ii
An Abstract of
Study of Parameters in the Development of Sustainable Transportation System:
A Case Study of Mumbai, India
By
Bhairavi S. Dhakras
Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Master of Civil Engineering
The University of Toledo
August 2004
Urban transportation forms one of the most important components of urban
development. With the growing business, trade and urbanization all over the world, there
is a growth in demand for transportation. Transportation problems mainly arise due to
this growing demand and the inadequacy of the supply of transport facilities. This
imbalance between capacity or supply of transport facilities and the increasing demand
from people causes an unsustainable condition. Traffic congestion, trave l delays and
dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance. These are
accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution with high vehicular
emissions and excessive fuel consumption. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the
iii
need of having a transportation system which would efficiently cater to the needs and
travel demands of citizens, without causing any adverse effect on the environment. In this
study, literature regarding transportation planning and urban designing is reviewed for
various developed and developing countries. Most populous city in the world, developing
city in Asia and the financial capital of India, the City of Mumbai, is selected as the study
area. Views of the citizens of Mumbai and information about their regular traveling
pattern are collected through a web survey. Transportation scenario and problems in this
city are closely observed and studied which lead to interesting findings and facts. These
include congestion index, loss in working hours, vehicular emissions, average speed,
distance, travel time, expenses and commuter satisfaction. A statistical analysis is carried
out to measure the commuter satisfaction and different aspects of the transportation
system affecting the performance of the system as a whole. It is deduced that congestion,
rush, delay, parking, pedestrian facilities and road quality are major factors from people’s
point of view, which significantly affect their satisfaction or acceptability of the
performance of Mumbai Transportation System. Environmental problems are also studied
for the City of Mumbai, and recommendations made to alleviate them. It is finally
inferred that there is an urgent need for comprehensive transportation planning,
dispersing population, curbing private vehicle use and effectively facilitating the public
transportation in the City of Mumbai.
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Dedicated to My parents, brother and sister in law in Mumbai, India
Thank you for being with me, always!
v
Acknowledgements
I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Jiwan Gupta for his guidance, suggestions and
co-operation. I am grateful to Dr. Candace Ayars for her immense help with the statistical
analysis. Without her effort and help, this analysis would not have been possible. I
appreciate Dr. Heydinger and Dr. Mostaghel for being on my defense committee.
I am thankful to my parents, my brother and my sister in law in India, who have
been a constant source of support and inspiration throughout my stay in the United States.
I appreciate Anirban’s help with technical details and comments, Amit’s suggestions and
guidance, Priya for sharing pictures of Mumbai, Mr. Vijay Sidhaye for Mumbai maps and
Tanvi, Srilakshmi and Rachana for their co-operation and understanding throughout their
stay with me. I express my gratitude towards Mr. Seeman Corey, Rachana and Anirban,
who helped me design the online questionnaire.
I am thankful to Save Bombay Committee, Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Development Authority, Regional Transport Office of Mumbai, Mumbai Municipal
Corporation, Sustainable Transportation Yahoo Group and all the other web sites and
books, which provided me with a great deal of information.
I am especially thankful to Mr. Kisan Mehta, president of Save Bombay
Committee, who has been my greatest inspiration in making Mumbai a sustainable city. I
thank the citizens of Mumbai, who by their responses and comments have made this
research possible.
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Table of Content
Page
Abstract ii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Content vi
List of Figures, Maps and Photos ix
List of Tables xii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Sustainability
1.2.1 Definition 3
1.2.2 Measures (Indicators) of Sustainability 6
1.3 Research Objectives 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
2.1 Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation 11
2.2 Demand Management – Means to Sustainability 13
2.2.1 Land Use Planning 14
2.2.2 Non-Motorized Transportation 22
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Page
2.3 Role of Policy Implementers – Government 29
2.4 Towards Sustainable Transportation – Meaning and Indicators 31
Chapter 3: Study Area – City of Mumbai, India 34
3.1 Information of the City – History and Development 34
3.2 Geography and Population 35
3.3 Employment 40
3.4 Transportation 42
3.5 Traffic in Mumbai 48
3.6 Environmental Crisis 51
Chapter 4: Taking a closer look at Transportation Problems
Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai suburb 55
4.1 Overview of the area 55
4.2 Transportation Infrastructure 57
4.2.1 Streets 57
4.2.2 Sidewalks 60
4.3 Planning and Management 62
4.4 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic 66
4.5 Environmental Pollution 70
4.6 Spreading Localities 70
4.7 Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic 71
4.8 Land Use Planning – Concentration of Employment Centers 72
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Page
Chapter 5: Data Collection and Analysis 74
5.1 Data Collection 74
5.1.1 Online Survey 74
5.1.2 Survey Design and Observations 76
5.2 Analysis 83
5.2.1 Commuter Satisfaction 83
5.2.2 Statistical Analysis 85
5.3 Environmental Aspect 99
Chapter 6: Results and Inference 106
6.1 Interpretation and Inference 106
6.2 Suggestions for Mitigation 107
6.2.1 Dispersion of Population and Employment –
Satellite Towns 107
6.2.2 Facilitation of Public Transportation 108
6.2.3 Parking 110
6.2.4 Pedestrian Convenience 110
6.2.5 Curbing personalized vehicles on roads 111
Chapter 7: Conclusion and Recommendations 113
7.1 Conclusion 113
7.2 Recommendations 115
References 116
Appendix 122
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List of Figures Page
Figure 1.1 Sustainability Curves 6
Figure 3.1 Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years
1911 to 1991 with estimated population in the year 2003 40
Figure 3.2 Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai 49
Figure 3.3 Increase in private motor ownership (two-wheelers and cars) 49
Figure 3.4 Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of
suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03 52
Figure 5.1 Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel 77
Figure 5.2 Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic 80
Figure 5.3 Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic 80
Figure 5.4 Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System
as a whole 86
Figure 5.5 Distribution of responses about Road Quality 86
Figure 5.6 Distribution of responses about Congestion 87
Figure 5.7 Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed 87
Figure 5.8 Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains 88
Figure 5.9 Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities 88
Figure 5.10 Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport 89
Figure 5.11 Distribution of responses about Parking 89
x
Figure 5.12 Distribution of responses about Availability of
alternate modes 90
Figure 5.13 Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel 90
Figure 5.14 Distribution of scores for Crowding 93
Figure 5.15 Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation
Modes 93
Figure 5.16 Distribution of scores for Infrastructure 94
Figure 5.17 Distribution of scores for Cost 94
Figure 5.18 Graph of Linear Regression 98
Figure 5.19 Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with
respect to speed 100
Figure 5.20 Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed 101
Figure 5.21 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke
with respect to speed 102
Figure 5.22 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke
with respect to speed 103
List of Maps
Map 3.1 Map of Mumbai 36
Map 3.2 Mumbai with significant areas 38
Map 3.3 City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations 44
Map 3.4 City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and
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Central Railway 46
Map 4.1 Focus Area in Mumbai – The suburb of Andheri 56
List of Photos
Photo 3.1 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway 47
Photo 4.1 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance 58
Photo 4.2 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance 58
Photo 4.3 Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai 59
Photo 4.4 Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road
Markings 60
Photo 4.5 Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks 61
Photo 4.6 Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai 61
Photo 4.7 Over-saturated flows at traffic signals 63
Photo 4.8 Traffic Jam during peak hour 64
Photo 4.9 Rush for the buses during peak hours 65
Photo 4.10 Rush at a railway station to board train 66
Photo 4.11 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 67
Photo 4.12 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 68
Photo 4.13 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 68
Photo 4.14 Cattle on Mumbai streets 69
Photo 4.15 Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station 69
Photo 4.16 Slums around railway tracks 71
Photo 4.17 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station 73
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List of Tables Page
Table 3.1 Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai 41
Table 3.2 Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai 42
Table 3.3 Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai 48
Table 3.4 Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03) 52
Table 3.5 Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites 53
Table 3.6 Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for
year 2002-03 from Transportation 53
Table 5.1 Percentage of respondents based on their profession 76
Table 5.2 Percentage of Trips in mornings and evenings to and
from suburbs and city 77
Table 5.3 Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average
AM and PM speeds for each mode of travel. 79
Table 5.4 Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai
Transportation System and the parameters 82
Table 5.5 Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation 84
Table 5.6 Coefficients from Factor Analysis
(Rotated Component Matrix) 92
Table 5.7 Summary of basic statistics for the four factors 95
Table 5.8 Model Summary 95
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Table 5.9 Correlations 96
Table 5.10 Coefficients from regression analysis 96
Table 5.11 Correla tions and Significance 97
Table 5.12 Model Summary 97
Table 5.13 Coefficients and significance values for linear regression 98
Table 5.14 Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and
emission of pollutants 104
Table 5.15 Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed
and ideal speed of vehicles in Mumbai 104
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Transportation is essential for the movement of people and goods. Deb [1] states
that the productive efficiency of urban areas is maintained when mobility requirements in
the cities are fully met. With the growth of cities, demand for transportation grows with
the growing business and trade all over the world. Thus urban transport forms one of the
most important components of urban development. A good network of roads and an
efficient transport system make a substantial contribution to the working efficiency of a
city. The evolution of industrial development calls for an expansion of transportation
systems to cater to the increasing demand.
Most of the population and economic growth in the world is occurring in
developing countries [2]. The occurrence of rapid urbanization in the world has created
the migration of people from rural areas to metropolitan cities. This has resulted in more
people and more goods making more trips in urban areas, often over longer distances [2].
Approximately 45 per cent of world population lived in urban areas in 1995. By the year
2025, this figure is estimated to rise to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population
(around 1.2 billion persons) of Asia lived in cities. By 2020, the proportion of urban
residents will have increased by 50 per cent with the urban population reaching over 2
2
billion [4]. By some estimate at least 153 cities in Asia will have population exceeding 1
million persons [4]. Rapid urbanization is accompanied by an alarming rate of increase in
the number of vehicles. In fact, the inventory of vehicles has been rising at a faster rate in
terms of percentage as compared to the population. There is a high growth of auto-
ownership in cities for better accessibility. Besides, in many of the developing countries
owning a car is a symbol of prestige. With this, there is higher demand for the use of
transportation facilities. However transport infrastructure development and provision of
public transport facilities have severely lagged behind as compared to the demand. Road
networks in cities are clogged by the explosion of personalized vehicle and have resulted
in acute traffic congestion, steeply increasing number of accidents and levels of pollution.
