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24.956Topics in the Syntax of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages

March 21, 2003Causativization

1 Ways of Causative FormationCausative are formed synthetically in most Indo-Aryan languages.

(1) (Nepali, from Wallace (1979))

a. Transitive:

maI

kanwork

gar-chudo-Prs.1Sg

I do the work.

b. Causative of Transitive:

ma

I

kam

work

gar-au-chu

do-Caus-Prs.1SgI have the work done.

Some Indo-Aryan languages also have periphrastic causatives.

(2) a. (Nepali, from Wallace (1979))

maI

kamwork

gar-nado-Inf

lag-au-chuLAG-Caus-Prs.1Sg

I have the work done.

b. (Gujarati, from Hook (1999))

mEI.Erg

tem-nethem-Dat

aathis

kaamwork

kar-taado-Impfv

kar-ido-NF

didhaaGIVE-Pfv

I made them do this work.

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1.1 Transitivity Alternations1.1.1 The NULL Class

An initial class is theablautingorvowel-changetype. In this class of verbs, there is no overtcausative affix. The phonological form of the intransitive is derived from the phonologicalform of the transitive via shortening.

(3) NULL-class

a. Jaayzaadproperty

bat.divide

rahiiPROG-FEM

hai.be-PRES

The property is dividing.

b. Ram-neRam-ERG

jaayzadproperty

baat.divide

dii.GIVE-PERF

Ram divided the property.

I.e. intransitivebat. , transitivebaat..

1.1.2 The AA Class

A second class involves an overt affix, -aa. In this class, an intransitive with no overt affixis paired with a transitive showing the suffix-aa. The presenceof-aatriggers phonologicalshortening processes that readjust the intransitive stem form.

(4) AA-Classa. Makan

house.Mjalburn

rahaPROG.M

hai.be.Prs

The house is burning.

b. D.akaito-nebandits-ERG

makaanhouse.M

jalaaburn

diyaa.GIVE-PERF.M

Bandits burned the house.

1.1.3 Transitivity via thebe/doalternation

(5) Adjective + Light Verb

a. kamraaroom.MSg

saafclean

thaabe.Pst.MSg

The room was clean.

b. kamraaroom.MSg

saafclean

hobe

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.MSg

The room is becoming clean.

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d. A B V-vaaRam-neRam-Erg

Mahesh-seMahesh-by

Ramesh-koRamesh-Acc

bach-vaa-yaasave-VAA-Pfv

Ram had Ramesh saved by Mahesh.

2. The Distribution of - aa.

(17) Synonymous-aaand-vaacausatives:

a. Ram-neRam-ERG

Bill-seBill-INST

kaamwork

kar-aa/vaa-yaado-CAUS2/CAUS2-PERF

Ram had the work done by Bill.

b. Ram-neRam-ERG

Bill-seBill-INST

Sita-koSita-DAT

kitaabbook

dil-aa/vaa-yiigive-CAUS2/CAUS2-PERF.FEM

Ram had the book given to Sita by Bill.

All of the verbs that show this behavior are verbs that do not show -aa in the tran-sitive form. However, the verbs that have synonymous -aa and -vaacausatives area listed subset of the verbs that have no -aain the transitive. This requires a certaintype of information to be listed with -aa, in a way which has implications for themanner in which morphological spell out occurs.

3. The structures of the various causatives.

2 A Traditional Picture

This approach is stated in directional terms. An operation applies to a basic form toyield a derived form.

A different use of the term causative

Roughly the picture in Masica (1976), Wallace (1979), Hook and Koul (1984a) etc.

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2.1 Basic Transitive

Antitransitive(18) a. Basic Transitive

SikandarSikandar

skuulschool

ke-baaharGen.Obl-outside

t.aufiya:toffees

ba:t.distribute

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.Sg

Sikandar is distributing toffees outside the school.

b. Derived Intransitive

skuulschool

ke-baaharGen.Obl-outside

t.aufiya:toffees.f

bat.distribute

rahiiProg.f

hEbe.Prs.Pl

Toffees are distributing outside the school.

2.2 Basic Intransitive

Derived Transitive

(19) a. Basic Intransitive

jangalforest

jalburn

rahaaProg

haibe.Prs.Sg

The forest is burning.

b. Derived Transitive

sipa:hi:soldiers.M

jangalforest

jal-a:burn-Caus

raheProg.MPl

hE:be.Prs.Pl

The soldiers are burning the jungle.

