues and
event s
As
t he
Ai r Force
moves i nto i t s second hal f cent ur y
t h i s
added
knowedge together wth
what
we
al r eadyknowf romt he
workof Dave
Spi r es
and
others canonl y hel p us understand
better
t he
f oundati on
upon
whi ch
theAi r Force of t he i century i s
emerging
Z
.w s~
THOMAS
S
MOORMAN
J R
General US F
Vi ce Chi ef of Staff of t he Ai r Force
Foreword
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eyondHori zons
earl y
1970s
however twodevelopments
woul d
rei nvi gorate the Ai r
Force space
programthesuccess of
i nstrumented
satel l i tes
and the Space Shuttl e
Chapter
4
examnes
the Ai r Force s
l eadership r ol e
i n the emergence of
a r t i f i c i a l
earth
satel l i tes duri ng
the i 96os
f or
communi cati ons
navigati on
meteorol ogy
and
survei l l ance andreconnai ssance Thesemssion functions hadbeen i dent i f i ed i n
the
l a t e
1950s
andwoul d
remai nthe bedrock
of space
act i vi t i es f or the
remainder of
the
century Booster
and
i nf rast r ucture
support par a l l el ed
the
r i s e
of unmanned
sate l l i tes TheAi r
Force
developed
more
powerfu l aunchvehi cl es
and
est abl i shed
worl dwde networks
f or ground-basedcontrol
of
sate l l i tes
space
sur vei l l ance
and
m s s i l e warni ng By
the
endof
the decade unmanned
m l i t a r y
spacecraf t had
demonstratedimportant
operational
appl i cati ons
i ncl udi ng
duri ng
the
Vi etnam
conf l i ct
the
f i r s t use
of
satel l i tes t o support
mli tary
requ rements i nwartime
Chapter di scusses
the
compl ex i nt er pl ay
of
space pol i cy or gani zat i onal and
operational i ssues
t hat
cumnated i n the
formti on
of the Ai r Force s Space
Com
mand The
maturi ng
of
unmanned
sate l l i tes
and the
advent of
theSpaceShuttl e
compel l ed
the
ser vi ce
to
confront
and
reassess i t s fragmentedorganization
f or
space
and
the
heretoforedomnant r ol e
of the
space
research and
devel opment commu
ni t y
Wth the
i ncreasi ng importance
of
space
f or
operational
commanders the
cent r al questions became
whether
the
research anddevel opment commands
shou d
continue
to
l aunch spacecr af t
andprovide
on-orbi t cont r ol
and
whether
the servi ce
shou d create
an
operational command
f or
i t s space act i vi t i es The debate l ed
to the
establ i shment of amaj or
command
f or
space
operations
i n September
1982
Chapter
descri bes the
e f fo r t s
of Ai r
Force
Space
Commandi n
the 198os to con-
s ol i dat e i t s
control
over space
system andmovetheAi r
force
f rom
an
operational
agenda
f or
space
to the creati on
of anoperational mndset f or space Al ong
the
way
the
command
had t o achi eve
an
ef f ect i ve working r e l at i onshi p wth
a
new
uni f i ed
Uni ted
St ates Space
Commandand
deal wth the space
l aunch
c r i s i s resul t -
i ng
f rom
the
Chal l enger di sast er By
the
end
of the
decadeAi r Force l eader s i ncreas-
i ngl y re f err ed t o
the operati onal i zati on of
space i n maki ngspace
system
cr i t i cal
t o
the
warf ighter
Chapter
7
f ocuses on the r ol e of space i n the Persi anGul fWr i n ear l y
1991
Thi s
conf l i ct
represented
the
comng
of
age
of ml i tary
spaceby demonstrati ng
the
val ue
of
an operational mndset
f or
space Duri ngDesert
Storm spacesystem t hat
t r adi t i onal l y
had
supported str at egi c requi rements
proved
s uf f i ci ent l y
f l exi bl e t o
provide
essent i al
t act i cal support t o
the
warf ighter
The
f i nal
chapter serves as
both
a
summary
of the
Ai r
f orce
space
story and a
point
of
departure
f or
assessi ng
Ai r
Force spaceprospects f or
thenewcentury
The
Gu f
Wr
provided
the
momentum
or
the Ai r
Force t o
take
advantage
of
the
f ur-
t her
technol ogi cal
growth and refi nement
of
mli tary
spacesystemand
the
emerg-
i ng
trendstoward
gr eat er
ml i tary use
of
ci vi l andcommerci al
space
capabi l i t i es
i n
order t o bett er
i ns t i t ut i onal i ze
spacewthin
the Ai r
Force The
studyconcl udeswth
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15/421
an
assessment of the Ai r
Force s
l eadershi p posi t i on i n the
ongoi ngdebate
over
servi ce
rol es
and
mssi ons and i t s vi si on f or the
nat i on s spaceprogramas
the
Uni ted States prepared
to enter the 21st century
Preface
I n
prepari ng
thi s
study
recei ved hel p f rommanyquarters
Above a l l
wsh to
thank
the
hi stor i ans at
Ai r
ForceSpaceCommand Drector of H storyM
George
Ski p Br adl ey
andDr R ckSturdevant and D R ck
Eckert
Al l
three read
the ent i re
manuscr i pt
and provi ded wse counsel
and
unsti nti ngencouragement
Ski p Bradl eydi rected the proj ect wth a f i rm
hand
and
provi ded
f u l l access
t o
the
weal th of i nformati on i n
the command s hi stori cal
archi ves R ck
Sturdevant
trackeddownmanydocuments
and
l abored mghti l y t o have cl assi f i ed materi al
downgraded andmadeavai l abl e f or myuse The knowedge
he shared
through
manyhours
of
di scussion contri buted substant i al l y t o my
understandi ngof
key
pol i cy
and
t echni cal
i ssues
O
speci al
note
earl y
i n
the proj ect
we
el ected
t o
defer
more
compl ete
coverage
of
the Ai r
Force-Nati onal Reconnai ssance
O f i ce
rel at i on-
shi p
unti l
a l arger porti on of thehi stori cal
record
i s accessi bl e R ck
Eckert of f ered
i mportant
suggesti ons
f rom
hi s perspecti ve
as
the
pri maryauthor
of
the
space
chapters
i n
the command s peri odi c
hi stor i es
He
al so
performed the
f i nal
edi ti ng of
the
manuscr i pt as wel l as
compl eted the
desi gn
and
page
l ayout
i n preparati on f or
pri nti ng al so
wsh
t o acknowedge
the
outstandingadmni strati ve support
provi ded
by
Ms Karen
Marti nof
the
command s
O f i ce
of
H story
ams peci al l y
i ndebted t o
three
hi s tor i ans
who
agreed t o
read and
comment on
the i n i t i a l
draf t f or accuracyand cl ar i ty M R
Cargi l l
Hal l
the
person responsi bl e
f or
contract
hi stor i es
at
the
Center
for Ai r
Force
Hi st ory of f ered
many
i ns i ghts
based on hi s extensi veknowedge and l ongexperi ence i n the ci vi l i an and
m l i t a r y
space
communi ti es N S hi stori anDr Roger Launi us
provi ded
val uablesugges-
t i ons
on
the porti ons of the
study
deal i ng
wth
ear l y rocket
devel opments
and i ssues
af f ect i ng N S al so
great l y benef i ted
f rom
the
comments
of Dr
Donal d
R
Baucom Bal l i st i c
M s s i l e
Defense Organi zati on
hi stor i an
whose
understandi ng
of
m s s i l e
defense and the St rategi c Defense I n i t i a t i v e i s
second
t o
none They, of
course
are not responsi bl e f or
my
i nt erpret at i on
of
the
A r
Force space
story
I ndi vi dual s
at
two
maj or
ml i tary archi ves
al so deserve speci al thanks D
Ti mothyC
Hanl ey
and D Harry
Wal dron,
I I I
of the
Spaceand
M s s i l e
System
Center
a t
Los
Angel es
A r Force
Base Cal i f orn i a generousl y al l owed
me
extensi ve
use
