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Chapter 3
AIR POWER
Air power has become predominant, both as a deterrent to war,and in the eventuality of war as the devastating force to destroyan enemys potential and totally undermine his will to wage war.
Gen Omar Bradley
GENERAL
1. Air power, land power and sea power constitute the three components of
combat power. Air power is distinguished by its flexibility, speed, ubiquity, range
and shock effect. These characteristics give it a unique ability to concentrate force
and manoeuvre rapidly over long distances. Thus it is the only power that can
rapidly bring offensive and defensive action in the shortest time.
DEFINING AIR POWER
2. It has always been difficult to define the concept of air power. In the earlyyears of military aviation, air arms tended to be seen not as agencies for a
distinctive type of military force, but as auxiliaries to the ground and naval forces.
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Slessor, argued that, "air power is a
compound of air forces and all those things on which air forces directly or
indirectly depend. Such as a flourishing aircraft industry and civilian aviation, a
good meteorological service, secure fuel supplies and so on. Today most air
power thinkers take a middle course and tend to treat air power as a purely military
concept.
3. Air power is thus defined as the ability to project military force in the
air by or from a platform or missile operating above the surface of the earth .
The means of exercising air power are many and include any system which can beused to wage war in the air: for example, manned and unmanned aircraft (fixed and
rotary wing), guided missiles, balloons and space vehicles.
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Air Power in World War II
COMPONENTS OF AIR POWER
4. The military capability can be described in terms of a conceptual, a moral
and a physical component. The concept of air power can be expressed as the
aggregate of these three components both in qualitative and quantitative terms, and
is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 3.1 below.
T h e C o n c e p t o f A i r P
C O N C E P T U A L( T h e t h o u g h t
P r i n c i p l e s o f W a
A i r S t r a t e g y
M O R A L C O M( T h e w i l l t o f i
L e a d e r s h i p , M o
P H Y S I C A L C( T h e m e a n s t
M i l i t a r y A i r R e s o uD e f e n c e I n d u s t r i e
T R A I N I N G
A I R P O W( T h e a b i l i t y t o e x
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Figure 3.1: The Concept of Air Power
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5. The Conceptual Component. The conceptual component is the thought
process and teaching that underpin air power. The conceptual sources of air
power are the history of air campaigns and the lessons learned from them, the
principles of war, air power doctrine and air strategy. This knowledge acts as a
guide in the process of training and educating airmen, officers and current and
future commanders at all levels. This doctrine manual is part of that process.
6. The Moral Component. The moral component refer to the ability to getits people to fight. The three elements that merit consideration within the moral
component are Leadership, Morale and Core values.
a. Leadership. There has never been any doubt about leadership
being a war-winning factor. Inspirational leadership is one of the foremost
elements in raising and sustaining morale which has often proved to be a
decisive element in determining the outcome of military operations even
against the most overwhelming odds. Born leaders tend to be few, but a
good proportion of the art of leadership can be learned particularly from
the example of others. Successful leadership can take many forms and
styles both in the air and on the ground but invariably includes
professional mastery and moral courage.
b. Morale. Morale is a mental state but is very sensitive to material
conditions. It is based on a clear understanding of the aim, on training
and on discipline and is immediately responsive to effective leadership.
c. Core Values. Core values are the permanent foundations on
which the identity and purpose of an Armed Force are built, and can be
reflected as ethically based principles. They include recognisably military
virtues such as physical courage, total commitment, integrity and
service before self. Core values capture the very essence of what is
important to the service and those who serve within it, thereby
engendering justifiable pride. Although important at all times, they are
most valuable at times of extreme personal commitment when together
with leadership and training, they sustain and inspire personnel in
circumstances that might otherwise overwhelm them.
7. The Physical Component. The physical component represents the means
to fight and is bounded by the resources available to defence. The successful
exploitation of air power depends upon superior and timely intelligence
exploitation, a quicker decision/action cycle than that of the opponent and
flexible and capable forces that can offer the rapid and precise application of air
power across the spectrum of conflict. Combat air power must be supported by
robust and sustainable logistics. Holistically, it is the combination of civil, militaryand industrial resources to acquire combat effective platforms and weapons
systems in sufficient numbers which underpins the national means to exploit air
power. If the potential of air power is not to be wasted, command and control
considerations are extremely important.