2.3 Ingestive Transitive

Derived Ditransitive

The ingestive class: verbs of physical or sensory ingestion e.g. par. h read/study, siikhlearn,sunhear,dekhsee,khaaeat,piidrink,chakhtaste etc.

(20) a. Basic Ingestive Transitive

BinuBinu.M

angreziiEnglish

siikhlearn

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.Sg

Binu is learning English.

b. Derived Ditransitive

MonaMona.f

Binu-koBinu-Dat

angreziiEnglish

sikh-aalearn-Caus

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

Mona is teaching Binu English.

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2.4 (Di)Transitive

Derived Causative(21) Basic Transitive Causative

a. Basic Transitive

MaliniMalini.f

ghar-kaahome-Gen

kaamwork

kardo

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

Malini is doing housework.

b. Derived Causative

MaliniMalini.f

naukraani-seservant.f-Instr

ghar-kaahouse-Gen

kaamwork

kar-vaado-Caus2

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs

Mailini is getting the housework done by the servant.(22) Derived Transitive Causative

a. Derived Transitive (=causativeof intransitive)

sipa:hi:soldiers.M

jangalforest

jal-a:burn-Caus

raheProg.MPl

hE:be.Prs.Pl

The soldiers are burning the jungle.

b. Causative

ra:ja:king.m

sipahiyo-sesoldiers.Obl-Instr

jangalforest

jal-vaaburn-Caus2

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.Sg

The king is getting the forest burned by the soldiers.

(23) Basic Ditransitive

Causative

a. Basic Ditransitive

NaziaNazia.f

Ramona-koRamona-Dat

tohfaagift.m

degive

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

Nazia is giving a gift to Ramona.

b. Derived Causative

ZohebZoheb.m

Nazia-seNazia-Instr

Ramona-koRamona-Dat

tohfaagift

dil-vaagive-Caus2

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.Sg

Zoheb is getting Ramona be given a gift by Nazia.

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(24) Derived Ditransitive

Causativea. Derived Ditransitive (=causativeof ingestive transitive)

NaziaNazia.f

Ramona-koRamona-Dat

khiirrice-pudding

khil-aaeat-Caus

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

Nazia is feeding Ramona the rice pudding.

b. Derived Causative

ZohebZoheb.m

Nazia-seNazia-Instr

Ramona-koRamona-Dat

khiirrice-pudding

khil-vaaeat-Caus2

rahaaProg.MSg

haibe.Prs.Sg

Zoheb is getting Ramona be fed the rice pudding by Nazia.

3 Causatives and Transitivity Alternations

3.1 Transitives with Ablaut

(25) Vowel Length Differences a-l

Intransitive Transitive Glossbat.-naa baat.-naa be divided/dividebandh-naa baandh-naa connect

bigar.-naa big aar.-naa spoilbikhar-naa bikher-naa (bikhr-aa-naa) scatterchhap-naa c hhaap-naa be printed/printchhid-naa c hhed-naa be pierced/piercechhil-naa chhiil-naa be peeled/peelchhin-naa chh n-naa be sntac he d/s na tc hd. hal-naa d. haal-naa shape/sculptdhul-naa dho-naa be washed/washgir-naa ger-naa (gir-aa-naa) fall/cause to fallghir-naa gher-naa be surrounded/surroundedghul-naa ghol-naa dissolvejur.-naa jor.-naa be added/addkat.-naa kaat.-naa be cut/cut

khc h-naa kh ch-naa be pulled/pull khud-naa khod-naa be dug/dugkhul-naa khol-naa openkut.-naa kuut.-naa be ground/grindlad-naa laad-naa be loaded/loadlut.-naa luut.-naa be robbed/rob

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(26) Vowel Length Differences m-u

