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24.956Topics in the Syntax of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages
March 21, 2003Causativization
1 Ways of Causative FormationCausative are formed synthetically in most Indo-Aryan languages.
(1) (Nepali, from Wallace (1979))
a. Transitive:
maI
kanwork
gar-chudo-Prs.1Sg
I do the work.
b. Causative of Transitive:
ma
I
kam
work
gar-au-chu
do-Caus-Prs.1SgI have the work done.
Some Indo-Aryan languages also have periphrastic causatives.
(2) a. (Nepali, from Wallace (1979))
maI
kamwork
gar-nado-Inf
lag-au-chuLAG-Caus-Prs.1Sg
I have the work done.
b. (Gujarati, from Hook (1999))
mEI.Erg
tem-nethem-Dat
aathis
kaamwork
kar-taado-Impfv
kar-ido-NF
didhaaGIVE-Pfv
I made them do this work.
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1.1 Transitivity Alternations1.1.1 The NULL Class
An initial class is theablautingorvowel-changetype. In this class of verbs, there is no overtcausative affix. The phonological form of the intransitive is derived from the phonologicalform of the transitive via shortening.
(3) NULL-class
a. Jaayzaadproperty
bat.divide
rahiiPROG-FEM
hai.be-PRES
The property is dividing.
b. Ram-neRam-ERG
jaayzadproperty
baat.divide
dii.GIVE-PERF
Ram divided the property.
I.e. intransitivebat. , transitivebaat..
1.1.2 The AA Class
A second class involves an overt affix, -aa. In this class, an intransitive with no overt affixis paired with a transitive showing the suffix-aa. The presenceof-aatriggers phonologicalshortening processes that readjust the intransitive stem form.
(4) AA-Classa. Makan
house.Mjalburn
rahaPROG.M
hai.be.Prs
The house is burning.
b. D.akaito-nebandits-ERG
makaanhouse.M
jalaaburn
diyaa.GIVE-PERF.M
Bandits burned the house.
1.1.3 Transitivity via thebe/doalternation
(5) Adjective + Light Verb
a. kamraaroom.MSg
saafclean
thaabe.Pst.MSg
The room was clean.
b. kamraaroom.MSg
saafclean
hobe
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.MSg
The room is becoming clean.
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d. A B V-vaaRam-neRam-Erg
Mahesh-seMahesh-by
Ramesh-koRamesh-Acc
bach-vaa-yaasave-VAA-Pfv
Ram had Ramesh saved by Mahesh.
2. The Distribution of - aa.
(17) Synonymous-aaand-vaacausatives:
a. Ram-neRam-ERG
Bill-seBill-INST
kaamwork
kar-aa/vaa-yaado-CAUS2/CAUS2-PERF
Ram had the work done by Bill.
b. Ram-neRam-ERG
Bill-seBill-INST
Sita-koSita-DAT
kitaabbook
dil-aa/vaa-yiigive-CAUS2/CAUS2-PERF.FEM
Ram had the book given to Sita by Bill.
All of the verbs that show this behavior are verbs that do not show -aa in the tran-sitive form. However, the verbs that have synonymous -aa and -vaacausatives area listed subset of the verbs that have no -aain the transitive. This requires a certaintype of information to be listed with -aa, in a way which has implications for themanner in which morphological spell out occurs.
3. The structures of the various causatives.
2 A Traditional Picture
This approach is stated in directional terms. An operation applies to a basic form toyield a derived form.
A different use of the term causative
Roughly the picture in Masica (1976), Wallace (1979), Hook and Koul (1984a) etc.
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2.1 Basic Transitive
Antitransitive(18) a. Basic Transitive
SikandarSikandar
skuulschool
ke-baaharGen.Obl-outside
t.aufiya:toffees
ba:t.distribute
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.Sg
Sikandar is distributing toffees outside the school.
b. Derived Intransitive
skuulschool
ke-baaharGen.Obl-outside
t.aufiya:toffees.f
bat.distribute
rahiiProg.f
hEbe.Prs.Pl
Toffees are distributing outside the school.
2.2 Basic Intransitive
Derived Transitive
(19) a. Basic Intransitive
jangalforest
jalburn
rahaaProg
haibe.Prs.Sg
The forest is burning.
b. Derived Transitive
sipa:hi:soldiers.M
jangalforest
jal-a:burn-Caus
raheProg.MPl
hE:be.Prs.Pl
The soldiers are burning the jungle.