of thei r
i mportant
document
col l ect i on that beg ns
wth records of the
Western
Devel opment
Dvi si on
i n
the
ear l y
1950s
Col onel Ri chard
S
Rauschkol b,
com
mander
of the
A r Force Hi stor i cal Research Agency at Maxwel l
Ai r
Force
Base
A abama, al so
went
beyond
the cal l of
duty
t o support myresearch ef forts
As
a
resul t
benef i ted f romthe knowedge
and
hel pf ul ness
of
the
agency s
outstandi ng
group
of archi vi sts
and
hi stor i ans
al so wsh t o
acknowedge
D
Thomas Ful l er
Uni ted
St ates
SpaceCommandhi s t or i an whofurni shed usef ul documents
on
xvi i
8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
16/421
an
assessment of
theAi r Force s
l eadershi p
posi ti on i nthe
ongoi ngdebate
over
ser vi ce rol es andmssi ons and i t s vi s i on
f or the
nati on s
space
program
as the
Uni ted States prepared t o
enter the
21st century
Preface
I n
prepari ng
th is
study
recei vedhel p frommanyquarters
Above a l l wsh
t o
thank
the
hi stori ans at Ai r ForceSpaceCommand Drector
of
H storyM
George
Ski p Br adl ey
and D Ri ckSturdevant and D Ri ck
Eckert
Al l three read
the enti re
manuscr i pt
andprovided
w se counsel and unsti nti ng
encouragement
Ski p
Bradl ey
di rected
the
proj ect wth a f i r m
hand
and
provi ded
f u l l access
t o
the
weal th
of
i nformati on
i n the
command s
hi stori cal
ar chi ves Ri ckSturdevant
trackeddownmanydocuments and l abored
mghti l y
t o
have cl assi f i ed
materi al
downgraded
and madeavai l abl e f or my
use The
knowedge
he
shared
through
many
hours of
di scussi on
contri buted substanti al l y
to
myunderstanding
of
key
pol i cy
and
t echni cal
i ssues
O
speci al
note ear l y
i n
theproj ect we el ected
t o
def er
more
compl ete
coverage
of
the
Ai r
Force-Nati onal Reconnai ssance
Of f i ce rel at i on-
shi p unti l a l ar ger port i on of thehi stori cal
record
i s accessi bl e Ri ck
Eckert of f ered
i mportant
suggesti ons f romhi s perspecti veas the
pri maryauthor of
the
space
chapters i n the
command s
peri odi c
hi stor i es
He
al so performed
the
f i nal edi t i ng of
the
manuscr i pt as wel l as compl eted
the
desi gnand page
l ayout i n
preparati on f or
pri nti ng
l al so
wsh
t o acknowedge
the
outstandingadmni strati ve support
provi ded by
Ms KarenMarti n of the command s Of f i ce
of
H story
amspeci al l y
i ndebted
tothree
hi stori ans
who
agreed t o
read and
comment on
the
in i t ia l draf t f or accuracyand
c l a r i t y
M R
Cargi l l
Hal l
the
person responsi bl e
f or
contract
hi stori es
at
the
Center
f or
Ai r
Force
Hi st or y of f ered
many
i nsi ghts
based
on
hi s extensi veknowedge
and l ong
experi ence
i n the c iv i l ian
and m l i t a r y
space
communi t i es N S
hi stori an
D
Roger
Launi us provi ded
val uablesugges-
t i ons
on
the porti ons
of
the
study
deal i ng
wth earl y
rocket
devel opments and i ssues
af f ect i ng N S
al so great l y
benef i ted
f rom
the
comments
of
Dr
Donal d
R
Baucom
Bal l i st i c M s s i l e
Defense
Organi zati on
hi stori an
whose understandingof
m s s i l e defense and the
St rategi c
Defense
I ni t i at i ve
i s
second t o none They,
of
course are
not
responsi bl e
f or myi nterpretati on of
the
Ai r Force
space story
I ndi vi dual s
at
two maj or
ml i tary archi ves
al so deserve speci al thanks D
Ti mothyC
Hanl ey
andD
Harry
Wal dron,
of the
Spaceand
M s s i l e
System
Center
at
LosAngel es
Ai r
Force Base Cal i f orni a generousl y
al l owed
me
extensi ve
use of thei r
i mportant
document col l ect i on that begi nswth
records
of
the
Western
Devel opment Dvi sion
i n
the
earl y
1950s
Col onel Ri chard
S
Rauschkol b, com
mander
of the Ai r
Force Hi stori cal Research
Agency
at Maxwel l
Ai r
Force Base
Al abama, al so
went
beyond
the cal l of
duty
t o support
myresearch ef forts
As
a
resul t
benef i ted fromthe knowedge
and hel pf ul ness
of
the agency s
outstanding
group of
archi vi sts
and hi stori ans al so wsh
to
acknowedge Dr
Thomas
Ful l er
Uni ted
States SpaceCommand
hi stori an
whofurni shed
useful
documents on
xvu
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BeyondHori zons
contemporary
space i ssues as wel l as hi s
perspecti ve
on i ssues af f ect i ng
the uni f i ed
command
Addi t i onal l y amrateful t o
Lee
Saegesser S
Headquarters
H story Of f i ce archi vist who
provi dedsoundadvice
andaccess t o hi s
subst ant i al
ho d ngs on
Ai r
Force NASAi ssues
Speci al thanks ar e owed
t o
two
i ndi vi dual s cent r al
t o
the
Ai r
Force
story
General
Bernard
Schr i ever
t he
father
of theAi r
Forcespaceprogram
gavemthe
benef i t
of hi s
vi ews on
the ear l y
years
andformer Ai r
Force
SecretaryandD rector
of
the
Nati onal Reconnai ssance Of f i ce J ohn
L
McLucas he pedbroaden
my
under
stand ng
of
spaceprogram and i ssues duri ng
the
i g6os
and
1970s
Final l y
shoul d
be recogn zed
that
a book
of
thi s
nature
coul d
not
have
been
compl etedwthout the
benefi t of
the
work doneby
the Ai r
Forcespace
pi oneers
and
the
hi stor i ans
whodocumented
andrecorded
the
Ai r
Force
story
Wwhoare thei r
hei rs
ar e
f orever
i n thei r
debt
Davi d Spi r es
Spri ng
99
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ED TOR S NOTE
nearl y J anuary 1992 Li eutenant General
Thomas S
Moorman vi ce com
mander
of i r Force SpaceCommand cal l ed me t o hi s o f f i c e to
di scuss
a
proj ect
he
had i n mnd Speci f i cal l y
he asked
me t o l ook
i n t o
the
pos s i bi l i t y
of
havi ng
the Of i ce of i r
Force H story
prepare
a
hi story of the
Ai r
Force s
r ol e i n
space
s i nce i t s begi nn ngs
short l y
after Worl d
War
I n
Mar ch 1993 General
Moormanand mt w thDr Ri chard
Hal l i on
Chi ef
of
Ai r Force
Hi st ory
i n hi s
of f i ce at Bol l i ng AFB
Wshi ngton D
C General Moormanoutl i ned the proj ect
to
Dr
Hal l i on
andseveral
of hi s
staff
mmers
What General Moormanproposed
was
not on yvi si onary but al so hard
to
do
Hewanted
a
comrehensi ve
academc-
qual i t y book
that
woul d f or
the
f i r s t
t i me put
i n t o
an
uncl a ss i f i ed
t ext
a
survey
hi story
of the
ent i re range
of
act i vi t i es conducted
by
the
Ai r
Force
i n
space Not
on y
di dhe
request
a hi gh qual i t y
st udy
but
he wanted
i t
wri tteni n l ess
than
three
years and
publ i shed as soonafter
coml eti onas
possi bl e f ter di scussi ng several
ways
of
produci ng
the
book i n-house
at
the O fi ce
of
i r
Forcehi st ory Dr Hal l i on
suggestedcontracti ng-out
the
wri ti ng
of
the
hi s t o r y
t o a qual i f i ed hi s t o r i an and
author
Al though the O fi ce
of
Ai r
Force
H story had a
dedi catedhi s t o r i an
who
mnaged
contract
hi s tor ies
M
RCargi l l Hal l Dr
Hal l i on
had
a
di f f erent
mnage-
r i a l schem i n mnd
f or
t h i s pr oj ect
He
proposed that
the
Ai r Force Space
Com
mandH story Of f i ce
of
whi ch was Chi ef mnage
the
contract
to
ensure