Process of urbanization with an improper controlled planning has resulted in
disproportional spatial distribution of population and economic activities necessitating
large-scale intra-city movement of people, goods and vehicles.
Transportation problems mainly arise due to the imbalance between capacity or
supply of transport facilities and the demand from the people. Traffic congestion, travel
delays and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance.
These are accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution. Non-
motorized transportation modes (which mostly include pedestrians and cyclists) have
become the most vulnerable in the present vehicular dominant transportation system.
They are deprived of safe movement on roads, due to growing traffic. This causes
increase in the number of accidents, pedestrians being the victims most of the times.
Travelers spend money on their travel directly (traveling expenses) or indirectly (local
taxes), but are unable to get desired satisfaction. There is a gap between increasing traffic
3
and existing infrastructure (in terms of bridges, roads, traffic control devices, subways
etc). This gap is increasing leading to unsustainable condition, which prevents the smooth
flow of traffic and healthy environmental conditions, suppressing economical
development. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the need of a transportation
system which would efficiently cater to the needs and travel demands of citizens.
1.2 Sustainability
1.2.1 Definition
The World Bank provides the following definition of sustainability:
“Sustainability is defined as the condition in which there is a balance and stability
between the social, economic, environmental and physical factors, satisfying the present
needs as well as not compromising on the ability of the future condition.”
Pearce, Makandia & Barbier (1989) [5] define sustainability as:
“Sustainable development involves devising a social and economic system, which ensures
that these goals are sustained, i.e. that real incomes rise, that educational standards
increase, that the health of the nation improves, that the general quality of life is
advanced.”
Sustainability is a condition when there is maximum fulfillment of needs with
least resource consumption, optimum cost and without causing negative impact on
environment and society. Sustainable transportation can be defined as the most efficient
and convenient movement of people and vehicles with least amount of energy (in terms
of fuel and efforts), at most favorable costs and with least amount of congestion and
environmental impacts such as air and noise pollution.
4
Sustainable transportation is a long-term goal to achieve, and the progress towards
it is incremental. Improvement in transportation is often misinterpreted as only building
bridges, widening roads and having rapid transit systems. Although it includes all these
techniques, transportation can become sustainable only when it holistically considers
social, economical and environmental aspects. Good land use planning requiring
minimum need to travel, transportation network friendly for all classes of people,
transportation modes causing minimum amount of air pollution, and transportation
options demanding least cost and effort of people can be considered as various aspects of
a sustainable transportation system. Thus sustainable transportation concerns with the
impacts of transportation developments on economic efficiency, environmental issues,
resource consumption, land use, and equity. It includes the application of systems,
policies and technologies, which would help achieve the continuous economic
development without having a detrimental effect on environmental and human resources.
It aims at the efficiency of transit of goods, services and delivery systems with minimum
accessibility problems. Sustainable transportation system aims at designing of
congestion-free urban planning, with bicycle and pedestrian friend ly design of the areas.
It focuses on moving people and not only the vehicles, which in turn would reduce air
pollution as well as the increasing congestion. Sustainability can be achieved with the
change in behavioral aspects of people. When people understand the impacts of
transportation, they can in turn make choices that reduce the need for resources and thus
minimize the adverse impacts.
A report by the World Bank (1996, 4-6) defines sustainable transportation as
made of three components:
5
• The economic and financial component, which includes the issues of adequacy of
transportation infrastructure funding, organization and scale.
• The environmental and ecological component, which includes issues of how
transportation investments and mode options influence the reduction in
consumption of energy, pollution etc.
• The social component, which emphasizes adequate access to transportation
services by all segments of society.
Sustainability is also said to be a measure of transport impact on all aspects of the
natural and human environment. All costs are accounted for, including those costs that
indicate the quality of the trip for the traveler. A principal human cost is the time spent in
transport. This cost is the largest single cost after the systems capital and operating costs
[6]. Sustainability cannot be achieved only by changing the vehicular designs, patterns
and their management. It implies changes in the way we think to identify and evaluate the
solutions to transportation problems. It focuses on accessib ility, which can be improved
by having better means of communication and land use management that will reduce the
need to travel. Sustainability can be graphically defined as shown in Figure 1.1.
6
Figure 1.1 Sustainability Curves
Source: Sustainable Transportation: Conceptualization and Performance Measures, Texas
Transportation Institute
Socio-economic needs of the people increase with the growth in technology.
Figure 1.1 shows the increasing needs and the depleting resources. After a certain point
of time, the resources are unable to satisfy the needs and the unsustainable condition
arises. Thus an imbalance is created as the supply gets diminished as compared to
demands.
1.2.2 Measures (indicators) of Sustainability
Various researchers are conducting research to define measures of sustainable
development, but no definitive set of measures has been arrived at as acceptable by
everyone. Indicators of sustainability can be the units of measuring progress towards
sustainable development. There are three basic functions of indicators - simplification,
Sustainability
Needs
Technology Resources Environment
Ecological System So
me
App
ropr
iate
Mea
sure
s
Time
7
quantification, and communication. Indicators generally simplify in order to make
complex phenomena quantifiable so that information can be communicated. The general
public is concerned about sustainable development and the environment. They like to be
informed about the state of the environment and the economy and how and why they are
changing [5].
Performance should be measured in ways that meet both governmental standards
and public needs and wishes. A primary performance measure can be devised which
indicates how regional travel time delay is affected by the recommended strategy. Other
secondary benefits could be identified and measured that are of interest to stakeholder
groups. A clear additional benefit is how equitably people across a region share in the
primary benefit of congestion relief. For some travelers, having more travel choices,
especially safe non-motorized modes, is a benefit. Money that is freed up with a cost-
effective regional solution would also constitute a benefit. It could be applied to local
transport problems or to important social purposes. Other measurable benefit indicators
include: reductions in health impacts, environmental damages, and accident costs, as
travelers shift to transit, ride share and non-motorized modes [6]. The University of
Reading [5] gives the indicators for sustainable transportation in terms of car use and
total passenger travel, short journeys, real changes in the cost of transport and freight
traffic.
While there is no simple or single means of achieving efficient transportation,
measures for the study could include the following:
• Congestion index.
• Reduction in pollution levels.
8
• Per capita energy consumption (Alberta Round Table on the Environment and the
Economy -- May, 1993).
• Reduction in travel times or the traveling costs.
• Percentage of excess of capacity over the demand.
• Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) of travel; B/C > 1 is a sustainable condition.
Transportation planners face major challenges in exploring affordable, efficient
and reliable transport services for the citizens, minimizing negative environmental
impacts. For achieving the sustainability, impact of each development and improvement
has to be studied in deep and its benefits have to be calculated. Sustainability is attained
when there is social comfort and equity with least consumption of resources.
Urban areas in developing countries require new approaches to address their
transportation problems. Although the problems appear to be universally the same, their
solutions differ. Developing countries face a challenge in finding innovative solutions.
Transportation planners often tend to apply methods developed in developed countries to
problems in developing countries with little concern for differences in causes, need,
condition, resource availability and climate [7]. These solutions may demand enormous
costs. It is important for developing nations to develop a transportation system with
limited resources, thus avoiding consumption of excessive amounts of land and other
sources. Policy makers should realize that solutions designed for cities of developed
countries cannot be directly applied to the urban areas of developing countries. They can
and should learn from the experiences of developed countries. These countries should
also acknowledge the interrelationships that exist between different urban trends and
impacts. Addressing problems in isolation would not be very effective because of the
9
complex nature of the urban transportation system. Interrelated problems require
integrated strategies implemented over time, from the immediate and short term to the
gradual and long term. Developing countries need to make approaches city specific, even
for cities within the same country. For instance, developed countries face a problem of
urban sprawl, which essentially means the dispersion of population in low densities. Such
countries encourage mixed land use pattern consisting of residences, work places,
shopping malls, schools etc. This reduces the commuting distance and thus the car
dependency. In contrast to this, the City of Mumbai has a mixed land use pattern. The
city consists of industries, factories, schools, offices, residential complexes, big and small
employment centers and slums in a small area of 438 sq. km. Still the city faces a large
number of transportation and environmental problems, all of them being very severe and
serious. Mumbai, with a very high population density, mixed land use pattern and a good
network of public transportation, is a very congested city. It means that the causes of
these problems are not exactly similar to the ones in the developed countries, and demand
innovative and different solutions.
1.3 Research Objectives
The main objective of this study lies in identifying transportation problems in the
City of Mumbai, studying their causes, measuring them and suggesting feasible measures
for sustainability. Although the measures of sustainability have not been exactly defined,
sustainability of transportation in Mumbai can be measured by knowing the definition of
sustainable transportation. Various parameters related to transportation system are studied
which affect the sustainability from social, environmental and economical point of view.
10
With limited sources in obtaining data, the following tasks are envisioned to study the
sustainable transportation system in Mumbai.
• Literature study to define the sustainable transportation system for the City of
Mumbai, by considering various parameters and the historical development.
• Study of population, employment and transportation system.
• Defining a study area within the City of Mumbai for in depth study of sustainable
transportation.
• Measuring social satisfaction and acceptability towards the current system, and
defining the indicators of sustainability.
• Focusing on environmental aspect and recommending strategies to curb
environmental damages.
• Suggesting mitigation measures for achieving sustainability.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation
With rapid industrialization, most countries in the world are experiencing rapid
urban growth. There has been a population movement from rural to urban areas since
twentieth century. Population and economic growth in the world is occurring mainly in
developing countries [4]. As discussed earlier, in 1995, approximately 45 per cent of
world population lived in urban areas, but by the year 2025, this figure is estimated to rise
to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population of Asia lived in cities (around 1.2
billion persons). By 2020, the proportion of urban residents will increase by 50 per cent
with the urban population reaching 2 billion [4]. At least 153 cities in Asia will have
population exceeding 1 million persons [4]. Growth in population with the improvement
in economy has caused growth in vehicle ownership. Although personal automobile
ownership rates are lower in developing countries as compared to the developed
countries, the growth rate of motor vehicles in deve loping countries has been rising in
past few years and is also expected to rise in the future. Rapid urbanization has caused
tremendous demand for supporting infrastructure such as water, transportation, electricity
etc. In particular, a gap between the demand and supply of transportation facilities is
increasing due to ineffective transportation management or due to incompetence of the
existing system. This is apparently due to lack of comprehensive planning and weak
12
institutional support. Transportation consumes more than 20 percent of the world's total
energy and produces much of the world's air pollution [8]. As more and more people will
be dependent on private automobiles, it is estimated that by 2025, the transport sector’s
energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions will be twice than that in 2000. The
health and environmental implications of the rapidly growing and poorly regulated
motorization are highly problematic. Each year, more than 750,000 people are killed by
motor vehicles, most of them being pedestrians, and another 500,000 die prematurely due
to transport-related air pollution in developing countries [9].