2.3 Ingestive Transitive
Derived Ditransitive
The ingestive class: verbs of physical or sensory ingestion e.g. par. h read/study, siikhlearn,sunhear,dekhsee,khaaeat,piidrink,chakhtaste etc.
(20) a. Basic Ingestive Transitive
BinuBinu.M
angreziiEnglish
siikhlearn
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.Sg
Binu is learning English.
b. Derived Ditransitive
MonaMona.f
Binu-koBinu-Dat
angreziiEnglish
sikh-aalearn-Caus
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
Mona is teaching Binu English.
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2.4 (Di)Transitive
Derived Causative(21) Basic Transitive Causative
a. Basic Transitive
MaliniMalini.f
ghar-kaahome-Gen
kaamwork
kardo
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
Malini is doing housework.
b. Derived Causative
MaliniMalini.f
naukraani-seservant.f-Instr
ghar-kaahouse-Gen
kaamwork
kar-vaado-Caus2
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs
Mailini is getting the housework done by the servant.(22) Derived Transitive Causative
a. Derived Transitive (=causativeof intransitive)
sipa:hi:soldiers.M
jangalforest
jal-a:burn-Caus
raheProg.MPl
hE:be.Prs.Pl
The soldiers are burning the jungle.
b. Causative
ra:ja:king.m
sipahiyo-sesoldiers.Obl-Instr
jangalforest
jal-vaaburn-Caus2
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.Sg
The king is getting the forest burned by the soldiers.
(23) Basic Ditransitive
Causative
a. Basic Ditransitive
NaziaNazia.f
Ramona-koRamona-Dat
tohfaagift.m
degive
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
Nazia is giving a gift to Ramona.
b. Derived Causative
ZohebZoheb.m
Nazia-seNazia-Instr
Ramona-koRamona-Dat
tohfaagift
dil-vaagive-Caus2
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.Sg
Zoheb is getting Ramona be given a gift by Nazia.
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(24) Derived Ditransitive
Causativea. Derived Ditransitive (=causativeof ingestive transitive)
NaziaNazia.f
Ramona-koRamona-Dat
khiirrice-pudding
khil-aaeat-Caus
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
Nazia is feeding Ramona the rice pudding.
b. Derived Causative
ZohebZoheb.m
Nazia-seNazia-Instr
Ramona-koRamona-Dat
khiirrice-pudding
khil-vaaeat-Caus2
rahaaProg.MSg
haibe.Prs.Sg
Zoheb is getting Ramona be fed the rice pudding by Nazia.
3 Causatives and Transitivity Alternations
3.1 Transitives with Ablaut
(25) Vowel Length Differences a-l
Intransitive Transitive Glossbat.-naa baat.-naa be divided/dividebandh-naa baandh-naa connect
bigar.-naa big aar.-naa spoilbikhar-naa bikher-naa (bikhr-aa-naa) scatterchhap-naa c hhaap-naa be printed/printchhid-naa c hhed-naa be pierced/piercechhil-naa chhiil-naa be peeled/peelchhin-naa chh n-naa be sntac he d/s na tc hd. hal-naa d. haal-naa shape/sculptdhul-naa dho-naa be washed/washgir-naa ger-naa (gir-aa-naa) fall/cause to fallghir-naa gher-naa be surrounded/surroundedghul-naa ghol-naa dissolvejur.-naa jor.-naa be added/addkat.-naa kaat.-naa be cut/cut
khc h-naa kh ch-naa be pulled/pull khud-naa khod-naa be dug/dugkhul-naa khol-naa openkut.-naa kuut.-naa be ground/grindlad-naa laad-naa be loaded/loadlut.-naa luut.-naa be robbed/rob
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(26) Vowel Length Differences m-u
Intransitive Transitive Glossmaj-naa maaj-naa be scored/scourmar-naa maar-naa die/killmur.-naa mor.-naa turnnichur.-naa nichor.-naa be squeezed/squeezenikal-naa nikaal-naa come out/bring outpal-naa paal-naa be brought up/bring uppighal-naa pighaal-naa (pighl-aa-naa) meltpis-naa piis-naa be pulverized/pulverizepit.-naa piit.-naa be hit/hitruk-naa rok-naa stop
sc h-naa s ch-naa be irrigat ed/irriga te sk-naa sek-naa be heated/heatsil-naa sii-naa (sil-naa) be sewn/sewsudhar-naa sudhaar-naa improvetan-naa taan-naa be taught/tightentul-naa tol-naa be weighed/weight.al-naa t.aal-naa be delayed/delayt.aN-naa t.aaN-naa hangubal-naa ubaal-naa boilukhar.-naa ukhaar.-naa uprootujar-naa ujaar-naa destroyutar-naa utaar-naa get down/bring down
The intransitives formed by vowel alternation are all unaccusatives. They differ from thecorresponding transitive in lacking syntactically represented agentivity.