t i mel i ness
and
qual i t y
as wel l as
ensure that
the
author sel ect ed
had access to al l the materi al s
Ax
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Beyond
Hori zons
necessary
t o complete
the
pr oj ect
A though
I had
never managed a
proj ect
of
t h i s
nat ur e I f e l t t hat
retai ni ngcontrol
at
Headquarters A r Force
Spaceommand
woul dbe
of
consi derabl e
benef i t
s i nce
mch
of
the documentati on and
corporate
mmry
on
the subj ect resi ded
at
the
headquarters
Moreover,
f e l t
t hat
by
keepi ng
the
book smnagemnt
i n Col orado Spri ngs I
coul densure t hat
the
studywoul d
remin f ai thful
t o
the goal s
and
expectati onsof
the l eadershi p
of
the
commnd
who
hadgenerousl y
agreed
t o
fund
the proj ect
woul d
l i k e t o
make
the
f i r s t of
mnyacknowedgments at t hi s poi nt Thi s pro-
j ect si mpl ywoul dnot be as i t i s
wthout the gui d nghand
of
General
Moormn
He
not onl y concei ved
the i dea
f or
the
book
and
set i t s i ni t i al
di rect i on
but he al so
spentmnyhourswthmexpl ai n ng
thehi story of the Ai r
Force i n space General
Moormn
an
hi s t o r i an
hi m el f i f
he
hadthe ti me coul d cert ai nl y
have
authored
t h i s study As i t
was
he
pat i ent l y
worked
wthm
to devel opa
pr oj ect
outl i ne
t hat
eventual l y become the
basi s
f or
the
content porti on
of
the
cont ract s
statement
of
work I owea
great
debt of
grati tude
t o General Moormn
who
not onl ygavemhi s
vi si on
of the
Ai r
Force s
r ol e i n space
but
i nspi red mt o t ackl e t h i s
proj ect
wth
enthusi asm
and
exci tement
W
began the process
of contracti ngwth anauthor
or authors)
i nMay
1993 and
submtted
a
Request f or Proposals (RFP) i n
September
of t hat
year
Af ter
rel easi ng
t he
RFPs
we
recei ved
a
numer
of
excel l ent proposal s
d
l i k e
to
mkeanother
acknowedgment
here
The
contracti ngprocess
i s
mchmre
compl i cated
than
I
ever i mgi ned, andI devel oped
a great
deal of
admrati on
and respect
f or the
ded catedcontracti ng o f f i c i a l s at
Peterson
AFBs 21st
SpaceWng
whoprovi ded
the
expert i se to
complete
the
contract Unfortunatel y,
the
contracti ng of f i ci al s
had
l i t t l e
or no
experi ence i n
contracti ng
f or
t he wi ti ng
of an
academc
qual i t y
hi storybook,
and
we
l earnedtogether the f i ne nuances of t h i s uni que
process
Wat amazedm
was
t hat despi t e
the
f act
t hat t h i s
proj ect
i nvol ved
a
rel at i vel y sml l amunt
of
mneycompared
t o
what
contracti ng of f i ci al s
norml l y
managed,
they
treated
m
sml l workl oadwth as mchconcern
and
ded cati on
as
any
of theother l arge scal e
andmul ti -ml l i on dol l ar tasks
they
norml l y compl eted I
am
ndebted t o
the 21st
Contracti ng
Squadron f or the
outstand ng
support
theygave
the proj ect
f rom
the
f i r s t day
of
work
tothe
very f i nal
dayof contract compl eti on
I n
part i cul ar I am
especi al l y i ndebted
to two
contracti ng of f i ci al s Ms
Gerald ne
Humhrey
and
Ms
DonnaTi ernan Thei r
professi onal exper t i se w l l i ngness t o
understand
the
r equi r e-
ments
andstandards
I i ns i s t ed on, and
pati ence
were cri t i cal
t o
the success of
t h i s
endeavor Gerry
Humhrey
workedwthmf rom
the
begi nni ng
t o
the end of the
proj ect
and
I
amrat ef ul
f or her
constant support
and i nt erest
Sel ecti nga contractor was noeasy task as
both
Ms HumhreyandMs Tiernan
warned
m
The
sel ect i on team
t hat assi sted
m
was i nval uabl e
M R
Cargi l l Hal l
of
the O fi ce
of
Ai r
Force
H story
and
D R ck Sturdevant
of the Ai r
ForceSpace
ommandH story
Of ice
spent
mny
hours
revi ewngandevaluati ngproposal s
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Edi t or s Note
I
can
not
overesti mate
M Hal l s
hel p
as hi s experi ence i n
contracti ng hi s tor i cal
st udi es
at the O fi ce of Ai r
Force
H story
was
i nval uabl e at
l l
st ages
of
t h i s
pr oj ect
Dr
Sturdevant s
knowedge of
space
hi story
andhi s wde rangi ngpubl i cati on
record
ensured
that
had
an
expert s breadth
of
knowedge
i n sel ect i ng
the correct
contractor
Af ter many
months
of
work
the
contract was
f i n a l l y
awarded i n
December
1993
t o
Dr Davi dNSpi r es who teaches hi story
at
the Uni versi ty
of
Col orado
i n Boul der
Dr
Spi res
was
uni quel yqual i f i ed As an
Ai r
Force
of f i c er
he
taught
hi story
t
the
Ai r
ForceAcademy and
he
has
al s o authored
a
numer
of
books
on
Ai r
Force
hi story as
contract
author
f or the O fi ce
of
Ai r
Force
H story
He
not onl y proved t o bean
abl e wr i t er but
has demonstrated
real personal
i nter est i n
the
success f ul completi on
of
t h i s
proj ect
Both
the
Forewordand
Pref ace
have
gi ven ampl i f i cati on t o
the
nature
of
t h i s
study I
woul d
l i k e t o
add that
t h i s work
was
compl eted
on
schedul e
and
as bud
geted
Thi s was accompl i shedi n
no
smal l
measure
because of the
ded cati on
of a
numer of peopl e manyof whom
have
al ready
namd I woul d
l i k e toacknow
edge sever al
others
who
may
not have been menti onedpreviousl y Li eutenant
Col onel Wl l i amSemmer
an
I nd vi dual
Mobi l i zati on Augmentee assi gned to
Ar
ForceSpace
Command s
Drectorate
of
Hi st ory hel ped sel ect
photos edi ted copy
and
produced
the
gl ossar y and i ndex H s
sever al read ngs
of
the narr ati ve
ass i sted
us
i n el i mnati ng
a
numer
of
errors and i ncons i st enci es 2ndLi eutenant Deni se
Bost i ck
a r eser vi st worki ng i n the Drectorate of H story f or a ti me tookgreat pai ns
to
f i n d and reproduce
a numer
of photos whi ch appear
i n t hi s book
andass i sted
i n
a numer
of admni strati ve
tasks i n
support of i t s
completi on Colonel
Bi l l y
Meazel l
I nspector General at
Ai r
ForceSpaceCommand generousl ycontri buted
hi s
ti me
and t al ent t o create
the
dust j acket ar t Despi te
an extremel y
busyschedul e
he donatedhi s spare
ti me
to create
an a r t i s t i c
representati on
of
thehi story of the
Ar Force i n space
M Freda
Norri s
and M
Karen Marti n
Edi t o r i al As si s t ant s i n
t he
D rectorate of
Hi st ory accompl i shednumerous admni strati ve tasks
not onl y i n
the
producti on
of the
book but al s o i n
the
contracti ng
process
as
wel l
as
the
con
tract
management aspect of t h i s task Freda and
Karenmadea much
more s i g n i f i -
cant
contri buti on
than
t hei r
normal
modesty
al l ows
themt o
admt
D
Spi r es has
al readymenti onedthe contri buti ons
of our
three outsi de
r evi ewer s M R
Cargi l l
Hal l of the O f i ce of
Ar Force
H story D
Roger
Launi us Chi ef
of the
NASA
H story Of f i ce andD Donal d
aucom hi s t o r i an f or t he
Bal l i s t i c M s s i l e
Defense Organi zati on
I
woul d
l i k e
t o addmy
personal appreci ati on
to them
They
spent
manyhours
advi si ng
meonthemanagemnt
of
t hi s pr oj ect as wel l as
gi vi ng
Dr Spi r es the
benef i t of
t hei r vast pr o f ess i onal exper t i se