Transportation problems as discussed earlier are arising since the capacity or
supply is unable to satisfy the travel demand, creating an unsustainable condition. Traffic
congestion, travel delays, dissatisfaction amongst the travelers, environmental problems
like air and noise pollution are various causes of unsustainable transportation. Travelers
experience discomfort in traveling due to traffic jams, longer travel times and air
pollution. Developments of new and improvement in existing facilities are seen, but
transportation often remains a problem with increased travel demand.
Billions of dollars are spent on highways and ring roads (beltways) in the
developing countries while too little is spent on new public transit fleets which could
effectively reduce pollution and congestion [9]. Sustainable transportation includes
smooth movement of vehicles, goods and people. It demands convenience of people and
stability in the environment at optimum cost and effort. Until now, improvement of
transportation network prioritized the movement of vehicles, thus benefiting the high
income group of society. With increasing traffic and demand for travel, building bridges
and widening roads became the common solutions to transportation problems. Urban
13
growth and spread of transport networks often mismatched the supply and demand,
projecting unsustainable trends. Conventional approaches which consist in providing new
infrastructure along traditional lines to solve these problems no longer appear relevant.
Transportation solutions include much more than providing only infrastructural facilities.
Meeting future transport and travel needs, in line with sustainable development, calls for
a review of urban transport infrastructure in terms of new investment and innovation.
Developing a sustainable transportation system is a challenge for transportation engineers
and planners.
2.2 Demand Management – Means to sustainability
There are two basic approaches to solve transportation problems. One approach is
to increase capacity in terms of infrastructure, and the other is to manage demand.
Increasing capacity to a certain extent is wise and reasonable. However, it is impractical
and expensive to increase capacity to uphold the continuously growing demand.
Management strategies are affordable and real-time solutions. Comprehensive planning
and management considers a wider range of potential solutions to transportation
problems. When all impacts are considered, Transportation Demand Management (TDM)
is often the most cost effective solution to transportation problems [10]. TDM can
provide multiple benefits, including reduced congestion, road and parking facility, cost
savings, crash cost savings, consumer cost savings, pollution reduction and more efficient
land use. It includes use of alternative modes, facilitation of non-motorized transport,
parking management strategies and effective land use planning.
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2.2.1 Land Use Planning
(1) Concept and Importance
A city's form greatly influences and is influenced by travel patterns. Development
of improper urban form has been one of the root causes of many transportation problems
throughout the world [3]. Rapid, unplanned and uncoordinated growth of cities has
dispersed their populations, with more people moving from the city centers to their urban
periphery. This dispersion reduces access to public transportation and makes the cost of
building and maintaining new public transportation systems prohibitive. An increase in
public transit systems seldom accompanies the growth in population, mainly because of
high capital costs and its urban form. Non-motorized modes of transportation in the urban
areas of developing countries also get affected and influenced by the city structure. They
can remain viable options only if there is a suitably high population density and a mixed
land use development pattern [3]. Transportation problems in developed countries like
United States, Australia and European countries occur due to scattered low density
population and hence create automobile dependency. In contrast, the problems in
developing countries like India, China and Thailand occur because of high densities of
concentrated population. Thus proper land use planning to suit the conditions and
environment may need to be considered to solve the transportation problems.
Transport, land use and environment are inter-related in an urban development. A
change in one causes an impact on the others. For example, good land use planning for a
city may lose its significance due to inadequate transportation facilities and vice versa.
This can cause people to choose unusual modes of travel with longer travel times. In turn,
it causes an adverse effect on the environment.
15
Transport influences not only the land use, that is the way the land is used, but
also who uses it [11]. The travel pattern of people for various activities, most important
being the home to work link, is crucial in a transport planning. Transportation problems
tend to arise from inappropriate spatial distribution of homes, offices, shops, factories,
schools etc. It creates inconvenience for people to travel long distances and durations
through congested traffic. Traffic situations arising from improper land use planning thus
have restricting effect on movement of people.
Hayashi [12] discusses land use planning as an important aspect of urban
development. He further states that land use planning system is fundamental to improve
the environment for reasons such as:
(i) It is extremely essential in controlling urban sprawl to keep the infrastructure
development cost at an acceptably low level, particularly during periods of rapid
suburbanization.
(ii) Infrastructure improvement provides benefits not only to users, but also to
owners, tenants and developers of land properties in the vicinity. This attributes in
the form of value increase.
(2) Effects of improper Land Use Planning
(i) Urban sprawl
It can be defined as an unplanned and unconstrained growth of urban
development, which results in an inefficient and incomplete use of land and resources. It
is one of the major causes contributing to broader environmental problems through the
16
interactive mechanism of urbanization and motorization. Urban sprawl involves
developments of low residential densities over a large land space.
(ii) Automobile Dependency
Dispersed land use patterns require a high level of mobility for a given level of
access. This mobility is easily achieved from self-owned automobiles. Automobile
dependency consists of high levels of per capita automobile travel, automobile oriented
land use, and reduced transport alternatives [13]. It causes poor pedestrian and cycling
conditions, limited transit service and under-pricing of automobile travel (such as
abundant free parking, unpriced roads and low fuel taxes). In countries with large land
areas and widely distributed populations, transit services prove to be unviable, resulting
in growth in auto-ownership. For example, Australian cities, were relatively compact in
the past, and walking was the dominant mode of personal transport. But there has been a
steady progression from a compact “walking city” to a sprawling, car-dependent city at
low residential densities by world standards. Residential density and travel characteristics
in the suburbs of both Australian and North American urban areas have led to auto
dependency in these countries [14]. Americans use their automobiles more than citizens
of other developed countries, more likely due to lack of co-ordination between land-use
and transportation policies in the United States [15].
(iii) Increase in external costs
Although automobiles are expensive to own, they are not very expensive to drive.
Use of automobile has internal and external costs [13]. Internal costs (costs borne by the
17
vehicle owner) include price paid for the vehicle, maintenance, taxes and fuel costs.
External costs (costs borne by the society) in the form of environmental impacts (air
pollution, noise), congestion (delay caused to others), and accident costs (suffering and
grief) are believed to be more than the internal costs. Thus the social cost (summation of
internal cost and external cost) is always high.
An inappropriate land use planning can lead to automobile-oriented city, poorly
suited for walking, cycling and transit. The growth and development of such city is
unsustainable and depicts a lack of co-ordination amongst stakeholders. For instance, in
Bangkok, large tracts of land remain undeveloped between and behind the main roads.
This development is the result of improper planning with inefficient use of land. Since
much potentially valuable land is either not used or used only for small-scale farming,
this type of development is highly uneconomical for transportation as it simultaneously
causes obstruction of the main roads and produces deplorable living conditions for the
people who live and work along the roads [11].
Urban sprawl is a serious issue in developed countries like United States. Poland
reports widespread uncontrolled and unmanageable out of town development as one of
the major forces driving urban areas away from sustainable development [16]. There is a
different type of land use planning problem existing in Mumbai, India as compared to the
urban sprawl problems of developed nations. In Mumbai, the urban growth is in the form
of conurbations, that is a high density development along the main transportation routes.
Conurbation development creates congestion problem on main arterial roads. Thus,
whether a city is developed or developing, densely populated or sparsely populated, land
use planning holds particular importance.
18
(3) Implementation of Land Use Planning and Control
As discussed earlier, most of the population growth is occurring in the
metropolitan cities and suburbs. This rate and pattern of growth which is totally or
substantially unplanned is expected to continue. Such unplanned growth will move jobs
farther form homes, increasing commuting distances and thereby longer travel times.
Land use planning techniques are thus required for co-ordination between travel and
transport facilities. Smart Growth, a concept associated with ‘growth management’ is
used as an anti urban-sprawling technique. It aims at establishing land use strategies to
increase population and housing densities and make transit more feasible [17]. It also
intends to create resource efficient and livable communities.
In the United Kingdom, land use control has been an effective planning tool for
protection against rapid urban sprawl and environmental degradation in the suburbs. It
has been implemented through several legislative measures such as the Restriction of
Ribbon Development Act of 1935. In Japan, legal land use planning through the
designation of ‘restricted urbanization area’ has reduced the speed of urban sprawl.
Sustainable planning and zoning measures relating to transportation include the
development of high-density, mixed land use areas, rather than segregating commercial
and residential districts. Mixed-use areas combine homes and businesses; residents
simply walk or bicycle, rather than drive, to work. Specific examples of this type of
development include pedestrian zones, which include roadways converted to pedestrian
and bicycle use [18]. Specific examples of ‘pedestrianization’ are discussed further.
One of the best examples of efficiency and sustainability gains that come from
coordinated transportation and land use planning is that of Stockholm, Sweden. The last
19
half century of strategic regional planning has given rise to a regional settlement and
commutation pattern that has substantially lowered car dependency in middle- income
suburbs. Stockholm planners have created jobs-housing balance along rail-served axial
corridors. This in turn has produced directional- flow balances. During peak hours, 55 per
cent of commuters are typically traveling in one direction on trains and 45 per cent are
heading in the other direction. Such balanced directional splits stand in marked contrast
to the United States where, because of lack of coordination in infrastructure and
development, trains and buses are often filled in the morning inbound but back-haul
three-quarters empty [19].
Countries like France, Denmark and Sweden have held sprawl in check by
heavily taxing electricity and petroleum consumption at a rate three to four times higher
than in United States [19]. Increasingly, policy makers around the world are promoting
measures like fuel taxing, road pricing and tolls, which will discourage the use of private
vehicles.
New suburban developments in The Netherlands and Germany are designed to
provide safe and convenient pedestrian and bicycling access. Residential developments
almost always include other uses such as cultural centers, shopping and service
establishments that can easily be reached by foot or bike. New residential areas are
located adjacent to town centers, connected by a fine mesh of local streets. The proximity
to town makes trips shorter, while the finer grain of the road network allows pedestrians
and bicyclists to choose quieter, less heavily traveled streets over busier, more dangerous
roads [20].