(27) a. transitive:
kampanicompany.f
per.tree
kaat.cut
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs
The company is cutting trees.
b. intransitive:
per.trees.M
kat.cut
raheProg.MPl
hEbe.Prs.Pl
Trees are being cut. (lit. Trees are cutting .)
In additional to lacking a syntactically projected external argument, the intransitive alsolacks any agentivity.
While the passive does not syntactically project an external argument, it does involveagentivity.
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(28) a. Transitive:AmitAmit.M
paaniiwater.M
ubaalboil
rahaaProg.M
thaabe.Pst.M
Amit was boiling the water.
b. Passive:
paaniiwater
ubaal-aaboil-Pfv
jaaPASS
rahaaProg.M
thaabe.Pst.M
The water was being boiled.
c. Intransitive:
paanii
water
ubal
boil
rahaa
Prog.M
thaa
be.Pst.M
The water was boiling.
For the passive (28b) to be judged true, someone has to be boiling the water. There is nosuch requirement in (28c).This semantic absence of agentivity in the intransitive is also supported by a variety ofother syntactic diagnostics.
Licensing of-dwaaraaby-phrases: passives allow fordwaaraaby phrases, intransitivesdo not.1
(29) a. Passive:
paaniiwater
(Ram-dwaaraa)Ram-by
ubaal-aaboil-Pfv
jaaPASS
rahaaProg.M
thaabe.Pst.M
The water was being boiled by Ram.
b. Intransitive:
paaniiwater
(*Ram-dwaaraa)boil
ubalProg.M
rahaabe.Pst.M
thaa
*The water was boiling by Ram.
Hindi allows for impersonal passives of unergatives but not unaccusatives.
(30) a. Passive of an Unergative:
calo,
come
daur.-aa
run-Pfv
jaaye
PASS-Sbjv
Come, let it be run i.e. let us run.
b. *Passive of an Unaccusative:
*calo,come
kat.-aacut
-PfvjaayePASS-Pfv
1There is also a related syntactic difference between passives and intransitives. The subjects of Hindipassives allow for retention of accusative case. This possibility is unavailable with intransitives.
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Certain adverbial modifiers that target the agent are possible in transitives and theirpassives but not with intransitives.
(31) a. Passive:
haNstelaughing
haNstelaughing
per.trees
kaat.-ecut-Pfv.Pl
jaaPASS
raheProg.Pl
hebe.Prs.Pl
The trees are being cut by someone who is laughing.
b. Intransitive:
*khaateeating
khaateeating
per.trees
kat.cut
raheProg.Pl
hEbe.Prs.Pl
(32) a. Passive:khaanaafood
khaa-kareat-having
per.tree
kaat.-aacut-Pfv
jaaPASS
rahaaProg
haibe.Prs
The tree is being by cut by someone, that someone having eaten food.
b. Intransitive:
*khaanaafood
khaa-kareat-having
per.tree
kat.cut
rahaaProg
haibe.Prs
Both unaccusatives and passives participate in a construction that involves a capac-ity/inability reading. Typically such constructions seem to require a negative componentin their meaning.