Intransitive Transitive Glossmaj-naa maaj-naa be scored/scourmar-naa maar-naa die/killmur.-naa mor.-naa turnnichur.-naa nichor.-naa be squeezed/squeezenikal-naa nikaal-naa come out/bring outpal-naa paal-naa be brought up/bring uppighal-naa pighaal-naa (pighl-aa-naa) meltpis-naa piis-naa be pulverized/pulverizepit.-naa piit.-naa be hit/hitruk-naa rok-naa stop

sc h-naa s ch-naa be irrigat ed/irriga te sk-naa sek-naa be heated/heatsil-naa sii-naa (sil-naa) be sewn/sewsudhar-naa sudhaar-naa improvetan-naa taan-naa be taught/tightentul-naa tol-naa be weighed/weight.al-naa t.aal-naa be delayed/delayt.aN-naa t.aaN-naa hangubal-naa ubaal-naa boilukhar.-naa ukhaar.-naa uprootujar-naa ujaar-naa destroyutar-naa utaar-naa get down/bring down

The intransitives formed by vowel alternation are all unaccusatives. They differ from thecorresponding transitive in lacking syntactically represented agentivity.

(27) a. transitive:

kampanicompany.f

per.tree

kaat.cut

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs

The company is cutting trees.

b. intransitive:

per.trees.M

kat.cut

raheProg.MPl

hEbe.Prs.Pl

Trees are being cut. (lit. Trees are cutting .)

In additional to lacking a syntactically projected external argument, the intransitive alsolacks any agentivity.

While the passive does not syntactically project an external argument, it does involveagentivity.

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(28) a. Transitive:AmitAmit.M

paaniiwater.M

ubaalboil

rahaaProg.M

thaabe.Pst.M

Amit was boiling the water.

b. Passive:

paaniiwater

ubaal-aaboil-Pfv

jaaPASS

rahaaProg.M

thaabe.Pst.M

The water was being boiled.

c. Intransitive:

paanii

water

ubal

boil

rahaa

Prog.M

thaa

be.Pst.M

The water was boiling.

For the passive (28b) to be judged true, someone has to be boiling the water. There is nosuch requirement in (28c).This semantic absence of agentivity in the intransitive is also supported by a variety ofother syntactic diagnostics.

Licensing of-dwaaraaby-phrases: passives allow fordwaaraaby phrases, intransitivesdo not.1

(29) a. Passive:

paaniiwater

(Ram-dwaaraa)Ram-by

ubaal-aaboil-Pfv

jaaPASS

rahaaProg.M

thaabe.Pst.M

The water was being boiled by Ram.

b. Intransitive:

paaniiwater

(*Ram-dwaaraa)boil

ubalProg.M

rahaabe.Pst.M

thaa

*The water was boiling by Ram.

Hindi allows for impersonal passives of unergatives but not unaccusatives.

(30) a. Passive of an Unergative:

calo,

come

daur.-aa

run-Pfv

jaaye

PASS-Sbjv

Come, let it be run i.e. let us run.

b. *Passive of an Unaccusative:

*calo,come

kat.-aacut

-PfvjaayePASS-Pfv

1There is also a related syntactic difference between passives and intransitives. The subjects of Hindipassives allow for retention of accusative case. This possibility is unavailable with intransitives.

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Certain adverbial modifiers that target the agent are possible in transitives and theirpassives but not with intransitives.

(31) a. Passive:

haNstelaughing

haNstelaughing

per.trees

kaat.-ecut-Pfv.Pl

jaaPASS

raheProg.Pl

hebe.Prs.Pl

The trees are being cut by someone who is laughing.

b. Intransitive:

*khaateeating

khaateeating

per.trees

kat.cut

raheProg.Pl

hEbe.Prs.Pl

(32) a. Passive:khaanaafood

khaa-kareat-having

per.tree

kaat.-aacut-Pfv

jaaPASS

rahaaProg

haibe.Prs

The tree is being by cut by someone, that someone having eaten food.

b. Intransitive:

*khaanaafood

khaa-kareat-having

per.tree

kat.cut

rahaaProg

haibe.Prs

Both unaccusatives and passives participate in a construction that involves a capac-ity/inability reading. Typically such constructions seem to require a negative componentin their meaning.