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8. Training. Training, being an effective medium in inculcating thought and
knowledge is central to all activities. Through this method men are better
educated and informed on the way air power can best be exploited.
Training as shown in figure 3.1 is a process.
THE AIR ENVIRONMENT
9. Air consists of the entire expanse above the earth' s surface. Its lower
limit is the earth's surface (land or water), and its upper limit reaches towards
infinity. Air provides access to the earths entire surface. Unlike surface
environments, air has no natural boundaries. Nations do recognise political
boundaries in the atmosphere, but by convention, there are no such boundaries in
space. The air is a very different environment in which to fight than either the land
or the sea. Hence, air forces have quite different characteristics, strengths and
limitations from land and sea forces. Air power differs, as it possesses the ability
to exploit this third dimension, above the surface of the earth.
10. Even though this third dimension can be best exploited when considered as
an individual whole, it is felt that the nature of air and space still have theirdifferences and must be discussed separately. Although there is no absolute
boundary between them, there exist physical differences between the atmosphere
and space. While air power is primarily affected by aerodynamics, space
power is guided by the principles of orbital mechanics and is not limited by the
vertical extent of the atmosphere. Therefore, to conduct military activities in the
fourth dimension of space, different platforms and methods have to be employed.
Space platforms are not base dependent and do not incorporate the limitation of
impermanence, as do air platforms. Furthermore, air power is basically offensive in
nature, whereas activities in space have been confined to defensive functions like
intelligence gathering, surveillance, reconnaissance, early warning, navigation,
communication and meteorological functions. Although some may argue that some
of these functions augment offensive actions, none of them bring weapons to bear
on the enemy.
11. Furthermore, the military use of space is constrained by international
treaties like the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. This treaty has four major
provisions: all countries have free access to space with liability for damaged
caused; space will be used for peaceful purposes; no weapons of mass destruction
will be placed in orbit around the Earth or on the Moon; all space objects must be
registered with the United Nations. Notwithstanding this, it is acknowledged that
space systems do offer an alternative and important source of enhancing the
effectiveness of air power when employed together with air platforms.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER
STRENGTHS
12. The distinguishing characteristic of air power is the exploitation of
controlled flight by air vehicles above the surface of the Earth. Air power offers a
unique ability to exploit the third dimension. As a result, air vehicles are faster and
generally have a greater reach than naval ships or land vehicles. Thus, height,speed and reach remain the primary strengths of air power. The military
advantages of elevation include enhanced observation and perspective of the battle-
space.
a. Height. This implies that the aircraft have the ability to operate
over a spectrum of height. The ability of aircraft to operate over a
spectrum of heights gives them the ability to observe and dominate
activities on the surface and below the sea. It allows direct fire to be used
against all of the enemy's forces, whether or not they are in the front line,
and it permits manoeuvre in three - rather than just two - dimensions, an
important factor in survivability.
b. Speed. The speed of aircraft allows rapid projection of military
power; greater speed allows missions to be accomplished quickly and a
larger number of tasks be completed within a given period. Implicit in the
characteristics is the notion of going anywhere and covering long
distances.
c. Reach. Air power possesses unrivalled reach or range, which
means that the air power has the ability to project military power over great
distances in any direction. Reach is important not only for striking at
distant targets and reaching isolated locations, but also forcircumventing
potential restrictions (example by routing flights around a country whichhas refused over-flight clearance).
d. Flexibility. Flexibility is the most quoted attribute of air power. It
is flexible in that the assets can be diverted quickly and effectively from
one task to another and from one target to another. It can perform wide
variety of actions, produce wide range of effects and be adapted with
comparative ease to meet changing circumstances or situations.
e. Ubiquity. The term ubiquity refers to the ability to counter or
pose simultaneous threats almost anywhere within the air and over the
surface. This attribute is also described as mobility and pervasiveness, and
implies the same sense of movement, unconstrained by physical barriers.Ubiquity, or pervasiveness allows air power to be employed in almost
every facet of warfare, either to enhance land power and/or sea power.