20
In Germany, the concept of short distances is gaining around in many cities.
German cities have begun to put an emphasis on mixed development, preserving areas
where housing, employment and social services exist in close proximity, developing
other activities in single use areas such as housing, employment, services and leisure
facilities [16]. Heidelberg and Freiburg have been pioneers in introducing low-noise
vehicles in noise protection districts.
In Switzerland, land use and transport planning are integrated effectively at the
regional level in the Cantonal (county) master plans. At a federal level, sectoral land use
plans are developed by the ministries responsible in close collaboration with the Federal
Office of Spatial Development with sectoral plans, for example covering railways and
public transport. In Finland, transport system plans have been drawn up for most urban
areas taking full account of land use development plans [16].
Holland has implemented a strict development control mechanism called ABC
system that is based on transportation need. In this system, transit-dependent activities are
classified as "A", which requires that they be of specific density and located within
walking distance of public transit service. This category includes offices, residences,
retail, and entertainment facilities. Wholesale, distribution, or business services are
categorized as "B" activities, and must be located on the outskirts of "A" districts, with
specific arterial road connections. Industrial firms and warehousing facilities are
classified as "C", and must be located near to major highways and motorways. The way
this system works is that the local communities produce a zoning plan, based on the
National ABC guidelines. This plan takes into account current mode splits (such as 40
per cent of trips by bicycle, 30 per cent by public transit and 30 percent by automobile),
21
as well as an "efficiency model" (developed by the Department of Transportation) which
measures how the plan will improve transportation connections from a current base of
100 per cent. When a business wants to build a facility within the community, it is
offered a selection of sites within its category. This would be considered very
deterministic, except that there is flexibility in the application of the system, based on the
community's needs. So, for example, a Class “C” firm could select a site outside of its
normal choices (often a green field site) if it is willing to provide the community with
some additional service or facility that it needs [21].
Berlin, Germany, has adopted a regional approach to transportation and land use.
Berlin itself is an artificial construct, created out of seven conurbations that occupied the
northern part of the State of Brandenburg. Each of these smaller areas is presented with a
regional plan, including current and planned transportation infrastructure, which lays out
planned densities, intended development zones, and growth boundaries. This regional
plan is negotiated between the seven towns that make up the Berlin metropolitan area.
Once it is agreed upon, the regional plan is passed into law, to be implemented by the
several towns. The towns then set zoning and development parameters on specific parcels
and neighborhoods within their boundaries. While they have significant flexibility in this
effort, each town has a performance measure that may not be exceeded, since it has been
passed into law. Thus, each town must contribute to meeting the goals of the regional
plan through neighborhood level implementation [21].
22
2.2.2 Non-Motorized Transportation
(1) Importance
Walking and cycling are sustainable means of transport. All journeys, whether
short or long involve walking. A pedestrian friendly city is more humane. In many ways,
walking and cycling are ideal ways to get around cities. These non-motorized travel
modes cause virtually no noise or air pollution. The only energy they require is provided
directly by the traveler. Moreover, they are quite economical, costing much less than auto
or public transit, both in direct user costs and public infrastructural costs [20].
Conventional transportation evaluation practices usually seem to prioritize
automobile-oriented planning to non-motorized transportation (NMT). This is because
the benefits of NMT are difficult to quantify. Walking and cycling are inexpensive and
hence tend to be ignored. It may be difficult to determine the number of non-motorized
trips in an area because they are often under-recorded in travel surveys and traffic counts.
Some travel surveys exclude non-motorized trips altogether and when included, walking
and cycling trips are often undercounted because they include many short, non-work and
recreational trips, and trips by children, all of which tend to be overlooked. Automatic
traffic counters do not record non-motorized travel and manual counts usually focus on
arterial streets, ignoring side streets and paths that may be popular walking and cycling
routes. Most trips involve non-motorized links that are often ignored in traffic counts.
Trips classified as “auto” or “transit” are usually “walk-auto-walk,” or “walk-transit-
walk” trips, yet the walking component is often not counted, even if it takes place on a
roadway [22]. One study finds that the actual number of non-motorized trips is six times
greater than what conventional surveys indicate. This suggests that 20 to 30 per cent of
23
all trips are non-motorized, yet a much smaller portion of transport funds are spent on
facilities and safety programs for non-motorized modes [23].
There is considerable latent demand for non-motorized travel. That is, people
would walk and bicycle more if they had suitable conditions. For example, two-thirds of
U.S. urban trips are less than five miles, distances suitable for bicycling. A U.S survey
indicates that 17 per cent of adults would sometimes bicycle commute if secure storage
and changing facilities were available, 18 per cent would bicycle commute if employers
offer financial incentives, and 20 per cent would bicycle commute if they could ride on
safe bike lanes. This survey indicates that non-motorized travel could increase
significantly with appropriate support and encouragement. Residents in neighborhoods
with suitable street environments tend to walk and bicycle more, ride transit more, and
drive less than comparable households in other areas. One study found that walking is
three times more common in a community with pedestrian friendly streets than in
otherwise comparable communities that are less conducive to foot travel [22].
Researches and studies have proved the importance of non-motorized
transportation and its planning. Significance of walking and cycling has been realized,
and improvements towards it are being done or proposed for the future. Some countries
have undertaken a wide range of measures to improve safety including better facilities for
walking and bicycling, urban design sensitive to the needs of non-motorists, traffic
calming of residential neighborhoods, restrictions on motor vehicle use in cities, rigorous
traffic education of both motorists and non-motorists, and strict enforcement of traffic
regulations protecting pedestrians and bicyclists [20]. Some of the measures are described
below.
24
(i) Pedestrianization – Facilitation for walking and bicycling
Over the last few decades, European countries have implemented a range of
policies to make walking and cycling safer. Copenhagen, Denmark has recognized the
social value of pedestrian streets [24]. There were heated discussions when Copenhagen
started the pedestrianization. However, it became a great success almost immediately.
Pedestrianization continued over a period of 30 years and the downtown parking policy
aimed to remove 2-3 per cent of the parking spaces every year. With the improvement of
the public transport system and the enlargement of the bicycle network, more and more
space has been taken away from the traffic and given to people. Oulu, Finland is
extending its pedestrian zone, which is proving to be very successful, even in
temperatures of -30° C. Italian cities have been leading a way to create pedestrian cultural
environments. In Naples, places like Piassa del Plebiscito are rediscovering their former
splendor after the removal of private cars. Venice remains the archetype of a car-free city
[24].
Pedestrianized zones are currently found in Munich in Germany, Boston in
Massachusetts and Denver and Boulder in Colorado. Pedestrianized commercial areas
generate up to 25 per cent more revenues than spaces developed to encourage automobile
use. This financial success is attributable to easy access by foot and public transportation
[18]. When people walk through shopping display, they tend to buy and spend money on
small items that may generate lot more profit in terms of per square foot of shop area.
Curitiba, Brazil, presents one of the best illustrations of pedestrian zone
development. Located close to mass transit and residences, one such zone features
restaurants, and other businesses. The city has combined these zones with a highly
25
efficient bus system and carries more passengers as compared to Rio subway system
although Curitiba city is one sixth of Rio. The integration of mass transit with pedestrian
zones in this city of 1.5 million people has created more disposable income for residents
due to decreased transportation costs and new markets for locally produced goods [18].
Another excellent example of pedestrian mall is Caracus, Venezuela. The pedestrian walk
is 400 to 600 feet wide and 2 miles long with small shops, restaurants and music stands.
Walking and cycling have been more developed in northern cities than in southern
cities, although the southern climate is more suitable for such activities. Amsterdam has
the most elaborate bicycle network, complementing the road and canal routes. A pilot
program in Delft, a city in The Netherlands indicates that up to 55 per cent of all urban
trips may be done by bicycle. In Copenhagen, Munster, Erlangen and other cities, up to
35 per cent of all transport needs are satisfied by bicycle, while in cities of the former
German Democratic Republic, such as Desaau, the use of bicycle is falling. Cities such as
Basle can be traversed and enjoyed by bicycle, while cities of Zurich and La Rochelle
lend bicycles free to citizens and visitors [24].
In The Netherlands and Germany, new suburban commercial developments have
sidewalks and bicycle paths to serve non-motorists. Parking lots almost never surround
buildings, as in the United States; instead, they are built next to or behind buildings, thus
permitting easy access to pedestrians and bicyclists. When an obstacle such as a highway,
railroad, or river must be traversed, Dutch and German cities usually provide safe and
attractive pedestrian and bicyclist crossings. German and Dutch cities have invested
heavily to expand and improve facilities specifically for bicycling; many of these
investments have focused on increased safety. The most obvious symbol of this
26
investment is the already massive and ever expanding network of bike lanes and bike
paths, which provide completely separate rights of way for cyclists. Unlike the
fragmented cycling facilities, the bike paths and lanes in The Netherlands and Germany
form a truly integrated, coordinated network covering both rural and urban areas. Dutch
and German bikeway systems serve practical destinations for everyday travel, and not
just recreational attractions. In The Netherlands, the network of bike paths and lanes
more than doubled in length in less than 20 years: from 9,282 km in 1978 to 18,948 km in
1996. The German bikeway network almost tripled in length: from 12,911 km in 1976 to
31,236 km [20].
Under Norway’s inter-ministerial program for environmentally friendly urban
development, strengthening the role of cycling as an important urban transport is
considered an important task. Germany provides statistics on cycling, which it estimates
to account for 12 per cent of all trips and averages 300 km per head of population per
year. It foresees significant potential to increase these figures, noting that the figure is
nearer 27 per cent of all trips in The Netherlands and as much as 40 per cent in some
country’s towns and cities. A national cycling promotion plan is under preparation to co-
ordinate federal, state and local measures. Finland also aims at improving the pedestrian
environment and non-hindrance is one of the principles for transport planning [16].
(ii) Restraint on automobile-use
In Europe, large fuel taxes have reduced use of automobile [18] and encouraged
NMT. Other regulations include toll collection and congestion pricing. Pricing proves to
be a major disincentive for car-ownership, and people avoid living at places accessible
27
only by cars. Congestion pricing schemes essentially employ tolls based on time-of-day
use and thereby serve to reduce peak time traffic. Other proposed incentives include
“feebates” and pay-at-the-pump auto insurance. Feebates, proposed in both California,
United States and Ontario, Canada, encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles by
providing rebates for their buyers, creating a system that pays for itself. Pay-at-the-pump
insurance, another California proposal, adds an insurance surcharge to each gallon of gas
purchased my motorists. Hence drivers of more efficient cars pay less for insurance [18].