i n space hi story
am
i ndebted
to
them
f or t hei r w l l i ngnes s
to
spend
both
t hei r pr of essi onal
ti me
and
i n manycases
t hei r
personal t i me t o
review
andcommnt
on
the
manuscr i pt
At t hi s
poi nt
I need t o
acknowedge two
people
who
have
l abored
unceasi ngly
to hel p
compl ete
thi s
study
Dr
R ckSturdevant
and
D R ck
Eckert Both D
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BeyondHori zons
Sturdevant andDr
Eckert ar e Staff H stori ans i n
the Ai r
ForceSpaceommnd
D rectorate of
H story
and
have
workedwthm
si nce
mappoi ntment as Chi ef
of
that
of f i ce
i n
spri ng 1992
They
are
both
l ongti me
Ai r
Forcehi s to r i ans
and
have
worked i n Ai r ForceSpaceommnd
f or mnyyears
Thei r
knowedge of space
hi s tory
and the
commndhas proved
i nval uabl e
at every step
of theway
Dr Spi r es
has
graci ousl y acknowedged
thei r
contri buti ons but
need
to thank
them
even
more Theynot on yspent
mchprofessi onal ti me
provi d ng
research materi al to
Dr
Spi r es, gui d nghim
o other sources,
and
revi ewng
and
edi t i ng
the
book but
havecounsel edmnumerous ti mes i n everyphaseof
the
management of thi s
pr oj ect
They haveperformed j obs
too
numerous t o
name but
woul d l i k e to
acknowedge speci f i cal l y
thei r
contri buti ons as Associ ate Edi tors
As Sen or Edi t or ,
chose
to
adopt
a
semnari ngmthodf or reviewng each
chapter
Dr
Spi r es agreed
and
i t was duri ng
these
semnars hel deach ti meDr Spi r es compl eted
a
draft
chapter,
t hat
they
mdeespeci al l y s i gni f i cant contri buti ons t o t hi s
pr oj ects
Thei r
i nsi ghts andcomment s
werenot
on y usef ul t o Dr Spi res as hecompl eted
f i nal
chapter drafts but served toprovi dean
hi stori cal
f ramework
t hat hel ped mol d
the
context
and
subtext
of the
proj ect
Dr
Sturdevant was especi al l y
cr i t i cal
i n ensuri ng
that mnycl assi f i ed documents
were
downgradedf or Dr Spi r es use He
s
one
of
the
most
ded catedpr of essi onal s serving i n the
Ai r Force
H storyProgram andone
cannot
prai se hi s contri buti ons
enough
Dr
Eckert
has
been unquest i onabl y
the
dri vi ng
force i n completi ng thi s study Hehas probabl y
read the
mnuscri pt more
than
any
of
us
as an
edi tor
t i s
due
t o hi s personal ded cati on
that
havebeen
f reed
f rom he mndanetask
of copy-ed ti ng Fortunate y
f or t he
proj ect,
hi s knowedge
of
spacehi s tory al so
al l owed
hi m
o
make s t yl i s t i c and
content changes
of
gr eat
val ue
t o theauthor Moreover Dr Eckert s exper t i se
i n
wordprocessi ng proved
i nval uabl e
as hedeveloped
the
l ayout andcompl eted
the
pageproofs
as
wel l
as
the
el ect roni c
f i nal
di sk
copy
of
the
book
He
worked
di l i gent l y t o
ensure t hat l l
as-
pects
of
the pri nti ng
process
werecompl eted
wth the hi ghest standards
H s work
wththe
Defense
Pri nti ng Servi ce was
cr i t i cal
t o theti me yproduct i on
of
thi s
vol ume Thi s book woul d
not havebeen
possi bl e
wthout
the
ded cated servi ces
of m
two
col l eagues, Dr Sturdevant andDr
Eckert, and thank them or thei r
dedi cati on professi onal i sm
and
advice t hat
was gi ven f r eel y
throughout
thi s l ong
four-year process
al s o need
thank the
headquarters staf f
who
supported
the
D rectorate
of
H story s
ef forts
t o produce
thi s studyspeci al thanks goes
t o
the
D rector
of
Fi el d
Support Colonel
Robert
Koen g whoas Chai rmn
of
the
command s othAnn -
versary
Commttee
ensured
t hat
funds
were
avai l abl e
to pr i nt
thi s book So
mny
staff
members
at
the
headquarters provi dedsupport
toward
the
completi on
of
thi s
study
that
i t
i s
i mpossi bl e
to
namthem
l l
woul d
however l i k e t o espec i al l y
thank
thosestaf f
mmerswhoread the
mnuscri pt
as part of the
secur i ty
and
pol i cy
review
process
overseenby
the command s D rectorateof
Publ i c
Af f ai r s
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22/421
Most
i mportantl y a
pr oj ect of t hi s nature can not be
successf ul l y
concl uded
wthout support f rom
the
top From
he
f i r s t
day
t hi s
proj ect
began
the
l eadersh p
at
Ai r
Force Space
Command
has provi ded
unfai l i ng support
both
i n terms
of
fundi ng and manageri al
gui dance woul d
especi al l y l i k e to thank the twoVi ce
Commanders
who
supportedt hi s
proj ect i n every
phase
of
i t s accompl i shment
Li eutenant
General
Thomas S
Moorman
r
and
Li eutenant General
Patri ck
P
Caruana They provi ded
l eadersh p t o
ensure
theproj ect
was
appropri atel y sup
ported
and thei r
personal
i nterest
i nspi red
al l those
par t i c i pat i ng
i n
the effort
woul d al so l i ke t o
thank the commanders
of
Ai r
Force Space
Command
each
of
whom
n
turn
never waver ed i n thei r support
and
i nter est f or t hi s study General
Charl esHorner General
J oseph
Ashy
and General
Howel l
Estes I I I Thei r
comments and advi ce
each
ti me
bri efed the
pr oj ect
to them
were al wayspos i t i ve
and
f requentl y i nsi ghtf ul
Fi nal l y whi l e
Ai r
Force SpaceCommand
has
provi dedfundi ng
and
support
f or
t he compl eti on of t hi s
st udy
the
command
has exer ci sed
onl y securi ty
and pol i cy
revi ewof
the
manuscri pt
The
content and concl usi ons ar e s ol el y those
of
the
author
and
donot
necessari l y
refl ect
the
vi ews
of the
D rectorate
of
Hi st or y
Ai r
Force SpaceCommand
or the
Uni ted States
Ai r
Force
George
radl ey
D rector
of
H story
Ai r Force SpaceCommand
Edi t or s Note
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INTRODUCTION
The
Dawn
of
the
Space
Age
I n maki ng t he
deci si on
a s
t o
whet her or
not
t o
under t ake
const ruct i on of such a
[ s p a c e l c r a f t
now[ 19461,
i t
i s
not
i nappropri at e
t o
vi ewour present s i t u a t i o n a s
si ml ar
t o
t h a t i n ai rpl anes pri or t o t he f l i g h t of t he W i ght brothers .
We
can
s ee
nomore
c l e a r l y
a l l
t he
u t i l i t y
and
i mpl i cat i ons
of spaceshi ps t han t he W i ght brothers
coul d
s ee f l e e t s of
B-29s
bombi ngJ apan
and a i r transports c i r c l i n g t he
gl obe
.
n
1946,
t he aut hor s of t he f i r s t Ai r Force-sponsoredProj ect Rand (Research
andDevel opment)
studyon t he feasi bi l i t y of
a r t i f i c i a l
earth
s a t e l l i t e s
apt l y
charact eri zed
t he chal l enge
and uncert ai nt y surroundi ng
t he count ry ' s
i n i t i a l
f or ay in to t he space age Postwar
skept i cs
d i smssed
proposed s a t e l l i t e
and
mssi l e
proj ect s as excessi vel y
c o s t l y , t echnol ogi cal l y unsound, ml i t ar i l y unnecessary, or
simpl y too f ant asti c,
whi l e
space advocat es t hemsel ves remai nedhard pressed t o
convi nce
opponents
and s t i f l e
t hei r own
sel f - doubts
.
Space
r epr esent ed
anew
ocean, a
vast unchartedsea yet t o be expl ored Thedawn of t he space age
brought many
quest i ons
but offered f ewanswers .