(33) (from Hook (1979), pg. 179)

a. Inabilitative Passive:

diidii-kosister-Dat

paudheplants

itneso-much

pasandlike

hEbe.Prs.Pl

kithat

us-seshe-Instr

ukhaar.-euproot-Pfv.Pl

nah:Neg

jaa-tePASS-Hab.Pl

My sister likes plants so much that she cant bring herself/cant bear to uprootthem.

b. Inabilitative Intransitive:

diidiisister itniiso-much.fkamzorweak haibe.Prs kithat us-seshe-Instr paudheplants nahiiNeg ukhar.-teuproot

-Hab.Pl

My sister is so weak that she cant uproot the plants.

While inabilitative unaccusatives involve an overt -se-phrase, it can be shown that thisis not an agent. Unlike in a passive, these-phrase in an inabilitative unaccusative doesnot control the activity. This can be seen in the differences in meaning between (33a) and(33b).

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Further evidence in support of this distinction comes from the fact that se-phrases in in-abilitative passives are able to control agent-oriented adverbial phrases while se-phrasesin inabilitative unaccusatives are not.

(34) (based on examples in Balachandran (1973), pg. 29, 30)

a. Inabilitative Passive:

mujh-seI-Instr

khaate-khaatewhile-eating

khaanaafood

nah:Neg

banaa-yaamake-Pfv

jaa-taaPASS-Hab

I am not able to cook food while I am eating.

b. Inabilitative Intransitive:

*mujh-se

I-Instr

khaate-khaate

while-eating

khaanaa

food

nah:

Neg

ban-taa

make -Hab

(35) (based on examples in Balachandran (1973), pg. 30)

a. Inabilitative Passive:

mujh-seI-Instr

[gharhome

aa-kar]come-having

rot.iya:bread.FPl

achchhi:well

nah:not

banaa-yiimake-Pfv.F

jaa-tiiPASS-Hab.f

Having come home, I cant (bring myself to) make bread well.

b. Inabilitative Intransitive:

*mujh-seI-Instr

[gharhome

aa-kar]come-having

rot.iya:bread.FPl

achchhi:well

nah:not

ban-tiimake

-Hab.f

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3.2 Transitives with- aa(36) AA-Class Causatives

Intransitive Transitive Glossbach-naa bach-aa-naa be saved/savebah-naa bah-aa-naa flow/cause to flowbahal-naa bahl-aa-naa be entertained/entertainbait.h-naa bit.h-aa-naa sit/seatban-naa ban-aa-naa * be made/make;bar.h-naa bar.h-aa-naa increase/cause to increasebhaag-naa bhag-aa-naa run away/cause to run awaybhiig-naa bhig-aa-naa (bhig-o-naa) become wet/wet

bichh-naa bichh-aa-naa unrollbiit-na bit-aa-naa elapse/cause to elapsebikhar-naa bikhr-aa-naa (bikher-naa) scatterbujh-naa bujh-aa-naa go/put outchamak-naa chamk-aa-naa shinechar.h-naa char.h-aa-naa climb/cause to climbchipak-naa chipk-aa-naa stickchOk-naa chOk-aa-naa be startled/startlechhip-naa chhip-aa-naa hided. ar-naa d. ar-aa-naa fear/scared. uub-naa d. ub-aa-naa (d. ub-o-naa) drowngal-naa gal-aa-naa meltgir-naa gir-aa-naa (ger-naa) fall/cause to fall

hil-naa hil-aa-naa rockjaag-naa (jag-naa) jag-aa-naa wake upjal-naa jal-aa-naa burnjam-naa jam-aa-naa freezejii-naa jil-aa-naa be alive/cause to be alivelag-naa lag-aa-naa be planted, attach/plant?let.-naa lit.-aa-naa lie/cause to lie, laymil-naa mil-aa-naa meet/introducemit.-naa mit.-aa-naa be wiped/wipepahuch-naa pahuch-aa-naa arrive/escortpak-naa pak-aa-naa ripen/cause to ripen, cookphail-naa phail-aa-naa spreadpighal-naa pighl-aa-naa (pighaal-naa) meltro-naa rul-aa-naa cry/cause to crysaj-naa saj-aa-naa be decorated/decoratesar.-naa sar.-aa-naa rotso-naa sul-aa-naa sleep/put to bedsulag-naa sulg-aa-naa be lit, smoulder/lightsulajh-naa suljh-aa-naa get simplified/simplifysuukh-naa sukh-aa-naa dryulajh-naa uljh-aa-naa get complicated/complicateut.h-naa ut.h-aa-naa rise/raise

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4 Some Structures(37) Transitive Structure?