In London's borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, a method was developed for
controlling the addition of parking (and thus car use) through new or in-fill
developments. The borough Council calculates an accessibility index called public
transport accessibility level (PTAL) for all locations within a specific area. Currently
these range from high accessibility (level 6) to low accessibility (level 1). The higher the
accessibility level, the lower the permitted parking spaces per unit of occupancy. This can
apply equally to residential and to office space. Discussions are under way to develop
measures for retail and other motor-vehicle oriented functions. The focus of this method
is that it provides a basis for dialogue before a development is planned out. Rather than
depending on national averages for ratios of parking to residential or office space, the
London boroughs are using their own experiences, based on existing and planned public
transit services. They are being supported by London Transport, because one goal of
using the PTAL is to at least maintain the competitive balance between auto use and
public transit use. Just as the local road infrastructure can only accommodate very
gradual increases in automobile traffic, the public transit system cannot accommodate
28
sharp peaks and troughs in patronage which might be caused by severe fluctuations in
traffic congestion due to sharp increases in auto use [21].
Parking policies are one of the most important and widely used instruments
employed in restraint of car use and thus promoting a more sustainable urban
environment. The Tokyo metropolitan government has long practiced a regulatory policy
of requiring proof of a rented or owned off-road parking space for the purchase of private
cars. In Europe, Switzerland has developed the parking policy to the greatest degree.
Charging and policies to reduce the number of public parking spaces in central urban
districts and private parking lots in new buildings have been employed for a number of
years. In the latest stage, negotiations are underway with large property owners to begin
charging for and reducing the number of existing residential parking spaces in some
urban locations [16].
The city of Evora, Portugal, has developed integrated local traffic and land use
plans, redirecting car traffic away from the center of the city and enhancing public
transport services, including of parking charges in the center. Cordon charges are
introduced for cars entering the urban centers [16].
(iii) Public Awareness and Education
Children are often the victims in accidents involving pedestrians. Hence, traffic
education for children should be given importance. Some European countries have
already started spreading awareness. There are Children’s Traffic Clubs in Scotland. In
The Netherlands and Germany every school provides comprehensive programs to educate
children to walk and bicycle safely. Approximately by the age of 10, every child has
29
received extensive instruction on safe walking and bicycling practices. They are taught
not just the traffic regulations but how to walk and bicycle defensively, to anticipate
dangerous situations, and to react appropriately. Throughout Germany, schoolchildren in
the third and fourth grades are required to take bicycling courses, often taught by special
traffic police, with a concluding exam. Children are tested by real police officers in
special traffic parks with simulated streets, intersections, traffic signals, and possible
dangers. Children take the traffic courses seriously and compete with each other for the
best grade. Even bike safety inspections are a special event [20].
Driver training for motorists in The Netherlands and Germany is much more
extensive, thorough and expensive than in the United States. Dutch and German drivers
are required to take a minimum number of hours of driving instruction with private firms,
usually costing at least $1,500 [20].
2.3 Role of Policy Implementers – Government
A single authority for public transport and private car parking could internalize
more equitably the environmental costs of private motoring and improve public transport.
In Evora, one of the World Heritage cities, the new traffic plan includes the creation of
large car parks outside the city walls, a high quality public transport system with mini and
micro-buses, well adapted to the existing narrow medieval streets, and the creation of
pedestrian and bicycle paths. In Orvieto, Italy, the alternative mobility system has been
created out of the need to improve urban life and revitalize the old railway that serves the
tourists [16].
30
Singapore has been seen as a developmental state because economic development
planning has been followed up with provision of industrial and business infrastructure
and their effective maintenance and management without all of which, the economy
would not exist. It has shown tremendous success in environmental and vehicle
management. Singapore’s experience with environmental management has shown that if
urban growth and industrialization do have a major environmental impact, the most
negative aspects of such impact can be managed if there is an environmental policy in
place for proper planning and effective implementation of both plans and policy [25].
From the mid 1970s, Singapore has tackled its transportation problems with combination
of planning, engineering, fiscal and administrative measures [26]. The components of the
strategy are:
(1) integrated land use and transportation planning
(2) the construction of a modest and efficient road network
(3) good traffic management
(4) public transport as the dominant mode of travel
(5) road pricing to curtail excessive demand for travel
Land is too scarce in Singapore to allow provision of large buffers between
incompatible deve lopments such as industrial and residential areas. In spite of this
limitation, Singapore has managed, through coordinated efforts between town planners
and environmental engineers, to maintain a high quality environment even as it continues
its rapid industrialization and urban growth [27].
In Singapore, as in any urbanized city, motor vehicle emission is a significant
source of air pollution. The vehicular population has been steadily increasing over the
31
past decade as a consequence of rapid urbanization and economic growth. The vehicle
population would have been probably higher had the Government not discouraged the
ownership of vehicles through various measures. Singapore’s strategy for reducing
pollution from motor vehicles is two-sided: improving engines and fuel quality to reduce
emissions and using traffic management measures to control the growth of vehicle
population and fuel consumption. Ministry of Environment works closely with the
Registry of Vehicles to implement the two-pronged strategy. Between 1981 and 1987, the
lead content in leaded petrol was gradually reduced from 0.8 to 0.15 gram/liter. The use
of unleaded petrol was promoted in February 1990 through a differential tax system
which made unleaded petrol 10 cents cheaper than leaded petrol at the pump. All petrol-
driven vehicles registered for use in Singapore after July 1, 1991 are able to use unleaded
petrol. About 57 per cent of all petrol sold in Singapore at the end of 1993 was unleaded
petrol. The sulfur content in automobile diesel was reduced from 1 per cent by weight in
1976 to the current limit of 0.5 per cent by weight to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions
from diesel vehicles. The sulfur limit has further reduced to 0.3 per cent by weight from
July 1, 1996 onwards to reduce particulate (soot) emissions as lower sulfur diesel
produces less particulate emissions. Since October 1992, motorcycles and scooters have
been required to comply with the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emission standard
before they can be registered for use in Singapore [27].
2.4 Towards Sustainable Transportation – Meaning and Indicators
As discussed in the first chapter, there are various definitions given for the
sustainability. Similarly, no definite measures or indicators are defined for measuring the
32
sustainability. According to the Transport Canada “the goal of sustainable transportation
is to ensure that environmental, social, and economic considerations are factored into
decisions affecting transportation activity”. According to Richardson, a sustainable
transportation system is “one in which fuel consumption, vehicle emissions, safety,
congestion, and social and economic access are of such levels that they can be sustained
into the indefinite future without causing great or irreparable harm to future generations
of people throughout the world” [28]. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) defines environmentally sustainable transportation as
“transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and that meets needs
for access consistent with (a) use of renewable resources that are below their rates of
regeneration, and (b) use of non-renewable resources below the rates of development of
renewable substitutes” [28].
Canadian Centre for Sustainable Transportation defines sustainable transportation
system as: A sustainable transportation system is one that (i) allows the basic access
needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human
and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between generations; (ii) is affordable,
operates efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a vibrant economy;
(iii) limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them, minimizes
consumption of non-renewable resources, limits consumption of renewable resources to
the sustainable yield level, reuses and recycles its components, and minimizes the use of
land and the production of noise [28].
However, in order to find out whether or not the transportation system is
sustainable, some comprehensive sustainability criteria are to be evaluated that reflect all
33
three components of sustainable development - the economy, society and environment
[28]. Few measures like congestion index, benefit-cost ratio, reduction in the pollution
levels, reduction in travel time and costs and per capita energy consumption can be used
to evaluate sustainability. Each indicator can be evaluated independently and then the
effect of all indicators in combination can be studied.
Again, there is no particular definition for congestion index either, but different
people have different views over the term. Dahlgren [28] defines congestion index as
person-delay on any street, i.e. actual time traveling on a street minus the ideal time under
free flow conditions. Simon Li [28] views congestion index as the condition when
demand approaches or exceeds the capacity (supply) of a facility.
Developed countries have started moving towards sustainability with various
policies and reforms. There is no single solution to address the interrelated transportation
problems. These problems require a bold, solid and an integrated approach. Although
sustainability has three different aspects – environmental, economical and social – results
from feasible solutions will contribute to all three features. Thus improvement in any one
indicator will cause an enhancement to the environment as whole.
34
Chapter 3
Study Area - City of Mumbai, India
3.1 Information of the City – History and Development
Bombay, which has recently been renamed to its ancient Marathi name of
Mumbai, is the largest metropolis in India [29]. Mumbai is considered as the soul of
enterprise. The City of Mumbai is also known as the financial capital of India. Mumbai is
the busiest city in India due to large employment centers, offices, factories, film industry
and stock exchange. It is a commercial hub, where a large population commutes from
suburbs to downtown offices, banks, factories and mills for a living. Mumbai, a busy,
crowded and a commercial city has a great economic significance. It is the main
destination for international flights to and from India. Also, it is the biggest port in India
and undergoes most foreign trade in the country. Life in Mumbai is fast, similar to New
York in the United States.
Mumbai fell into British possession in the mid 17th century, where it was
immediately given in a charter to the East India Trading Company. In the hands of this
company and later under British administration, Bombay (Mumbai) prospered from a
group of seven swampy islands for fishing, to the most economically vibrant city on the
Indian subcontinent [29].
35
Mumbai is the financial and trade centre of India, and also an important cultural
centre. Bombay houses India's film industry, Bollywood. The film industry produces the
second most number of motion pictures in the world every year, next to Hollywood.
Mumbai is the centre of India's high-technology industries. It is also an important
industrial city [29].
Mumbai is a cosmopolitan city. Nearly 13 million people live in the city ranging
from wealthy industrialists living in skyscrapers to the poorest people who live in the
city's slums [30]. The population is concentrated primarily on a single island, separated
from the rest of India by the shallow Bay of Thane.
Mumbai is a tourist attraction too, with Gateway of India monument, Prince of
Wales Museum and the Hanging Gardens. In the outskirts of the city there are many
ancient caves like Elephanta caves and the Kanheri caves [29].