Coul d
s a t e l l i t e s be successf ul l y
produced, l aunched, and orbi t ed? I f t echni cal l y f e a s i b l e ,
what ml i tary-or
c i vi l i an sc i ent i f i c - f unc t i ons shoul d they
perform
How
should space f unct i ons
be organi zed? What space pol i c y woul dbest
i nt egrate
space i n to
t he
nat i onal
securi t y
agenda?What
shoul d
be theAi r Force
rol e i n
space?
8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
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Beyond
Hori zons
I n
vi ew
of
t he uncert ai nt i es
i nvol ved, t he peri od
f romt he
cl ose
of t he
Second
Worl dWar
t o t he l aunchi ngof t he f i r s t
Sputni k i n t he f a l l of 1957 proved t o be t he
concept ual
phase
of t he nat i on' s
space program
Onlyby
t he md- 195os, a
f u l l
decade after t he
1946
Rand st udy, coul d observers i dent i f y two
si des
of anat i onal
space
pol i cy
t hat would
characteri ze
t he
Ameri can
space
programfrom
t he
Ei senhower presi dency t o t he
present day One
s i d e compri sed
a
c i v i l i an
s a t e l l i t e
e f f o r t ,
termed Proj ect Vanguard, desi gned t o l aunch a
s c i e n t i f i c
s a t e l l i t e by
t he
end
of 1958 a s part of t he I nt ernat i onal Geophysi cal Year . ' F i l e ot her , an Ai r For ce- l ed
ml i t ar y
i n i t i a t i v e , sought t o
pl ace
i n to
eart h orbi t
a
str at egi c r econnai ssance s a t e l l i t e
capabl e
of provi d i ng
v i t a l
i nt el l i gence about Sovi et of f ensi ve
forces
.
The
Ai r
Force
pl ayed
a
cent ral
r o l e
duri ng t he f ormat i ve era bef ore Sput ni k
and
af t erwar d
when t he nat i on' s
l eaders establ i shed
space
pol i cy and
organi zed
t o con-
f ront
t he Sputni k
chal l enge
. TheNat i onal SpaceAct of 1958
created
t he c i v i l i a n
agency,
t he
Nat i onal
Ai r
and
SpaceAdmni str at i on
(NASA),
t o
operat e
t he c i v i l i a n
space e f f o r t , whi l e
t h e Ai r
Force and
ot her ml i tary servi ces
andagenci es j ockeyed f or
posi t i on
w t h i n t he
Def ense
Depar t ment and t he overal l nat i onal space program
Al thought he Ai r Force
won
t he cont est f or ml i t ar y supremacy among t he s e r -
v i c e s ,
i t
seemed
t o
many
Ai r
Force l eaders t hat
t he
pol i cy of promoti ng t he
peace-
f ul uses of space
meant
a d i m ni shed
r o l e f or Ai r Forc e space
i nt erests and a threat
t o t he
nat i on' s securi t y .
Nevert hel ess,
by t he endof
t he
Ei senhower
admni st rati on,
t h e Ai r Force
space
program
reveal ed
t he
basi c
def ense
support mssi on charact eri s-
t i c s
i t would
retain f or
t he remainder of
t he cent ur y
.
Arnol d
and
von
Karman
FormaPartnershp
The
Ai r
Force
space
saga
began
w t h
t he
part nershi p
of
General
Henry
H
Hap
Arnol d, Commandi ng Gener al of
t he ArrnyAi r Forces (AAF), and t he br i l l i ant
s c i e n t i s t ,
D
.
Theodore
von
Karman,
Di rect or of
t he
Guggenheim
Aeronaut i cal
Labor at ory
a t t he
Cal i f orni a
I nst i tute of
Technology
(GAFCT) . Toget her they
provi ded
t he emergi ngAi r For c e w t h a st r ong
research
anddevel opment f ocus
andchamp onedAi r
Force
i nt erests i n t he
new
mssi l e and s a t e l l i t e
f i e l d s
. Thei r
l egacy wouldendure
Hap
Arnol d
and
D
. von
Karman f i r s t
met
i n
1935, when
Arnol d v is i ted
hi s
f ri end,
D . Robert
M l l i kan,
head of
t he
Cal i f orni a
I nst i tute
of Technology (Cal
Tech) i n
Pasadena,
Cal i f orni a,
whi l e
ser vi ng
a s commander of t he F i r s t Wng,
Gener al
Headquar t er s
Ai r
Force,
a t
nei ghbor i ng
March
Fi el d
.
The
two
men
coul d
hardl y
have appeared more
di f f erent Arnol d radi at ed
physi cal
energy
and
heart i ness f rom
hi s
l arge
f rame,
whi l e t he
short,
sl ender
i nt el l ectual
Hungari anel ni gre
exuded
a
qui eter,
l e s s forceful presence . Yet
t he
twoment ook
t o each ot her i mmedi atel y The
Ai r
Corps
bri gadi er general ' s l ong- st andi ng
i nt erest
i n
avi at i on
t echnol ogy
and
associ at i on w t h t he Nat i onal Advi sory
Commttee f or
Aeronaut i cs
(NACA) hel ped
spark an i mmedi atepersonal
and prof essi onal
f r i endshi p . Back
i n t he
Fi rst
Worl d
8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
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8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
26/421
Beyond
Hori zons
ai rpower, and sol ved
a host
of aeronauti ca
probl ems .
Al armedby
report s of
German
turboj et
devel opments
i n
1940,
f or examp e,
the
NACAest ab l i shed
a
Speci al
Commtteeon
J et
Propul si on, and f ol l owed i n 1944 wth a
Speci al
Commtteeon
Sel f - Prope l l e d Gui ded
M ssi l es
. Al thoughthe
NACAi ntended t o work
di l i gent l y
wth
the
Navy and
Army
Ai r Forces
on
these
threats,
the
need t o provide
qui ck
f ixes throughout
the conf l i c t
meant
t hat
basi c
research
became secondary At
war' s
end
the
NACA
provedeager
t o
l earn f romthe war
by
conti nui ng i t s cooperati ve
research
e f for ts
wth
the
m l i t ar y
. I n
an
agreement si gnedbetween the
NACAand
the
servi ces i n
1946,
the
part i es
agreed that the
ef fec ts
of
accel erated
enemy
research
anddevel opment i n preparati on f or war hel ped
to
create anopportuni ty f or
aggres-
si on wh chwas promptl y expl oi ted Th s l esson i s the most expensi vewe ever had t o
l earn
W
must make
cer t ai n t hat
wedo
not f or get i t .
The
NACA' s
postwar v is i on
embracedsupport of Ameri can
supersoni c
f l i ght
probes
by
means
of smal l
sol i d -propel l ant soundi ng rockets, and
the
X seri es of
hi gh- al t i t ude,
rocket-propel l ed
research ai rcraf t
. The
f i r s t rocket-powered
ai rcraf t ,
Bel l
Laboratory' s X-1,
broke
the sound
barr i er on
14
October
1947
wth
Captai n
Charl es Chuck
Yaeger
at
the control s
.
H s
h is tor i c f l i ght became
the f i r s t
of
many
i ncreasi ngl y
hgher and faster experi mental ai rcraf t
f l i ght s toward
the
f r i nges
of
space The l a s t ,
the
s i ngl e -p l ace X-zoADyna-Soar (named f or dynamc soari ng) ,
woul dbe
the Ai r Force' s best hope
t o l aunch
a mannedboost-gl i de rocket
ai rcraf t
to the
border
of space Al though i t di dnot
become
operati ona after i ni t i al
develop-
ment
i n the
l ate
1950s, the Dyna-Soar
served as
a precursor of the
Space
Shuttl e of
the 198os
.