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f. Responsiveness. The characteristics of air power make it very
responsive to, and capable of, demonstrating a nations political intent.With its versatility, reach, speed and pervasiveness, air power is highly
responsive. As air power can be used quickly and at arms length from
population centres, it has an impersonal and remote quality that is
attractive to political use. Thus, air power can be used for an immediate
response or display of force. The mere presence of aircraft in a limited
capacity, such as regular surveillance patrols, may be sufficient.
Conversely, shock and concentration of firepower delivered by air power
convey a very definite message.
g. Concentration. Air power derives unique strengths and the main
one is the great ability to concentrate rapidly in time and space, which
derives from combination of flexibility, reach, responsiveness andswiftness of application. Rapid concentration of different air assets may
be possible, but they will not be effective in combat unless they are
instantly interoperable.
h. Shock. The sudden, destructive effect of the presence of air
power has always had a physical and psychological effect. The
combination gives rise to the shock effect of air power. The physical effect
is the noise of the aircraft, the apparently coming out of nowhere and the
concentration of firepower delivered. The psychological effect is the fear
of disproportionate vulnerability perceived by surface forces that have
been subjected to aerial warfare. Shock therefore, is most effective when
combined with the element of surprise.
i. Lethality. Any, target that can be located can be struck with a
precision guided munitions. The destructive power applied through air
dropped or air launched stand off munitions is effective against all but
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specially hardened targets constructed deep underground. And even these
may be susceptible to sensibly planned strikes against their support
systems, such as communications, power, or by using specifically designed
penetrating weapons. Currently, there is little on the earths surface, which
is not vulnerable in almost any conditions of visibility to air powers
lethality. Air power is also lethal in many other respects, namely: the
engagement of air targets beyond visual range; the pinpoint location of
targets through surveillance/reconnaissance; and, the destruction of sub-
surface targets.
LIMITATIONS
13. Air power has inherent limitations. These are relative rather than absolute
and need to be understood in that context.
a. Impermanence. In general, only sustained operations supported
by a large logistics effort are likely to achieve a substantial degree of
permanence. The enemy may bypass the damage altogether, adapt to the
change circumstances, or reconstruct, thus making the effects of any
damage transitory. Therefore, careful targeting to achieve the effect
desired for the length of time required is an important element of airpower. Impermanence can also be a consequence of the adverse influence
of weather and the constraints of aircraft endurance.
b. Limited Payloads. The payloads that can be carried by aircraft
are far more limited than those that can be carried by ships or land
vehicles. Thus, aircraft are most cost-effective when they are used for
tasks that give high-value pay-offs. This applies equally to combat and
combat support tasks, such as transportation. While relatively small
payloads carried are a disadvantage, they can be compensated for by the
high sortie rate conferred by an aircraft's speed and by the lethality and
precision of modern air-to-surface munitions. Moreover, a small payload
deployed quickly may be of far more value in stabilizing a critical situation
than one many times its size that is deployed later.
c. Vulnerability. Air power is relatively vulnerable in the air and on
the ground. In the air, risks from enemy air weapons and surface based
defensive systems are apparent, since they carry little or no armour
protection. On the ground, the general concentration of aircraft and
associated support facilities at focal points makes air power a high value
target for an adversarys air and ground forces. Attrition of air assets,
consisting of losses from battle and accidents in operations are inevitable
but should be minimized.
d. Cost. Air power can deliver enormous firepower and combat
support, but it does so at a cost. It is expensive to acquire, operate and
maintain. Successful surge capability and replacement of assets require
considerable resources and skills as well as increases in absolute cost.