3.2 Geography and Population
Mumbai lies at the south of the continent of Asia. Geographically, Mumbai is
surrounded by Arabian Sea on three sides – east, west and south. Its growth is restricted
in east-west direction. Navi Mumbai (New Bombay), a city smaller than Mumbai, lies on
the north-east side of the City of Mumbai. The width of City of Mumbai ranges from 4.75
km in the north and 1.3 km at the south. Along with the eastern and the western suburbs,
the city has grown northwards. The city along with the suburbs forms the Greater
Mumbai (referred as Mumbai hereafter). Map 3.1 shows the map of Mumbai and Navi
Mumbai. The Central Business District (CBD) lies at the southernmost tip. Mumbai has a
humid tropical temperature. Its average low temperature is 19ºC and an average high
36
temperature of 29ºC in winter. The average low temperature is 27ºC and the high is 33ºC
in summer [31].
Map 3.1 Map of Mumbai
Source: http://www.geocities.com/newpanvel2001/map.html
37
Map 3.2 shows Mumbai by categorizing areas according to their significance. The
western-most region in the southern side of Mumbai constitute tourist spots like Marine
Drive, Malabar Hill and Walkeshwar. The northern side mainly constitutes middle class
residential area and small commercial complexes. The Central region in the southern side
is mostly the commercial area mixed with industries. Congested commercial areas like
Kalbadevi and Bhuleshwar are in this area. Girgaum, a middle class residential area is
also a part of this region. The northern part of this region is industrial and commercial
area that has rubber and plastic industries and small factories manufacturing spare parts
of automobiles etc. Seepz, a complex popular for software companies is in this area. The
eastern coast is mainly occupied by port activities. This area has large truck traffic. The
eastern suburbs on north side are residential areas of middle to low income groups. There
is industrial development in this region. Areas to east and north of Wadala are occupied
by oil refineries, chemical and fertilizer units and atomic energy establishment [32].
38
Map 3.2 Mumbai with significant areas
CBD Harbor Area
Tourist spots
Industries, factories Residential (mid.inc) No specific area
Res. Area (high inc) Forest
39
With a small area of 438 sq. km, the city is the most populous city in the world,
with a population of 12.38 million [33]. With a very high population density (28,265
persons per sq. km), the city is continuing to grow further. The city provides
opportunities for employment and education that have caused a severe growth of this city.
With the urbanization, population of Mumbai has risen by more than 3 times from 1951
to 1991 (population in 1951 being 2.96 million and 9.9 million in 1991 [34]). According
to Save Bombay Committee report, the island city is densely developed with residential
densities varying from 129 to 3717 persons per hectare (1 hectare = 0.01 sq. km). The
graph of increase in population from 1921 to 1991 is as shown in Figure 3.1. It can be
seen from the figure that there has been a continuously increasing population from 1911
to 2001. The population is estimated to reach more than 25 million by 2011 [35], the
reason being high birth rate as well as migration of people from other parts of the nation
to Mumbai in search of jobs. Urbanization of Mumbai is mainly due to employment
opportunities in the city.
40
Population figures of Mumbai from 1901 to 2001 in million
0.78 0.98 1.18 1.16 1.492.97
4.155.97
8.239.90
13.00
0
5
10
15
20
1901
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
Years
Pop
ulat
ion
in m
illio
n
Population
Expon.(Population)
Figure 3.1 Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years 1911 to 1991
with estimated population in the year 2003
Source: Population statistics from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research web site
3.3 Employment
There are various types of formal and informal employment sectors. Mumbai is
considered as a city of job opportunities. Mumbai is known for its film industry,
Bollywood and is the financial capital of India. It attracts people from all parts of India
and has become the most populous city in India. There are offices of financial services,
media, printing, publishing, software, share market etc. Forty per cent of the formal
sector jobs in Mumbai are concentrated within a two-mile radius of Flora Fountain
around the Fort area. There are 144 jobs for every 100 residents in the Fort area, creating
enormous congestion [36]. According to a study on Global Change in University of
Michigan, the migration of population to Mumbai is due to ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors [37].
For example, migrants may be 'pushed' out of a rural region because of unemployment as
41
shown in Table 3.1. It is evident form the Table that almost 70 percent of people who
come to Mumbai is due to poverty and hunting for jobs. They could be also 'pulled' out of
rural villages by the lure of friends or family in a particular city as shown in Table 3.2.
Most likely, people migrate because of a combination of the two. The understanding of
these factors working together helps in examining and explaining the driving forces of
urban migration.
Table 3.1 Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai
Push Factors Percent migration
Hunting for Job 39
Poverty 30.2
Someone in the house exercising persuasion 8.9
Someone in village interested in migration 8.6
Student 6.6
Others 4.7
Differences with others 1.2
Not Available 8
Total 100
Source: The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan
42
Table 3.2 Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai
Pull Factors Percent migration Some friends or relatives already there 34.3 Secured some job 23.2 Better opportunities (school, job etc) 11.5 Due to transferred post 10.5 Others 10.5 Liking for the place 7.7 Not Available 2.3 Total 100
Source: The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan
Mumbai accounts for 20 per cent of India's total employment in industry and 11
per cent of India's employment in total. It handles 30 per cent of India's exports and
imports and is the subcontinent's largest port. However, there is still an extremely high
rate of unemployment due to the fact that there are severely fewer jobs than there are
workers [31].
3.4 Transportation
The city's transportation system was modeled after the London transportation
system with the exception of the Underground Metro. It was pretty much developed in
conjunction with London. As London developed a system, Mumbai received it
approximately five years later. Tram service in Mumbai began in 1870. It remained until
the 1950s when people felt that the trams were becoming obsolete even though their
passenger carrying capacity was 50 per cent greater than buses [31]. The tram system was
also removed for widening the roads for traffic [38]. Trams were more energy efficient,
cleaner and could be easily modernized. The government did a study and ruled that buses
43
would be more effective. The tram system closed down in 1964 and the trolley buses
were stopped in 1974. The trolley bus was much like a bus, but it ran on electricity, was
quiet and was able to follow routes that the large diesel buses could not run on [31].
Road network in Mumbai is predominantly radial along the peninsula and
comprises three main corridors, the Western Express Highway, the Eastern Express
Highway and the Central corridor as shown in Map 3.3. Although termed as
“expressways”, the roads are essentially arterial roads in terms of western standards.
When these roads pass through the older parts of Mumbai – the island city, the
operational quality decreases considerably [35].
44
Map 3.3 City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations
Source: www.mumbainet.com
45
Western Railway and Central Railway form the backbone of public transportation
in Mumbai. They divide Mumbai into three north-south corridors as shown in Map 3.4.
The Railway system in Mumbai is one of the most complex, densely loaded and
intensively utilized systems in the world [40] with a spread over 302 km. The suburban
services run by electric multiple units (EMU) consists of 184 rakes (train sets) of 9-car
and 12-car composition. On any given day there are 2067 train services carrying 6.1
million passengers per day. Two corridors (one local and other through) on Western
Railway run northwards from Churchgate terminus parallel to the west coast up to Virar
(60 km). Two corridors (one local and other through) on Central Railway run from
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) to Kalyan (54 km), from where it bifurcates into
Kalyan-Kasara (67 km) in the north-east and Kalyan-Karjat-Khapoli (61 km) in south-
east. The 5th corridor on Central Railway runs as the Harbor line starting from CST to
Raoli Junction (11 km) from where the line splits. One line goes northwest to join
Western Railway at Bandra and goes up to Andheri (11 km) and the other goes eastward
to terminate at Panvel (39 km) via New-Mumbai. At present, the fast corridors on Central
Railway as well as Western Railway are shared for long distance (Main line) and Freight
trains [40]. Dadar forms a common railway station for the Western Railway and the
Central Railway, where people change trains while traveling from both railways.
46
Map 3.4 City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and Central Railway
Source: www.mumbainet.com
47
Public transport (railways and buses) carries 88 per cent of the trips in the city
with 6.1 million passengers per day by trains [40] and 4.5 million journeys per day by the
local buses run by Bombay Electric Supply and Transportation (BEST) [41].
Overcrowding of trains is a common scene everyday. 4,700 passengers travel per 9-car
train during peak hours, as against the rated carrying capacity of 1,700. This has resulted
in super dense crush load of 14-16 standing passengers per sq. m of floor space. Because
of the overcrowding on the mass transit system, many people are switching to scooters or
mopeds [31]. A photograph of typical suburban train is as shown in Photo 3.1.
Photo 3.1 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway
Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site
48
3.5 Traffic in Mumbai
Mumbai traffic consists of motorized and non motorized vehicles competing on
the same road surface. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis,
cars, buses and trucks. Vehicle population in Mumbai as in 2003 can be categorized as
shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai
Type of Vehicles Number
Two Wheelers 527,108
Cars 341,774
Taxis 54,809
Auto Rickshaws 98,527
Buses 11,812
Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03
The rise in the number of vehicles due to urbanization is as shown in Figure 3.2
and Figure 3.3. There is a steep rise in the vehicle population from 1980 (286,132
vehicles) to 1990 (609,904 vehicles) and from 1995 (667,383 vehicles) to 2003
(1,123,562 vehicles). The private vehicle ownership in Mumbai is also rising. While in
1999, there were 379,441 two-wheelers in Mumbai and 284,964 cars, in the year 2000 the
number was 407,306 and 303, 108 respectively and in 2003 the number of two-wheelers
rose to 527,108 and cars to 341,774 [39]. Accident rate in Mumbai is also high. Although
the accident rate is seen to be decreasing, year 2002 reported 25,470 road accidents in
Mumbai [39]. It is estimated that 95 per cent of the accidents involve pedestrians.
49
Increase in vehicle population
286132
441084
609904667383
969680
1123562
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005Year
Mot
or v
ehic
les
Increase invehiclepopulation
2003
Figure 3.2 Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai
Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03
Increase in Two Wheelers and Cars from 1999 to 2003
379441 407306
527108
284964 303108341774
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Year
Num
ber
of V
ehic
les
TwoWheelersCars
Figure 3.3 Increase in private motor ownership (two -wheelers and cars)
Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03
50
The physical area of the city has increased over the years, in terms of suburbs
towards the north. With this growth, there is an increase in vehicular traffic in suburbs.