Al though
the
NACA
expressed i nt erest
i n
rocket
propul si on, i t s
focus
r e-
mai ned centeredonaerodynamc
experi ments
and mannedf l i ght wthn the eart h' s
atmosphere. Space research seemed
whol l y
outsi de i t s experi enceand i nt erest s . 7
Rocketeers
Lead theWy
Spacef l i ght
represented
acha l enge
f ar
more daunti ng than
t radi t i onal avi ati on
Al though f u ture Ai r Force
l eaders woul d
l ay cl a mto spacef l i ght
as a
l ogi cal exten-
si on
of
Ai r Force operati ons i n the
atmosphere,
avi ati on
technologyof fered onl y
l i mted sol uti ons
on
the
road
to outer space
. Al though
the
t echni cal advances t hat
l ed
f rom
reci procati ng
t o j et turbi ne engines
powered ai rcraf t hgher
i n to
the upper
atmosphere,
the
oxygen-dependent
ai rpl aneremai ned
conf i ned t o
the atmosphere
Rockets,
on
the other hand, operate
i ndependent
of
theatmosphere
by re l y i ng on
the i r
own
i nt ernal
propel l ants
:
f uel
andoxi di zer
.
I n the i r
f l i ght through
i ncreasi ngl y
thnner
atmosphere
on
theway
t o
ai r l ess
space,
rockets
become progressi vel y
more
e f f i c ient
. Al thoughthe
post-Worl d
Wr I I
Ameri can
rocket research
ai rpl anes coul d
provide useful
i nformati onon
the
gui dance
and
control chal l enges facing
vehi c l es
i nthe upper
atmosphere,
thei r smal l
rockets
coul d
never
break
the bonds
of
gravi t y,
andthey
remai ned
primari l y
aerodynamc
vehi c l es
. To operate ei t her manned
spacecr af t
or
i nstrumented
sate l l i tes
i n outer space, rockets needed suf f i c i ent t hrust
8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
27/421
TheDawn
of
the
Space
Age
to
boost t h e i r
payl oads i n to
orbi t
where cent ri f ugal
force bal ancedthe
eart h' s
gravi t at i onal f i e l d
.
Thecha l enge of manned
spacef l i ght
had capti vated the
i maginati ons
of
dream
ers
f or
centuri es
.
Yet
the i r
i deas
remai ned
onl y
i d l e musi ngs
unt i l
technologi ca
progress i n the l ate 19t h century
l ed
seri ous
enthusi asts
t o consi der
l i qui d-propel -
l ant rockets as
boosters of
spacecr af t .
Amongthe
p oneers
of l i qui d-propel l ant
rocket research l i nked to vi si ons of manned
spacef l i ght , t h r ee
men-Russi an
Konstanti n Tsi ol kovsky, German-RomanianHermannOberth, andAmeri can
Robert
Goddard-paved
the
way f or
the
succ essf ul
mli tary
and c i vi l i an
space
programs
of
the
second hal f of
the
20th
century Wh l e t hei r research
i ni t i al l y
l ed
to
producti on of bombardment
rockets
f or
use
by
t hei r
r espec t i ve m l i t ar y
forces
i n
the
SecondWorl d
War,
they a l l remai nedcommtted
t o vi si ons
of spacef l i ght
v
Theearl i est of the space t ri umvi rat e,
mathemati cs
teacher Konstanti n
Eduardovich
Tsi ol kovsky,
i n
1895
publ i shed
the
f i r s t
t echni cal
essays
on
ar t i f i c i a l
earth sate l l i t es . Bythe end
of
the
century, hehad
worked out the theory
of
a
l i qui d-
f uel ed rocket dependent
on kerosene t o acheve suf f i c i ent exhaust vel oc i t y . For
the
next
20 years
he
i mmersedh mel f i n t heoret i cal
studi es
but remai ned l argel y un-
knownt o the worl doutsideRussia Yet,
by
the
ti meof
hi s deathi n
1935,
hi s p oneer-
i ngwork
hadhel ped
the
Sovi ets
establ i sh a strongprewar rocket and
j et-powered
ai rcraf t devel opment program
wh ch
l ed t o
the space
programof
the
postwar
era
.
Al thoughHermann
Oberth
al so taught mathemati cs andproduced i mportant
t heoret i cal
studi es
on
spacef l i ght, he
assumed
the
rol e of
publ i c i st
f or
rocketryand
spaceexp orati on to
ent husi ast i c European
audi ences
after
Worl dWr I . I n
1923 he
est ab l i shed
hi s
reputati on
i nthe
new
i e l d
of astronauti cs
wth
the
semnal
publ i ca-
t i on,
The
Rocket i nto Interp anetary
Space,
i n wh ch
he
descri bed
the
t echni cal
requi rements f or
propel l i ng
sate l l i t es i n to
earth orbi t
.
I n 1927
he
hel ped
f ound
the
GermanSoci ety f or
Space
Fl i ght , wh ch
became
the
most i nf l uent i al of
the numer-
ous rocket
soc i et i es
i n Europe
By 1931, Oberth s workwth
the Soci ety
came t o
the
attenti on
of
the German
Army,
wh ch
saw
i n
sponsorsh p
of
t he youngrocket
sc ient ists
a
means of
obta ni ng
bombardment
rocket s
f or
an
armysore l y con-
strai ned
by
the Versai l l es
Treaty
Amongthe Society members whoj oi ned the
Army
proj ect i n
1932
was a 2o-year
ol d
engineer namedWernher
vonBraun Af ter
1933,
the
Nazi regi me
expanded
the Wehrmacht
programand i n 1937 begandevel op ng
the
Peenemuende
experi mental
s i t e
on the
Bal t i c
coast
under
supervi si on
of
Captai nWal ter Dornberger
. Al thoughvonBraunand hi s
col l eagues
hadnow
o
focus on l ong-range
rockets
to
hel p
f uel Germany' s
mli tary expansi on,
they
con-
ti nued t o
dream
of
manned
spacef l i ght
. Duri ng the SecondWorl d
War,
wh l e
the
Luf twaf fe
produced
the
V1aerodynamc pul se- j et c rui se
mssi l e, the
Wehrmacht' s
Peenemunde
rocketeers devel opedthe f ar more
i mpressi vebi g
rocket,
the
V-2
Known
as
the
A-4 t o the rocket speci al i sts , the V-2 measured 46
feet i n l engt h,
wei ghed
34,000
pounds,
andapproached a range
of
200 ml es under
69, 1oo pounds
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28/421
Beyond
Hori zons
of
thrust
produced
by
i t s l i qui d-propel l ant engine
To
the
Al l i es
the V-2presented
a
f ri ghteni ng
weapon
t hat
coul d
not
be
thwartedwth
any
knowndefense
Af ter the
war Ameri cansdi scovered
t hat
German
p ans
had c al l ed f or
an
i nt ercont i nent al
ba l l i s t i c
mssi l e
t o st r i ke
New
York by
1946
To
the
German
rocketeers,
however,
the A-4a ways represented
t he f i r s t rungon
the l adder
t o
space Af ter the war, the
Ameri can
Army' s
Operati on
Papercl i p brought
Dornberger,
von
Braun,
and ahost
of
other Germanrocket expert s to the
Uni ted St at es,
where
they
j oi ned the
Army' s
rocket
programwth
t h ei r vi si ons
of
spacef l i ght
s t i l l
al i ve
.
TheGerman
rocket
spec i al i s ts f r eel y
acknowedged the i r
debt t o Ameri can
rocket
pi oneer, Robert
HGoddard . Unl i kehi s Russi anand
German
contemporar-
i e s ,
Goddard
i mmedi atel y movedbeyond t heoret i cal
studi es
to pract i cal experi men-
t at i on . Hea ways f oundapp i ed researchmore
exc i t i ng than t heoret i cal studi es
.
Fromi s
post
as
a
physi cs professor
at
Cark
Uni versi t y, Goddardbegan
experi -
menti ngwth
powder
rockets,
and
i n
1914
recei ved a
patent
f or hi s
l i qui d-propel l ant
rocket engine
I n 1920
the
Smthsoni an
rel easedhi s
hghy
t echni cal
paper,
A
Method
of
Reach ng
Extreme
Al t i tudes,
wh chdescri bed
vari ous rocket-propel l ed
experi ments
that coul d
beconducted as h ghas
50 ml es
i n al t i t ude .
H s
paper al so
i ncl uded a t heoret i cal argument
f or rocketi ng a
payl oad
of
f l ash
powder t o
the
moon, wh chdrewpubl i c censure after a NewYork Times reporter r i di c ul ed the
i dea
i n
pri nt .
The
experi ence l e f t
Goddard
badl y scarred and
more thanever
i ncl i ned
t o
f ocus
on pr i vat e research
.