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Modern technology is expensive, not only in terms of acquisition cost,
but also in terms of costs associated with through-life logistics support and
long training times. The costs of air power are not absolute but need to be
assessed in terms of relative benefit-cost.
e. Base Dependence. The biggest limitation of air power is its
dependence on air bases, be they fixed, or mobile as in the case of aircraft
carriers. Air power generally operates most effectively from permanent
bases. The essence of the air base is that it is an operational entityconsisting of supporting systems and personnel. Thus, the prepared base
is likely to be the centre of gravity of all air power . Attacking this
centre of gravity can be the immediate means of rendering air power
ineffective. Without a secure base from which to operate, air power assets
may be unable to influence a battle. Making bases secure is difficult, time-
consuming and expensive undertaking. In every case, there is a
dependence on the air bases as an integral support system and springboard
for the generation of air power.
f. Political Restraint. The application of air power tends to
attract a high level of political interest because it provides a readily
available and responsive instrument of political will. The result has beenthe occasional direct control of this `convenient display of military power
by political leaders. In such circumstances, the military effectiveness of an
operation can be diminished by political interference. It is the
commanders job to advise accordingly, and then proceed as directed by
the government.
APPLICATION OF AIR POWER
14. The distinct and specific characteristics of air power lead in turn to distinct
and specific applications. Growing effectiveness has tended progressively to
widen air power applications, and air power today can offer decision makers a wide
range of options to prosecute defence and security policies (figure 3.2). Such
options begin long before the shooting starts and make air power an important
instrument for preserving peace and managing crises, as it is for waging war.
15. Preserving Peace. Air power can be used to help preserve and
strengthen international security, by promoting good international
relations and providing reassurance to nations that they are not under
threat of attack:
a. Promoting International Relations. When disaster strikes inwhatever form, speed of response is vital, and the speed of air power
helps it to play a key part in alleviating suffering. Military transport
aircraft are uniquely capable of delivering rapid relief during the critical
early stages of natural disasters. The potential security benefits of such
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high-visibility operations are obvious: they generate a spirit of goodwill,
help to remove suspicion, alleviate grievances and thus promote
stability and security.
b. Providing Reassurance. Air power can also be used to help
avert threats to peace, both real and imagined. By exploiting the third
dimension for surveillance purposes, it can provide assurance that a
potential antagonist is not about to attack. It can, in addition, be used to
verify arms control agreements and play an important part in furtheringconfidence and security building measures. While satellite surveillance
systems offer expanding contributions, the capabilities, flexibility and
unpredictability of airborne systems continue to make a unique
contribution in this field.
16. Managing International Crises. Air power can play a major part in
managing crises. In times of increasing international tension, air power is an ideal
instrument for international crisis management, most of which involve no
recourse to violence.
a. Warning. Air power can be used to give prior and timely
warningof anintended aggression and thus allow appropriate preventiveactions to be taken. The detection of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba in
1962 by American U-2 aircraft allowed the United States to impose a naval
'quarantine' of the island, a measure that led to the removal of this potential
threat. Since then capabilities have grown markedly and despite the advent
of reconnaissance satellites, airborne systems continue to provide unique
surveillance capabilities. Advanced airborne surveillance systems can
provide enormous quantities of detailed data on the actions of potential
aggressors.
b. Signalling. Air power can also be used to send clear political
signals. These can help to remove uncertainty over intentions and thus
reduce what is arguably the greatest danger in any crisis: miscalculation.
Air power can do this by an overt increase in readiness states,
intensified peacetime training exercises or presence flights.
c. Supporting Friends. Air power can provide timely moral and
physical support for allies and friends, thus strengthening their resolve in
times of tension. The Berlin Airlift of 1948 demonstrated the capability
and will of the Western powers to provide support for a threatened friend
and as such had lasting and worldwide ramifications.
d. International Rescue. The use of air power to mount rescue
operations in crisis situations has a long history; an example is the rescueof passengers and crew of the hijacked aircraft by the Israelis in Entebbe,
Uganda. However, such operations -- because they require large and
vulnerable aircraft to fly over potentially hostile territory -- tend to involve
high risks and demand the most careful preparations.