With the CBD situated at the southernmost tip of Mumbai, commuter traffic to this area
is high during mornings. Due to incapability of the public transport, people have started
shifting to private modes. Over the last two decades, the number of private vehicles in
Mumbai has increased four times while taxi population has increased by six times. The
road length, however, has increased from 800 km in 1951 to about 1,800 km in 2001 [42]
(1583 km asphalt roads and 278.810 km cement concrete roads). A substantial part of this
increase in road length is because of new areas added to the city. Transport capacity
increased by 225 percent from 1951 to 1991, but is insufficient. One of the driving forces
in road transport is the increase in the car and truck fleets. The increase in population has
resulted in suburbanization and created an enormous pressure of people working in the
CBD of the city.
With the growth in population, there is a high rise in the number of motorized
vehicles. The traffic congestion has drastically reduced the average speed of the vehicles.
Due to a very high vehicular density of about 735 vehicles per km [43], the average speed
of vehicles is as low as 6 to 8 km/h [35]. As a result, emergency vehicles are unable to
move smoothly. Total number of vehicles in Mumbai in 2002-03 was 1,165,782.
Moreover, 110 vehicles are added to Mumbai everyday [43]. The vehicular count is
expected to go to 1.6 million by 2010, though the existing road infrastructure can handle
only 0.25 million vehicles [35]. The city is continuing to grow in terms of traffic but the
transportation system is unable to keep the pace. Increase in population and motor
vehicles makes it evident that the transport scenario of city of Mumbai is precarious. This
51
fact shows urgency in need of development of the infrastructure and the change in the
existing transportation policies.
3.6 Environmental Crisis
Traditionally, the industries have been blamed for the pollution, but it has been
discovered that 86 per cent of pollution is contributed by Mumbai traffic [44]. It has also
been estimated that the air quality of such metropolitan cities in India will deteriorate by
a factor of 3 in the next 10 – 15 years [45]. In addition to illnesses and lost work hours,
Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) Greater Mumbai Report, estimates
that air pollution in Mumbai causes approximately 2,800 premature deaths, with health
damages costing over Rs 18 billion (approximately $500 million) a year. Air pollution
levels in three important suburbs of Mumbai as in 2002-03 are as given in Table 3.4 and
Figure 3.4. These levels are measured at traffic junctions in these suburbs with the
Mumbai Municipal Corporation mobile van. The values are measured for an average of
24 hours (8 hrs maximum), with an annual standard of 60 µg/m3 for sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) and 2 mg/m3 for
carbon monoxide (CO) for residential and other areas. Air quality is very poor in traffic
congested areas of the suburb of Andheri, the reasons being explained in Chapter 4.
Ambient Air Quality average annual levels at fixed monitoring stations at few suburban
sites in Mumbai are as shown in Table 3.5. Andheri and Maravli report bad ambient air
quality with very high emissions of SPM and NO2. Table 3.6 shows the load of pollutants
from transportation in tons/day for the year 2002-03. NOx emissions are very high from
diesel and CO emissions are enormous from petrol.
52
Table 3.4 Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03)
Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03
Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions in suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri Year 2002-03
12
163
198
15
209231
39
254
332
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
SO2 NOx RSP
Air Pollutants
ug/m
3 Wadala
Mahim
AndheriStandard = 60 ug/m3
Figure 3.4 Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of suburbs of
Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03
Source: Air pollution statistics from Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual
Report 2002-03
Site SO2 NOx RSP CO
Annual Std 60 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 2 mg/m3 (1 hr std.)
Avg. 24 hrs Max. 8 hrs
Avg Max Avg Max Avg Max Avg Max
Wadala 12 32 163 551 198 402 1.5 6
Mahim 15 50 209 678 231 602 2.3 6.1
Andheri 39 144 254 635 332 700 3 6.4
53
Table 3.5 Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites
(Annual Average for 2002 to 2003)
Station SO2 NO2 NH3 SPM Lead
Worli 36 43 44 184 0.13
Khar 22 82 57 276 0.19
Andheri 26 55 45 240 0.15
Bhandup 29 45 37 216 0.17
Borivali 14 24 42 172 0.06
Maravali 40 96 264 463 0.25
Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03
Table 3.6 Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for year 2002-03 from
Transportation
SO2 PM NOx CO HC Other Total
Diesel 16.97 17.59 97.58 52.71 19.96 19.95 224.76
Petrol 0.79 2.97 23.32 356.84 53.01 0.17 437.1
Total 49.95 49.81 131.9 414.97 72.97 32.04 751.64
Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03
The City of Mumbai faces problems of improper matching of demand and supply,
shortcomings of public transport system – insufficient public transport capacity and
improper maintenance management, increasing private vehicle ownership and ineffective
54
demand management and land use planning. Transportation planners face a challenge of
solving these problems and making Mumbai a better place to live in for millions of its
inhabitants. The city is in urgent need of having an efficient and sound transportation
system, which will alleviate the urban transportation problems and make the city
“sustainable”.
55
Chapter 4
Taking a Closer Look at Transportation Problems
Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai Suburb
4.1 Overview of the Area
Andheri, a western suburb of Mumbai is selected as the study area for in depth
learning of problems through information and photos and proposing some measures to
alleviate them. The eastern part of this suburb (approximate area 8 km x 5 km) is chosen
in order to look at the typical urban problems with a closer perspective. Though this area
forms a small part of Mumbai, the problems in and around this area are common to
almost all places in suburbs. Problems related to pollution, congestion and over crowding
are focused upon in the study of this area. The proposal to curb the problem is by no
means the solution, but it is a small step towards sustainable transportation system.
Andheri is one of the busiest suburbs of Mumbai due to a mixed land use pattern.
Being one of the largest industrial suburbs in Mumbai as well as in India, the suburb
faces traffic problems with a very high rate of industrial activity, population and traffic
density. This area houses Seepz - an IT center, MIDC – an industrial estate, Larsen and
Toubro – one of India’s largest engineering and construction conglomerate, Chhatrapati
Shivaji Terminus – the International Airport and a variety of small scale factories and
software companies. In addition to this, the area also comprises of residential complexes,
56
hotels, restaurants, slums, offices, film industry, vegetable and fish markets and small and
large corporate. Due to a wide land use pattern, there are a large number of morning and
evening trips generated within the suburbs. The area is a prototype of the Mumbai
Transportation System. It has a busy railway station, bus depots, an international airport
and a complex land use pattern. Map 4.1 shows the study area of Andheri.
Map 4.1 Focus Area in Mumbai – The suburb of Andheri
Source: Original Map taken from Eicher City Map, Mumbai
The population density of this area was 29,359 persons per sq. km in 1991 [46].
With such a high density and an improper land use planning, the suburb faces a number
of transportation and environmental problems. Inefficient transportation and land use
planning, improper travel demand management and lack of traffic control and
57
infrastructure are some of the root causes of the transportation problems. Vehicle-
pedestrian conflict, high accident rate, air pollution, health disorders and many other
serious issues have been the results of improper transportation system.
4.2 Transportation Infrastructure
4.2.1 Streets
In general roads are narrow and insufficient to the growing demand of pedestrians
and vehicular traffic. Western Express Highway and Western Railway run almost parallel
in the western part of the study area. These two are the main transport systems in North-
South direction connecting to the other parts of Mumbai. An East-West arterial street
known as Andheri-Kurla Road feeds traffic to the two North-South direction transport
systems. Andheri-Kurla Road is 50 to 60 feet wide (there are no lanes in Mumbai except
for highways), has to cater to the traffic coming from the busy Andheri Railway Station
and connecting various collector roads. Bottlenecks and traffic jams are common in this
area, lasting for extended durations of time. Streets have a heterogeneous mix of traffic
comprising of motorized and non motorized vehicles, pedestrians, cattle and hawkers.
Roads are poorly maintained, and excavation works for water and telephone lines often
deteriorate them further. Photo 4.1 and Photo 4.2 show pictures of typical road
construction and maintenance in Mumbai. It is difficult and often impossible for
pedestrians to walk over them.
58
Photo 4.1 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance
(Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)
Photo 4.2 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance
(Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)
59
Photo 4.3 Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai
Roads get worse even more during monsoon. Medians are narrow and fenced (as
shown in Photo 4.3), and alternate arrangements for crossing are not provided. As a result
pedestrians haphazardly cross the roads and walk at places that are unsafe to walk. The
area of Andheri has a good frequency of buses (although not sufficient to cater to an
excessive demand). Andheri-Kurla Road, the only major arterial has a high volume of
bus traffic. Bus stops are provided at regular intervals causing addition to more pedestrian
traffic. Passengers getting down at bus-stops often need to cross the roads. Due to lack of
wide medians, pedestrian crossings and pedestrian phase in traffic signals, they have to
stand in the fastest lane on roads, waiting for the traffic to clear. A typical picture is
shown in Photo 4.4.
60
Photo 4.4 Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road markings
4.2.2 Sidewalks
Most of the sections of roads and flyovers are not provided with sidewalks for
pedestrians. While there are few sidewalks in the Island city of Mumbai, the suburban
roads hardly have any sidewalks. And if any, then sidewalks are occupied by hawkers
(Photo 4.5 and Photo 4.6). Jay walking is frequent and common due to inability to walk
comfortably and safely along the sides, thus causing confusion to the drivers. Pedestrian
crossings are not provided or maintained at critical places. Widening of roads as
suggested and implemented by various authorities, further increases the pavement for
growing traffic and discourages the concept of having sidewalks for pedestrians. Either
the sidewalks are narrowed or they are completely removed.
61
Photo 4.5 Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks
Source: http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html
Photo 4.6 Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai
Picture taken on a street in Andheri, Mumbai
62
4.3 Planning and Demand Management
Planners tend to undervalue the importance of walking. Any trip, whether long or
short, involves walking. Walking has often been considered as an insignificant factor of
transportation system. It is assumed that it is possible to walk along most roads, either on
the edges of pavement or on narrow paths that develop naturally along road shoulders, no
matter how dangerous it is. As a result, new communities are built without sidewalks, not
realizing their importance. Roads thus have more driving area than the walking area.
In order to cope up with the growing traffic, plans suggest widening of roads and
building of bridges. As a result, sidewalks are removed, trees are cut and roads are
widened to a certain extent. This can sustain more traffic for a short period of time. More
vehicles are encouraged to come on the roads, and efforts are being taken to give them
more space. Thus long term planning is neglected, and facilities and designs fail to cater
to the demand for even next 5 years. Though roads are widened and bridges are built to
accommodate the vehicles, the transportation crisis seems to continue. There is no
comprehensive and thorough planning. Environmental degradation takes place as a result
of cutting down trees and encouraging more vehicles on roads. Although feasibility
studies are done to check the practicality of building the structures, impact studies are not
even carried out. This is mainly because of the fact that there is no single authority to
handle the transportation of the city. Hence decisions taken by various authorities are
often uncoordinated and unsuccessful.