By
1926
he
had bui l t
and tested
the f i r s t l i qui d-propel l ant
rocket , and i n 1935 successfu l l y l aunched
a
gyroscopi c - s tab i l i zed
rocket
t o an al t i -
tude
of 7000
feet . Event ual l y ,
the
p r o l i f i c experi menter
amassed
an
amazi ng
214
patents
f or hi s
desi gns and devi ces
.
But
Goddard preferred
worki ng
al one
and
j eal ous l y guarded hi s work f rom
other space
ent husi ast s
l i k e the i ntrepi dmembers
of
the
f l edgl i ngAmeri can Rocket
Soci ety
I n
t he 193os
Goddard
movedhi s i ncreasi ngl y
compl ex
l i qui d
propel l ant
experi -
ments f rom
Massachusetts
t o
the NewMexi co desert, where
he
worked
wth
hi s
w fe
and
vari ous
assi stant s
supportedby
grants
f rom
the
Guggenhei m
Foundati on
Guggenhei m
of f i c i al s
qui t e
nat ural l y
sought
t o
bri ng
GoddardandvonKdrmdn' s
Cal
TechRocket Research Proj ect
teamtogether . Charact er i st i cal l y , Goddardproved
rel uct ant , andvon Karman
refused
t o col l aborate wthout f u l l di scl osure
of
Goddard' s research resul t s .
Desp tethe
acknowedged i mportanceof Goddard' s
work
f or
f u ture
rocket
devel opment, act i ve
col l aborati on
between
vonKdrmanand
Goddard mght
wel l
havep aced
the
postwar Ameri can
rocket
programon better t echni cal
f ooti ng
and
created
morei ncent i ve f or
theAi r
Force t o
promote
research i n
ba l l i s t i c
rather
than
aerodynamc
mssi l es
after
thewar .
Cooperati on
between the
twocamps
woul d
cer t ai nl y have
hel ped the
neophyte
rocket group
at
Cal Tech, wh ch
haddevel oped
convi ncing
theori es
about rocket f l i ght but hadno experi mental
data t o work wth
Moreover, as
Mal i na
recal l ed, i n
the
1930s most sc ient ists
general l y
consi dered
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The
Dawn
of theSpaceAge
rocket experi ments a par t of sci ence
f i c t i on
.
Wth s o
l i t t l e
avai l abl e pract i cal
dat a,
Goddard' s assi st ance
would
have beenwel comed by von
Karman
and
t he young
rocket eers,
who
proceeded l argel y i ndependent l y of Goddard
Warti meProvi des the
MomentumArnoldandvon
Karman
Establ i shthe
Foundati on
Meanwh l e, von
Karman
and hi s Cal Tech rocket teamconti nued t hei r research i nt o
hi gh- al t i t ude soundi ng rockets and j e t - a s s i s t e d
t akeof f (J A CO devi ces
by
examni ng
pot ent i al
f u e l types, rocket nozzl e
shapes,
react i on
pri nci pl es, and thrust measure-
ments They
managed t o
keep t hei r experi ments af l oat w t h ver y l i t t l e
money u n t i l
General
Arnol d
came
t o t he
rescue
i n 1938
. Lat e
t hat
year, Arnol d, now
hi ef
of t he
Army
Ai r Corps, hel ped convi nce t he Nat i onal Academyof Sci ences t o provi de
i n i t i a l fundi ngf or t he Cal Tech
proj ect
.
Short l y
thereafter, i n J anuary 1939, t h e Ai r
Corps
assumed
di rect i on
of
t he
program
and
i n
J une
awarded
the
researchers
a
$i o, ooo
cont ract . Von
Karman expl ai ned t hat t he
programs l a b e l ,
Ai r
Corps J e t
Propul si on
Research,
GALCT#1, i ncl uded
t he
word
j e t
rat her t han rocket
because of w de- spread skept i c i smamong hi s
col l eagues
. As oneof themtol d hi m
he
was
wel come
t o
t he
Buck
Roger s
j ob.
Mal i na wse l y
commtted
hi s
team
o
expl ore bot h
l i qui d-
and
sol i d-propel l ant
rocket
engi ne
research
.
Theteammade
rapi d
progress once they devel opedt he f i r s t
r e l a t i v e l y l ong- durat i on, cont rol l ed- expl osi on sol i d-propel l ant engi ne . I n August
1941, t he Cal Tech engi neers
carri ed
out
thei r f i r s t f l i g h t
t es t s i n whchCaptai n
Homer
Boushey,
usi ng
f our JATOcani sters attached
t o
hi s
Ercoupe
monop ane,
rapi dl y
cl imbed t o
an
al t i tude
of
20
f e e t
.
Mal i na
was
ecstat i c . Conti nued
t e s t
suc-
cesses
brought
i n a J ATOcont ract f romtheNavy, andvonKarmanandMal i na i n
1942 deci ded t o capi tal i ze on
t hei r
growng
proj ect
by formng
a pri vat e
company,
Aeroj et
Engi neeri ng
Company,
t o produce t he j e t cani sters
andwork on
ot her
rocket- rel at ed
contracts
they expect ed
t o recei ve.
I n
l a t e
1943, a f t e r revi ew ng i nt el l i gence reports
onGerman
rocket
devel opment,
von
Karman
wrote a
br i e f
paper enti t l ed, Memorandum
on t he Possi bi l i t i es of
Long-RangeRocket P r o j e c t i l e s , i n wh chhe proposed
t hat
t he
AAFsupport
devel opment of
a
1o,ooo-pound ai r- breat hi ng
mssi l e
w t h
a
sevent y- f i ve- ml e
r ange a s
an
ext ensi on
of J ATOresearch .
When
t he
AAF
demurred, t he
Army
OdnanceDepartment
st epped
i n
and
offered
von
Karman
a
f a r
more
chal l engi ng
cont ract . Thesci ent i st readi l y agreed t o
theArmy' s proj ect ,
whchcal l ed f or
produci ng
a
20,000-pound
l i qui d-propel l ant
rocket wtha
burn
t i me of sixty
seconds
and
a
rangeof near l y
for ty
ml es
. Ogani zedunder FrankMal i na,
t he
l arge
proj ect
becameknown
a s ORDC T ( represent i ng Odnance,
Cal i f orni a Inst i tu te of
Technol ogy) ,
unt i l
renamed t he J e t
Propul si on
Labor at ory
(J PL)
i n November 1944
.
Thei r work
woul d l ead t o t he
successf ul
l aunchi ng of
t heWC
orporal
s e r i e s
of
l i qui d-propel l ant
soundi ng
rockets
a f t e r t he
war .
Meanwhi l e, a s t he Army' s Od-
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Beyond Hori zons
nanceDepartment
f ocused
pri mari l y on rocket s, t he AAF' s Ai r Mat er i el Command
preferred t o s t r es s ai r- breat hi ng mssi l es .
Duri ng
muchof
t he
war , vonKarmdn
served a s
an
aeronaut i cal
t r oubl eshoot er
f or
HapArnol d,
t he
Commandi ng
Gener al
of
t he
AAF
By
1944
Arnol d
had
become
convi nced t hat t he next war, unl i ke t he l a s t , woulddemand
f ar more t echni cal
competence
As
Chi ef
of
t he
Army
Ai r
Forces, he sai d, hi s
j ob
was
t o
proj ect [ h i ms el f ] i n t o t he
future; t o
g e t
t he
bes t br a i n s
a v a i l a b l e , have
themuse
a s
abackground t he l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c devel opment s i n t he a i r
ar ms . . . and
determne
what s t e p s t he Uni t ed
S t a t e s
shoul d t a k e t o have
t he be s t Ai r
Force
i n t he
wor l d
t went y y e a r s
hence
.
I n September of
t hat
year he cal l ed onvonKarmdn
t o
l ead
a
study
group
compri sedof c i v i l i a n and
ml i t ar y
experts
t o
chart
a course
f or
t he
Ai r Force
future
.