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e. Inject Stability. Air power can also be used to inject air or land
forces to improve stability in a region threatened with civil strife or in
areas where regional conflict threatens to spill over into neighbouring
states. For example, the rapid airlift of French and Belgian troops into
Zaire in September 1991 helped to bring stability into a situation of
increasing communal violence.
f. Implicit Deterrence. Perhaps the best-known application of air power in crisis management is to deter aggression, and this can be
achieved in a number of ways. At the lowest end of the deterrent scale, the
deployment of reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft can in addition to
providing information, have a salutary deterrent effect on a potential
aggressor. They can be used to warn him that his actions are being
watched and could provoke a response. Because such specialist
surveillance aircraft have wartime as well as peacetime functions, they can
be invaluable in enhancing the fighting power of regional forces and/or
preparing the ground for out-of-region reinforcements. In this context they
play a key role in
ensuring the continuity of crisis management options between 'implicit' and
'explicit' deterrence.
g. Explicit Deterrence. The proven ability to exact rapid retribution,
strike deep into unfriendly territory and deny the potential aggressor the
assurance that his homeland can be kept safe from attack is by any measure
a strong and explicit deterrent. It is one, which can be effective right
across the spectrum of potential aggression. At the higher end of the scale,
air power can deter invasion forces. Operation Desert Shield the
deployment of coalition air power to Saudi Arabia after Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait in 1990 is an example. In many such situations air power will
often be the only instrument, which has the requisite speed, reach, and
striking power to deter aggression.
h. Non-Lethal Coercion. Air power can be used not merely to deter
aggression, but also to 'face down' a potential or actual aggressor
without resort to physical violence. The rapid deployment of US air
power to Korea in 1976 as response to the killing of two US soldiers in the
Korean Demilitarised Zone is an example. The implicit threat was clear
and the North Korean quickly offered a formal apology.
i. Punishment. If necessary, non-lethal coercion can be taken one
step further and air power used for precise punishment operations, short of
full-blown war. Moreover, punishment operations are reactive rather than
proactive and depend for their success on surprise. Hence, they are usuallyplanned at short notice on a 'one-off' basis; there is little opportunity for
practice and much scope for error.
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Applications of Air Power
Situation Application Examples
Peace Promoting International
Relations
Disaster Relief
Providing Reassurance ObservationCrisis Warning Observation and Reporting
Signalling Demonstration Flight
Providing support Re-supply and Redeployment
Rescue Evacuation
Injecting Stability Force Insertion
Implicit Deterrence Redeployment, Surveillance
Explicit Deterrence Increased Readiness,
Overt Demonstration Flights
Non-Lethal Coercion Implicit and Explicit Threat
Punishment Selective attacks
War Observation Reconnaissance
Destruction Attacks to destroy
Lethal Coercion Attacks to coerce
Denial or Containment Holding actions
Dislocation Consequential effect
Delay Consequential effect
Diversion Consequential effect
Demoralisation Consequential effect
Figure 3.2: The Applications of Air Power
17. Wartime Applications. Should crisis management measures fail, and
crisis degenerate into armed conflict, then air power can make a decisivecontribution to prosecuting operations with relatively minimum loss of life. The
unique ability of air power to concentrate military power in time and space when
and where it is needed has in recent years become perhaps the dominant feature
of contemporary high-intensity conflict. Here again, air power offers decision-
makers a wide range of options. These include:
a. Observation. In war, observation of the enemy provides the basis
for intelligence planning and successful execution of military
operations. Air power's unique ability to exploit the third dimension
allows it to make a major contribution to monitoring enemy activities and
deployments and thus discovering his intentions. Aerial reconnaissance
was the first use of military aviation.
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b. Destruction. Air power's most obvious wartime application is its
ability to destroy. The ability to concentrate firepower, when combined
with the direct fire inherent in the nature of aerial attacks, confers on air
power enormous potential destructive power. It is not only destruction
but also the consequential effects of air power's destructive capacity
that gives air power a true war-winning potential.
c. Lethal Coercion. The ability of air power to reach deep into
enemy territory at any time and attack the full spectrum of target setsallows air power to be used to coerce an enemy during a conflict. Any
state which faces an opponent with strong air power has to accept the
possibility that opponent can escalate the scale or scope of the conflict
rapidly and at will by extending the intensity and scope of his attacks.