(33) (from Hook (1979), pg. 179)
a. Inabilitative Passive:
diidii-kosister-Dat
paudheplants
itneso-much
pasandlike
hEbe.Prs.Pl
kithat
us-seshe-Instr
ukhaar.-euproot-Pfv.Pl
nah:Neg
jaa-tePASS-Hab.Pl
My sister likes plants so much that she cant bring herself/cant bear to uprootthem.
b. Inabilitative Intransitive:
diidiisister itniiso-much.fkamzorweak haibe.Prs kithat us-seshe-Instr paudheplants nahiiNeg ukhar.-teuproot
-Hab.Pl
My sister is so weak that she cant uproot the plants.
While inabilitative unaccusatives involve an overt -se-phrase, it can be shown that thisis not an agent. Unlike in a passive, these-phrase in an inabilitative unaccusative doesnot control the activity. This can be seen in the differences in meaning between (33a) and(33b).
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Further evidence in support of this distinction comes from the fact that se-phrases in in-abilitative passives are able to control agent-oriented adverbial phrases while se-phrasesin inabilitative unaccusatives are not.
(34) (based on examples in Balachandran (1973), pg. 29, 30)
a. Inabilitative Passive:
mujh-seI-Instr
khaate-khaatewhile-eating
khaanaafood
nah:Neg
banaa-yaamake-Pfv
jaa-taaPASS-Hab
I am not able to cook food while I am eating.
b. Inabilitative Intransitive:
*mujh-se
I-Instr
khaate-khaate
while-eating
khaanaa
food
nah:
Neg
ban-taa
make -Hab
(35) (based on examples in Balachandran (1973), pg. 30)
a. Inabilitative Passive:
mujh-seI-Instr
[gharhome
aa-kar]come-having
rot.iya:bread.FPl
achchhi:well
nah:not
banaa-yiimake-Pfv.F
jaa-tiiPASS-Hab.f
Having come home, I cant (bring myself to) make bread well.
b. Inabilitative Intransitive:
*mujh-seI-Instr
[gharhome
aa-kar]come-having
rot.iya:bread.FPl
achchhi:well
nah:not
ban-tiimake
-Hab.f
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3.2 Transitives with- aa(36) AA-Class Causatives
Intransitive Transitive Glossbach-naa bach-aa-naa be saved/savebah-naa bah-aa-naa flow/cause to flowbahal-naa bahl-aa-naa be entertained/entertainbait.h-naa bit.h-aa-naa sit/seatban-naa ban-aa-naa * be made/make;bar.h-naa bar.h-aa-naa increase/cause to increasebhaag-naa bhag-aa-naa run away/cause to run awaybhiig-naa bhig-aa-naa (bhig-o-naa) become wet/wet
bichh-naa bichh-aa-naa unrollbiit-na bit-aa-naa elapse/cause to elapsebikhar-naa bikhr-aa-naa (bikher-naa) scatterbujh-naa bujh-aa-naa go/put outchamak-naa chamk-aa-naa shinechar.h-naa char.h-aa-naa climb/cause to climbchipak-naa chipk-aa-naa stickchOk-naa chOk-aa-naa be startled/startlechhip-naa chhip-aa-naa hided. ar-naa d. ar-aa-naa fear/scared. uub-naa d. ub-aa-naa (d. ub-o-naa) drowngal-naa gal-aa-naa meltgir-naa gir-aa-naa (ger-naa) fall/cause to fall
hil-naa hil-aa-naa rockjaag-naa (jag-naa) jag-aa-naa wake upjal-naa jal-aa-naa burnjam-naa jam-aa-naa freezejii-naa jil-aa-naa be alive/cause to be alivelag-naa lag-aa-naa be planted, attach/plant?let.-naa lit.-aa-naa lie/cause to lie, laymil-naa mil-aa-naa meet/introducemit.-naa mit.-aa-naa be wiped/wipepahuch-naa pahuch-aa-naa arrive/escortpak-naa pak-aa-naa ripen/cause to ripen, cookphail-naa phail-aa-naa spreadpighal-naa pighl-aa-naa (pighaal-naa) meltro-naa rul-aa-naa cry/cause to crysaj-naa saj-aa-naa be decorated/decoratesar.-naa sar.-aa-naa rotso-naa sul-aa-naa sleep/put to bedsulag-naa sulg-aa-naa be lit, smoulder/lightsulajh-naa suljh-aa-naa get simplified/simplifysuukh-naa sukh-aa-naa dryulajh-naa uljh-aa-naa get complicated/complicateut.h-naa ut.h-aa-naa rise/raise
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4 Some Structures(37) Transitive Structure?