Arnol dout l i ned hi s
obj ecti ves
f or t he groupi n a 7November
1944
memorandum
AAFLongRangeDevelopment Program
I n order t o pl ace Ai r Forceresearch
and
devel opment program
ona
sound
and
cont i nui ng b a s i s ,
he cal l ed f or a pl an
whose
f arsi ghted t hi nki ng
would
provi de a
sound
prescri pt i on
f or prepar i ng Ai r
Force research anddevel opment program a s wel l a s congr essi onal fundi ng r e -
quest s
. Because our countrywi l l not support a
l arge
st andi ngArmy and person-
nel casual t i es
are
d i s t a s t e f u l , we w i l l cont i nue t o
f i ght
mechani cal rat her t han
manpower
wars . G ven
t hese
const rai nt s,
he
s a i d ,
howcan
sci ence
be used
t o
provi de t he Ai r Forcew th t he best means t o ensure t he nat i on' s securi t y?
WthArnol d' s str ong support t o overcomeany bur eaucr at i c i mpedi ments,
von
Kdrmdn began
work
i mmedi at el y,
and
byDecember
had
brought t oget her
a group
of twenty-two renowned
sci ent i st s
and
engi neers
. Cal l i ng i t s e l f
t he ArmyAi r Forces
Scient i f i c Advi sory Group, i t
woul d
remai n i n
pl ace
andcont i nue a s t he Scient i f i c
Advi sor y Board a f t e r t h e Ai r Force became a separat e servi ce i n September 1947
Fol l ow ng f i e l d t r i ps t o EuropeandRussi a t o
assess
t he
current state
of
research,
von
Kdrmdn' s
groupon22
August 1945
i ssued a
pre l i mnary
report, Were
W
Stand,
whchexpl ored
t he
fundamental r e a l i t i e s of future a i r
power
. The report argued
t hat t echnol ogi cal
advances l ed byGermany dur i ng t he war s e t t he
st age
f or an a i r
force
t hat must embracesupersoni c f l i g h t , l ong- r ange gui ded
mssi l es w t h hi ghl y
destr uct i ve
payl oads,
and
j e t propul si on t o achi eve a i r superi ori t y
.
Von
Karmdn
vi ewed
government-supported
research cent ers onthe
Germanmodel a s ama or
el ement
i n
t he
postwar nat i onal def ense
structure
. WereW
Stand
rai sed cruci al
quest i ons
about
t he f uture of a i r power , andthe Scient i f i c
Advi sory Groupi nt ended
t o
provi de answers
i n i t s f i n a l report t o
General Arnol d
due
a t t he
end
of t he year .
Meanwhi l e, whi l e
vonKarmdn
andhi s team
i n
l a t e 1945 gat hered addi t i onal
f i e l d
data andprepared thei r
f i n a l
report
t o t he AAF
c h i e f ,
Arnol d
t ook addi t i onal steps
t o shape t he future Ai r Force' s
s c i e n t i f i c f ocus .
Two
of t he most i mportant i nvol ved
t he creat i on of
Proj ect
Randand
a
new
Ai r
Staff
of f i c e t o est abl i sh
and
di rect t he
ArmyAi r
Forces'
research
and
devel opment agenda.
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31/421
TheDawn
of
the Space
Age
I n
September
of
1945,
Frankl i nCol l bohm
of
the
Dougl as
Ai rcraf t Company
proposed
that the
AAF est abl i sh a
research proj ect to
provide i t wthl ong-range
str at egi c
p anni ng
based
on
ongoi ng s c i en t i f i c and technologi ca
advances
.
Col l bohms
i deas
had
taken
shape
duri ng
hi s
warti me
associ ati on
wth
D
.
Edward
L
. Bowes, whohad served
as
General Arnol d' s speci al t echni cal
consul tant
.
Late
t hat
month,
Arnol dandBowes fl ew
to
Cal i f orni a,
where at Haml ton Fi el d, north
of San
Franci sco, theymet wthCol l bohmandDonal dDouglas,
whostrongl y
supported
the
proposal
.
At
the i r
meeti ng, Arnol d deci ded
t o
di vert $i o ml l i on
f rom
the
f i s c a l year
1946
procurement
budget
f or Dougl as
Ai rcraf t
t o organi ze a
group
of
c i vi l i an sc i ent i st s
and engi neers
at
SantaMoni ca, Cal i f orni a, wh ch
woul d
f uncti on
i ndependentl y
of the company' s
exi st i ng
research and
engi neeri ng
di vi si on I t woul d
serve
as a
t echni cal
consul tant
group chargedwth
operati ons
anal ysi s
and l ong-
range
p anni ng
to examne future
warfareand
the best
way
the
Ai r
Force
coul d
perform
i t s
mssi ons
. Shortl y
thereafter,
the
Ai r
Materi el
Command
(AMC)
and
Dougl as
Ai rcraf t
agreed
t o
a t hree- year,
1o
ml l i on contract f or Proj ect
Rand
to
begi n
operati ng i n May
1946
.
To
provide
an
Ai r Staff f ocus
f or
Proj ect
Randand
other research
act iv i t ies , General
Arnol d
al so
created
the
o f f i c e
of
Deputy
Ch ef
of Ai r Staff f or
Researchand
Devel op-
ment .The
new
osi t i on,
wh ch
became
e f fe c t ive 5
December
1945,
drewc r i t i c i s mf rom
the
powerful
Ai r
Materi el
Command wh chheretofore
t i ght l y
control l ed the
AAF
procurement process
f rom
ini t ial requi rements t o comp eted systemAMCfavored
r i g i d
d i r e c t i ves est ab l i shi ng spec i f i c
AAF-determnedgoal s
f or
contractors
wthout
i nvol vi ng c i vi l i ans
i n
the
p anni ng
process C r i t i c s compl ai ned
t hat
research f e l l
vi cti m
to
producti on
p r io r i t i e s at
AMC
The
new
arrangement
r ef l ec t ed
Arnol d' s
f l e x i b l e approacht o
research
anddevel opment
whereby
Randwoul dconduct broad
i nvest i gat i ons t o
see
what coul d
be
accomp i shedand recommend
courses
of
acti on
and the newAi r Staf f o f f i c e woul dprovide
cent ral
di r e c t i on . AMCnever reconci l ed
i t sel f t o
the newAi r Staf f
posi t i on,
wh l e the Ai r Staff remai ned unwl l i ng
t o
assi gn
i t
spe c i f i c responsi bi l i t y f or
the
sat el l i t e
andguided
mssi l es programs
. Thesewoul d
remai n
subj ects
of i ntra-Ai r Force
organi zati ona
squabbl es
throughout
the pre-
Sputni k peri od .
Nevert heless,
ini t ial
prospects
f or achevingArnol d' s goal s
appeared
bri ght when
he sel ect ed
as hi s f i r s t
Deputy
Ch ef of
Staff f or
Research
and
Devel op-
ment
the
hard-dri ving
combat
vet eran, Maj or
General
Curti s E LeMay
I n
November
1945,
General
Arnol d
becamethe
f i r s t
promnent
m l i t ar y
f i gure
to
address f u ture warfare
i n
terms
of
mssi l e and
sat el l i t e
pot ent i al .
I n
a report
to
Secretary of
Wr
Robert Patterson
on 12
November, the
ai r
chi e f descri bed
the
future
i mportance
of mssi l es
and sate l l i t es
as
a
means of
preventi ng
another Pearl
Harbor-l i ke surpri se attack
on
the Uni ted
St at es,
and
he outl i ned hi s vi s ion f or
the
nat i on' s ai r armStrongl y opposi ng
shortsi ghted focus
onpresent day forces,
he
cauti oned t hat
8/7/2019 Beyond Horizons a Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, Revised Edition
32/421
Beyond
Hori zons
n a t i o n a l
s a f e t y
woul d be endangered by an Ai r Force
whose doct ri nes and
t echni ques a r e t i e d
s o l e l y
t o t he equi pment
and processes
of t he moment .
Present equi pment i s
but
a s t e p
i n progress,
and
any
Ai r Force
whi ch does
not
keep
i t s
doct ri nes
ahead
of i t s equi pment , andi t s
v i s i o n
f a r
i n t o
t he
f u t u r e ,
can
onl y
del ude the
nat i on
i n t o
a
f a l s e
sense of
s e c u r i t y
. Z
For
Arnol d,
t he
forces
of t he future must never
be sacri f i ced f or
t he
forces of
t he
present .
Wh l et he
current state of t echnol ogy convi ncedh m
o
support manned
a i r c r a f t , he envi si oned a pi l ot l ess a