d. Denial. Air power can also be use to deny an enemy the ability
to employ his air, surface and sub-surface forces effectively. The most
prominent example of an air-to-air denial battle is the Battle of Britain,
where air forces were the only practicable means open to Britain of
denying the enemy the opportunity to launch a potentially war-winning
invasion against the United Kingdom.
e. Dislocation. The capacity of air power to inflict dislocation is a
key quality. Even if an aircraft fails to destroy its target, the impact on
morale of a near miss or of collateral damage may still cause the
enemy major mental, moral and physical dislocation. Dislocation
causes delay and confusion, and it breaks up unit cohesion . It also
makes the enemy far more vulnerable to follow-up attacks by all types of
forces.
f. Diversion. Air power can be used to divert enemy forces in
order either to delay or destroy them. At the military-strategic and
operational levels of war, diversion can be achieved by concentrating
attacks against sensitive target sets, compelling an enemy to divert forces
and resources from offensive into defensive duties. At the tactical level,
air power can achieve diversion by selectively attacking choke points such
as bridges etc. This can either delay the arrival of enemy surface forces or
channel their movement into areas where they can more easily be
contained or destroyed.
g. Delay. The effects of dislocation, destruction or diversion can
in turn create delay, another important wartime effect of air power. In
defensive situations, imposing delays on the enemy allows friendly forces
to deal more effectively with an attack, either by strengthening defences or
by launching spoiling attacks. In offensive situations it allows friendlyforces to prevent the enemy's escape.
h. Demoralisation. One of the important effects that air power can
create is demoralisation, because demoralisation is a factor, which
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pervades all aspects of combat capability. Air attack has always had a
particularly sapping effect on morale, almost irrespective of the damage
inflicted.
LEVELS OF AIR OPERATIONS
18. Air power would rarely be used in isolation during a joint or a
multinational campaign. The use of air assets would always be directed towardsthe political end-state, which the campaign was designed to achieve. However, in
the course of that campaign, air power could be used in three different ways:
a. Concurrent Operations. Parallel operations conducted by air
power at different levels of war at the same time.
b. Simultaneous Operations. Operations coordinated with the
manoeuvre of surface forces involved with joint or multinational
operations.
c. Independent Operations. Operations are purely dependent on air
assets. Air operations may be distinct from theatre level operations but insupport of the strategic aim or end-state.
CENTRES OF GRAVITY AND TARGETING
19. Definition of Centre of Gravity (COG). The term 'Centre of Gravity'
describes a point of crucial vulnerability against which a successful attack is
likely to be decisive. Clausewitz called the centre of gravity (the schwerpunkt)the'hub of all power and movement'. COGs are therefore defined as those
characteristics, capabilities, or localities from which a military force, nation, or
alliance derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight at that level
of conflict. A COG describes the central feature(s) of enemy systems or power
that, if defeated, may have the most decisive result.
20. Identifying Centres of Gravity. A critical part of strategy development is
the identification of COGs that can be attacked or disrupted to achieve theater
strategic and operational objectives. The central focus of a force is its centre of
gravity. The concept of centre of gravity applies at the national level and concerns
the application of combat power against an adversary. Air power is best applied
when matched offensively against an adversary's centres whilst defending its
own centres of gravity. Thus, one of the most important responsibilities of a
commander is to identify his own centres of gravity, so that they can be best
protected, and those of the enemy, so that he can concentrate his forces againstthem.
a. Enemy Centres of Gravity. The air force must be able to
determine at any particular time an adversary's centres of gravity. Enemy
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centres of gravity fall into two categories: accessible and ultimate. A
commander must first identify the ultimate centres of gravity and then, if
he has neither the resources nor the authorisation to act against them,
identify accessible centres of gravity. Two vital aspects must also be
resolved. Firstly, is the use of air power appropriate against that particular
centre in order to defeat it? Secondly, if air power is appropriate, what is
the best method of applying air power against it? A commander must avoid
distributing his forces equally (or, conceivably, at all) between all centres
of gravity and should not assume that an enemy action demands a reactionin kind. Instead, he must focus on the nature and objective of the war, and
the nature of the enemy; these will determine the enemy centre of gravity
against which his attacks should be concentrated. When and if air power is
considered appropriate, the air force must ensure that its offensive
capability hits at vital centres. Most air forces have limited capacity to
sustain operations and are vulnerable to attrition. Since the first offensive
initiative may be the only opportunity for them, attacking the correct centre
is critical.