P
DP
P
DP
ROOT
[AG]
(38) Inchoative Type
P
DP
ROOT [B]
(39) Alternative Type
P
P
DP
ROOT
(40) Transitive of an Inchoative
P
DP
P
DP
ROOT [B]
[AG]
The minimal structures associated withbe and do are a simple (predicative) intransitivestructure and a simple transitive structure with [AG], as in (41) and (42) respectively:
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(41) BE structure
P
DP
ROOT [B]
(42) DO structure
P
DP
P
DP
ROOT
[AG]
5 Causatives of Unergatives and the Ingestive Verbs
5.1 Unergatives
A number of verbs that appear with the -aa suffix as transitives seem to be essentiallyunergatives when intransitive.
(43) Putative Unergatives
Intransitive Transitive Glosschal-naa chal-aa-naa move, walk/cause to move, drive
daur.-naa daur.-aa-naa run/cause to run, chaseghuum-naa ghum-aa-naa wander/cause to wander?has-naa has-aa-naa laugh/cause to laughhat.-naa hat.-aa-naa movejhuul-naa jhul-aa-naa swing/cause to swingkuud-naa kud-aa-naa jump/cause to jumpnaach-naa nach-aa-naa danceur.-naa ur.-aa-naa fly
Some tests for unergativity:1. Unlike unaccusatives, the past participle of an unergative cannot be used as a reducedrelative.
(44) a. Unergative:*has-aa
laugh-Pfv(huaa)be-Pfv
lar.kaaboy
*the laughed boy
b. Unaccusative:
kat.-ecut
-Pfv.MPl(hue)be-Pfv.MPl
phalfruit
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the fruits in the cut-state, the fruits that have been cut2. Impersonal passives can be formed on unergatives but not on unaccusatives (cf. 30).3. Unergatives pattern with transitives and not unaccusatives with respect to how theyenter into the inabilitative construction: both transitives and unergatives can only appearin the inabilitative construction with passive syntax. Unaccusatives appear in the inabili-tative with active syntax.
(45) Transitive
a. Basic transitive:
Nina-neNina-Erg
dhabbestains.MPl
mit.aa-yewipe-Pfv.MPl
Nina scrubbed away the stains.b. Inabilitative 1 (based on active syntax):
*Nina-seNina-Instr
Mona-neMona-Erg
dhabbestains.M
nah:Neg
mit.aa-yewipe-Pfv.MPl
c. Inabilitative 2 (based on passive syntax):
Nina-seNina-Instr
dhabbestains
mitaa-yewipe-Pfv.Pl
nah:Neg
gayePASS-Pfv.MPl
Nina couldnt (bring herself to) wipe away the stains.
(46) Unergative
a. Basic Unergative:NinaNina.f
daur.run
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
Nina is running.
b. Inabilitative 1 (based on active syntax):
*Nina-seNina-Instr
MonaMona.f
daur.run
rahiiProg.f
haibe.Prs.Sg
c. Inabilitative 2 (based on passive syntax):
Nina-seNina-Instr
daur.-aarun-Pfv
nah:Neg
gayaaPASS-Pfv
Nina couldnt run.
(47) Unaccusative
a. Basic Unaccusative:
dhabbestains
mit.wipe
raheProg.MPl
hEbe.Prs.MPl
The stains are getting erased.
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Pandharipande, R. V. (1981) Syntax and Semantics of the Passive Construction in SelectedSouth Asian Languages, Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois-Urbana, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois.
Saksena, A. (1980) Causative Relations in Hindi, General Linguistics20:1, 2338.
Saksena, A. (1982) Contact in Causation, Language58:4, 820831.
Wali, K. (1980) Oblique Causee and the Passive Explanation, Linguistic Inquiry 11,258260.
Wali, K. (1986) Caseof Causee, in B. Krishnamurti, ed., South Asian Languages: Structure,Convergence, and Diglossia, MLBD Series in Linguistics 3, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,2736.
Wallace, W. D. (1979) The Syntax and Semantics of Causatives in Nepali, in B. Kachru,
H. H. Hock, and Y. Kachru, eds.,South Asian Languages Analysis Vol. 1, Dept. of Lin-guistics, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 145156.
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