P

DP

P

DP

ROOT

[AG]

(38) Inchoative Type

P

DP

ROOT [B]

(39) Alternative Type

P

P

DP

ROOT

(40) Transitive of an Inchoative

P

DP

P

DP

ROOT [B]

[AG]

The minimal structures associated withbe and do are a simple (predicative) intransitivestructure and a simple transitive structure with [AG], as in (41) and (42) respectively:

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(41) BE structure

P

DP

ROOT [B]

(42) DO structure

P

DP

P

DP

ROOT

[AG]

5 Causatives of Unergatives and the Ingestive Verbs

5.1 Unergatives

A number of verbs that appear with the -aa suffix as transitives seem to be essentiallyunergatives when intransitive.

(43) Putative Unergatives

Intransitive Transitive Glosschal-naa chal-aa-naa move, walk/cause to move, drive

daur.-naa daur.-aa-naa run/cause to run, chaseghuum-naa ghum-aa-naa wander/cause to wander?has-naa has-aa-naa laugh/cause to laughhat.-naa hat.-aa-naa movejhuul-naa jhul-aa-naa swing/cause to swingkuud-naa kud-aa-naa jump/cause to jumpnaach-naa nach-aa-naa danceur.-naa ur.-aa-naa fly

Some tests for unergativity:1. Unlike unaccusatives, the past participle of an unergative cannot be used as a reducedrelative.

(44) a. Unergative:*has-aa

laugh-Pfv(huaa)be-Pfv

lar.kaaboy

*the laughed boy

b. Unaccusative:

kat.-ecut

-Pfv.MPl(hue)be-Pfv.MPl

phalfruit

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the fruits in the cut-state, the fruits that have been cut2. Impersonal passives can be formed on unergatives but not on unaccusatives (cf. 30).3. Unergatives pattern with transitives and not unaccusatives with respect to how theyenter into the inabilitative construction: both transitives and unergatives can only appearin the inabilitative construction with passive syntax. Unaccusatives appear in the inabili-tative with active syntax.

(45) Transitive

a. Basic transitive:

Nina-neNina-Erg

dhabbestains.MPl

mit.aa-yewipe-Pfv.MPl

Nina scrubbed away the stains.b. Inabilitative 1 (based on active syntax):

*Nina-seNina-Instr

Mona-neMona-Erg

dhabbestains.M

nah:Neg

mit.aa-yewipe-Pfv.MPl

c. Inabilitative 2 (based on passive syntax):

Nina-seNina-Instr

dhabbestains

mitaa-yewipe-Pfv.Pl

nah:Neg

gayePASS-Pfv.MPl

Nina couldnt (bring herself to) wipe away the stains.

(46) Unergative

a. Basic Unergative:NinaNina.f

daur.run

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

Nina is running.

b. Inabilitative 1 (based on active syntax):

*Nina-seNina-Instr

MonaMona.f

daur.run

rahiiProg.f

haibe.Prs.Sg

c. Inabilitative 2 (based on passive syntax):

Nina-seNina-Instr

daur.-aarun-Pfv

nah:Neg

gayaaPASS-Pfv

Nina couldnt run.

(47) Unaccusative

a. Basic Unaccusative:

dhabbestains

mit.wipe

raheProg.MPl

hEbe.Prs.MPl

The stains are getting erased.

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Pandharipande, R. V. (1981) Syntax and Semantics of the Passive Construction in SelectedSouth Asian Languages, Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois-Urbana, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois.

Saksena, A. (1980) Causative Relations in Hindi, General Linguistics20:1, 2338.

Saksena, A. (1982) Contact in Causation, Language58:4, 820831.

Wali, K. (1980) Oblique Causee and the Passive Explanation, Linguistic Inquiry 11,258260.

Wali, K. (1986) Caseof Causee, in B. Krishnamurti, ed., South Asian Languages: Structure,Convergence, and Diglossia, MLBD Series in Linguistics 3, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,2736.

Wallace, W. D. (1979) The Syntax and Semantics of Causatives in Nepali, in B. Kachru,

H. H. Hock, and Y. Kachru, eds.,South Asian Languages Analysis Vol. 1, Dept. of Lin-guistics, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 145156.

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