Hawk 108 with 2 x Mk. 82 LDGP bombs
b. Own Centres of Gravity. The same formula for identifying
enemy centres of gravity must be applied equally to friendly centres of
gravity (either national or Alliance). Once identified, friendly centres of
gravity must be protected as far as possible and their vulnerability
reduced. Plans to minimize the effect of successful attacks on such targets
should also be formulated.
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21. Targeting. As air power assets become more versatile and multi-role, the
same platforms could well be used for missions with strategic effects as in strategic
attack or close air support (CAS). Weapon systems will vary according to target
sets, but it is highly likely that delivery platforms will be in short supply.
Therefore in a joint or combined environment, strategic missions may need to be
justified alongside other priorities within a theatre of operations. The key for
commanders and planners alike is the selection of the correct strategic centre of
gravity via campaign planning tools and air appreciations. Another very important
aspect to note is that targeting must be accompanied by timely and accurateintelligence. The air commander can plan to attack COGs directly, indirectly, or
combinations of both. Political considerations, projected loss rates, laws of armed
conflict considerations, available forces, etc., may make direct attacks on the COG
unfeasible, thus forcing indirect methods. As the name implies, direct attack
involves physically attacking a COG or engaging it in decisive combat. Indirect
attack, on the other hand, results in the same or similar effects on a COG through
attack of its supporting infrastructure and related elements. COG analysis
ultimately leads to the identification of vital target sets within the individual COGs.
Vital targets are those that, if successfully attacked, will have the greatest adverse
effects on the enemy COGs at the operational and strategic levels of war. It is
important to also note that analysis must always begin with national policy and
military objectives, and include assessment of ongoing operations to determineif the COG(s) should be adjusted as the operation progresses . Targeting
based on knowledge of the enemys war-fighting and value systems is critical.
Air power should not be wasted on inappropriate targets rather to attack vital
points of the enemy.
AIR STRATEGY
22. Definition. Air strategy is defined as the overall employment plan for
air forces in a war.
23. Structure. Air power, due to its unique characteristics, has very wide
potential military strategic applications. This fall essentially into four broad roles
of which are described below. Figure 3.3 describe the hierarchy of air power and
Figure 3.4 provides some examples of the roles, operations, missions and tasks.
a. Counter Air Role. Counter air action is defined as the use of air
power to deter, contain or defeat the enemy air forces . The strategic
aim of counter air action is to achieve the desired degree of control of the
air.
b. Force Application Role. Force Application Role brings air power
to bear directly against surface targets. It involves the independent usedof air power to achieve national policy objectives. It also involves the
use of air power, in cooperation with friendly surface and sub-surface
forces to deter, contain or defeat the enemys army and/or navy. The
strategic aim of force application action is to deprive an enemy of the
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AIR POWER
military power needed to occupy territory or exploit sea space and to
undermine the enemys ability and will to continue with his aggression.
c. Force Enhancement Role. Force Enhancement actions are to
increase the ability of air and surface forces to perform their missions.
d. Force Sustenance Role. Force Sustenance encompasses all
actions taken to sustain our ability to conduct operations successfully .
It is essential to sustain the force to the necessary level and duration for itsoperations to achieve its assigned objectives.
Examples of Air Power Roles, Operations, Missions and Tasks
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Hierarchy of Air Power
SORTIES
(One flight by one aircraft)
TASKS
MISSIONS
OPERATIONS
ROLES
AIR
STRATEGY
Figure 3.32: Hierarchy of Air Power
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AIR POWER
ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS
COUNTER AIR
OCA
Airfield Attack
To attackAircraft on ground,
Ammo and Fuel dump, C4I,Airfield facilities.
Fighter SweepSeek and destroy airborneaircraft,
SEAD
Destroy, neutralise, and
degrade Radars and early
warning systems, SAMs,AAA.
DCA
GAIIntercept, Identify, Shadow,
Intervene and/or Force down,or Engage enemy aircraft.
CAP
Escorts Protect FGA aircraft or
HVAA.
FORCE
APPLICATION
STRATEGICATTACK
To destroy,
neutralise, degradeor disrupt;
COG and Vitalpoints.
Destroy, neutralise and
degrade, HQ, key industries,and fielded forces and
infrastructures.
INTERDICTION
To destroy,neutralise,
degrade, disrupt ordelay: LOC, War
sustaining andmilitary potentialbeyond the
battlefield.
Destroy, degrade, delaysupply depot, HQ.
OFFENSIVE AIRSUPPORT (OAS)
BAI Destroy, neutralise or delayland forces, LOC, war
machines, bridges.CAS
MARITIME AIROPERATIONS
(MAO)
ASuW Detect, identify, neutralise,destroy, ships, mine laying,
ASW Detect, locate, track,
submarine, mine laying.ARMED RECCE
Opportunitytargets within the
battlefield.
Locating and attackingpersonnel, material and
facilities.
FORCE
ENHANCEMENT
AIRLIFT
Scheduled
services.
Movement of personnel and
supplies.
Airborne
operations.
Airdrop of personnel or
cargo.
Air logistic
support.
Distribute or recover
personnel and materiel.
Special air
operations.
Insertion and extraction of
special forces, leaflet drop,voice broadcast.
Aero-medicalevacuation.
MEDEVAC, CASEVAC,BODEVAC.
ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS
AIR-TO-AIRTowline AARmissions.
Provide air-to-air refuelling.
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AIR POWER
FORCE
SUSTENANCE
BASE SUPPORTOPS
MaterialSupply, R&D, clothing,
refuelling, ammunitiontransportation, rations.
MaintenanceServicing, repair, testing,salvage, refurbish,
manufacture.
Administration
Organising, Planning,
Finance, Religious andMedical services, Welfare
Discipline, Law and order
and Accommodation.
LOGISTICSOPERATIONS
MaterialAcquisition, Movement,Distribution, Storage,Maintenance, Disposition.
Personnel Movement, Evacuation,
Medical care.
FacilitiesAcquisition, Construction,
Maintenance, Disposition,Operation.
Services Acquisition or Furnishing.
CSARSearch, Locate and
Rescue.
Downed Aircrew or
Distressed personnel.
Figure 3.4: Examples of Air Power Roles, Operations, Missions and Tasks
C-130H Work Horse of the RMAFDOCTRINAL GUIDANCE
24. Air power is a very complex business and all commanders should becertain that they have adequate levels of professional advice to guide its
employment. Every commander in making decision must have an acute
understanding of air power's strengths and limitations. This applies at all
levels of war and to all commanders - joint, air, land and sea. For instance:
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a. Strategically, it uses air power's superior reach, responsiveness
and lethality to exploit the uncertainty of asymmetric response, and to
strike directly at vital points, achieve strategic surprise and/or shock,
and confound the enemy's situational awareness.
b. Operationally, it attains military objectives using air power's
versatility, reach, concentration, penetration and lethality, rather than
undertaking an attrition campaign. Air power may also permit the conductof concurrent operations and campaigns.
c. Tactically, it exploits the element of surprise by dynamic
leadership, high quality crews, innovative tactics, deception and speed of
manoeuvre.
25. The effectiveness of air power is directly proportional to situational
awareness. Situational awareness is observation -- orientation that has strategic,
operational and tactical dimensions, as such:
a. Strategically, situational awareness is strategic warning; that is,
effective situational awareness will provide timely warning of potentialthreats to national security.
b. Operationally, situational awareness gives a commander
knowledge dominance in an area of operations.
c. Tactically, situational awareness enables a person to dictate
activities in the battle space.
Air power is like poker. A second best hand is like none at all
it will cost you dough and win you nothing.
General George Kenney, USAF
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