Concepts of transportation engineering are not taken into consideration at all.
Decisions and planning solely depend on perception of authorities and are not based on
real time data. Authorities due to numerous reasons do not follow warrants or guidelines
63
to approve new or existing development. Peak hour studies are not made to study the
flow characteristics of vehicles during the maximum congestion periods. Traffic signals
cycles are not synchronized considering the demand. Hence the flow is over-saturated at
road intersections creating crawling movement during peak times (Photo 4.7 and Photo
4.8).
Photo 4.7 Over-saturated flows at traffic signals
Source: http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html
64
Photo 4.8 Traffic Jam during peak hour
Problems encountered in the study area also include over-crowding of buses
(Photo 4.9) and roads, very long travel times, low travel speeds, bottlenecks and
congestion, air pollution and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers. Average speed of
travel is around 10 km/hr during peak hours by road and often reduces more due to
gridlock conditions. Travel time for instance, is one hour from Andheri railway station to
Powai, distance between them being about 10 km. In addition to this maintenance work
on roads creates congestion for several days or weeks. Overcrowding occurs during the
rush hours (Photo 4.10). Train frequency is high during the peak hours and travelers
usually prefer to get down at Andheri because of the local bus network system. Though
people perceive that the system seems to be good enough (since people are accessible to
almost all places in Mumbai by bus or train), by any yardstick it is insufficient to carry
65
the increasing demand. As a result, people prefer to travel by their own vehicles on the
roads which further worsen the situation. Movement of vehicles is given priority but
adequate parking is often not provided considering the demand of vehicles. Vehicles
parked on road side cause hindrance to the moving traffic. There seems to be a lack of
coordination between the infrastructure and management. Thus investing funds into the
roads and bridges and not curbing or managing the travel demand does not help much to
relieve the traffic congestion.
Photo 4.9 Rush for the buses during peak hours
Source: http://www.mastgeneralstore.com/monroe/122598b.php3
66
Photo 4.10 Rush at a railway station to board train
Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site
4.4 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic
With a mixed land use pattern, Andheri traffic consists of motorized and non
motorized vehicles. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis,
cars, buses, bullock carts and trucks (Photo 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13) Thus there is no
distinction of roads for vehicles and pedestrians. Cattle from the sheds are often let loose
by their owners, which find their way to roads (Photo 4.14). This holds up the traffic jams
even more. Pedestrians walking on roads further reduce the vehicular speeds. In order to
stop at bus stops at regular intervals, buses suddenly change their lanes making it
inconvenient and unsafe for pedestrians and cyclists on the road, who walk on the
leftmost sides. At certain times of days (during lunch hours), cycles constitute around 30
per cent of traffic in suburbs [47]. During such peak hours, buses and cycles are seen
67
moving with roughly the same speed. Low income groups in Mumbai prefer to walk or
use bicycles. As a result there is a very high pedestrian activity at any place and time.
Vehicle-pedestrian conflicts are more hindering near Andheri railway station. Vegetable
markets are situated around this area, for people returning from workplaces to shop
during evenings. Thus this place gets crowded with pedestrians, vendors, customers and
vehicles. Photo 4.15 shows the situation outside railway stations.
Photo 4.11 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai
Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm
68
Photo 4.12 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai
Photo 4.13 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai
Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm
69
Photo 4.14 Cattle on Mumbai streets
Photo 4.15 Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station
Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm
70
4.5 Environmental Pollution
Andheri has maximum air pollution levels in the metropolitan Mumbai. While the
average levels of NOx, SO2 and RSP are 254, 39, 332 µg/ m3 (Safe Standards are 60 µg/
m3) at the traffic junctions, the average level of CO is 3 mg/m3 (standard is 2 mg/ m3)
[43]. Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 in Chapter 3 show the air pollution levels of the suburb of
Andheri.
Noise pollution is also high, especially due to honking of the vehicles. Honking is
a common practice to give indication. Prevailing noise level in Mumbai is 67-86 dBA at
traffic congested areas (standard levels are 75 dBA for day and 70 dBA for night
according to Central Pollution Control Board [43]. Noise levels are particularly high
during mornings and evenings due to traffic and extra recreation trips during the
evenings.
4.6 Spreading localities
The population of Mumbai is growing towards north. Andheri being in the
northern part of Mumbai has a very high population density as mentioned earlier. Fifty
five per cent population in Mumbai lives in slums [32]. These people come to Mumbai to
earn a living. Andheri also has a lot of slum dwelling, towards its northern part. Unable to
accommodate themselves anywhere, this slum population has encroached on roads
highways and railway tracks (Photo 4.16). This causes an obstacle to the smooth
movement of traffic. The Western Express Highway for instance has 6 lanes, out of
which the outermost lane is almost occupied by the slum dwellers. As a result, the
vehicular movement is constrained thereby increasing travel times. This situation is
71
equally dangerous for both the drivers and the slum dwellers. Children come on roads to
play, and then are accidentally hit upon by the vehicles. Driving becomes all the more
difficult during nights, due to insufficient illumination.
Photo 4.16 Slums around railway tracks
Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Pvt. Ltd. Web site
4.7 Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic
Drivers lacking proper driving knowledge are issued permanent licenses. Traffic
enforcement is weak and heavy fines are not imposed for breaking the traffic and parking
rules. As a result drivers do not respect the traffic laws. Andheri, being an industrial as
well as residential suburb has very high vehicular traffic. Due to large pockets of
congestion and delays throughout the day, vehicles are often seen unwilling to stop and
wait and yield to the pedestrians. A large number of pedestrians walk on roads (due to
72
unavailability of sidewalks), and drivers are disinclined to stop for every pedestrian. They
are often seen passing through red signals. This dangerous action at the intersections
leads to large number of road accidents.
Vehicles are parked on the roadside, due to inadequate provision of parking lots.
This blocks the already slow moving traffic, and adds more congestion.
Signals are absent at places where the vehicle and pedestrian traffic is heavy.
Most of the signals do not have appropriate signal cycle lengths, based on the traffic
flow. Thus vehicle-pedestrian conflict increases even more at the traffic controlled
intersections. Signals are pre-timed, and walk time for pedestrians is often insufficient.
The city lacks an efficient traffic control and discipline. There are no provisions made for
the disabled people, especially the blind. Plans and implementations are made for the
infrastructural developments in Mumbai. But unless the traffic is controlled, such
developments will be of no use.
4.8 Land Use Planning - Concentration of employment centers
There is a concentration of employment centers and job opportunities in Mumbai.
Almost 40 per cent of total employment is located in Central Business District (CBD).
This rate is growing towards the northern suburbs, and hence Andheri has become the
busiest of all suburbs in Mumbai. This leads to an increase in the number of trips and trip
lengths from the railway station of Andheri to various employment centers in the study
area. Railway station is always crowded, and so are the roads outside (Photo 4.17).
73
Photo 4.17 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station
Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site
Again, there is a mixed traffic in such areas, and no place for parking. Due to lack
of space just around the offices, people usually park their vehicles on the roads. Roads
are not very wide, and parking becomes more problematic. There are vehicle-pedestrian
conflicts as a lot of people walk from the stations / bus-stops to the offices. Vehicle-
pedestrian conflict forms a critical issue at public places, and often a loss of working
hours occurs for employees in Andheri.
There is a need to begin programs that will curtail car use and promote an
integrated, environmentally sustainable urban transportation system with a clearly
defined place for non motorized vehicles. Transferring the real cost of driving to car users
instead of continuing to subsidize car ownership is an important concept to consider. In
addition, instead of continuing to expand road networks to meet the growing demand,
Mumbai needs to find ways to reduce existing as well as future travel demand.
74
Chapter 5
Data Collection and Analysis
5.1 Data Collection
5.1.1 Online Survey
A sustainable transportation system is socially, economically and environmentally
friendly. The economical and environmental benefits are fairly easy to quantify. Benefits
in the form of reduced pollution levels, reduction in traveling expenses, decrease in fuel
consumption etc. determine the success of sustainable transportation in a quantitative
manner. Being unable to quantify the social benefits, a transportation system often gets
designed in an incomplete manner. General views and expectations of commuters who
form the important part of any transportation system are left out while planning and
designing.
Literature related to the City of Mumbai gives a clear picture of transportation
structure in the city. However this research study also requires information about the
traveling pattern of commuters, their usual travel times, level of congestion, modes they
use and prefer and the expenses on travel per day. The study also needs information about
commuters’ views about the existing transportation, as well as their expectations from an
ideal system. In order to know the current transportation condition in Mumbai and to
study the effects and probable improvements in detail, an online survey was conducted. A
75
questionnaire seeking information about regular commuters in Mumbai was uploaded on
www.surveymonkey.com and http://eng.utoledo.edu/bdhakras/Questionnaire.html. This
questionnaire was passed on to the citizens of Mumbai through the medium of e-mails.
The online survey was conducted for a period of three months from October 2003 to
December 2003 and again in the month of May 2004. Target sample was decided as 200
or more. Total responses received were 218 after discarding few irrelevant and
incomplete responses. Although the questionnaire uploaded in the year 2003 proved to
serve the purpose of getting commuting information, it failed to get relevant information
about the people’s acceptability level for parameters affecting the performance of
transportation system. Hence, the questionnaire was again uploaded in 2004, with a
changed format in order to get relevant responses, keeping all the other questions same as
before. Thus 76 responses were received which gave an idea about the commuter
satisfaction index.
The online survey was able to collect views and opinions of people who access
internet. Thus, illiterate and poor people did not get an opportunity to participate in the
survey. However, sustainability demands equity and satisfaction of the people,
irrespective of their economical background. Hence, although a small section of
population of Mumbai accessing internet formed the sample space, the overall analysis is
not biased. Economical background affects the travel pattern, modal choice and travel
behavior of the commuters. However, the distance, time and expenses remain almost the
same when commuters choose a particular mode of transport. Walking and public
transport are more often the means of transportation for the poor people. This point has
been taken into consideration while arriving at the results.
76
5.1.2 Survey Design and Observations
The questionnaire was short and simple for the common people to understand. At
the same time the responses aimed to provide sufficient information and details about the
transportation system. The profession of people was asked to see what section of Mumbai
population responded to the survey. Table 5.1 shows the percentage of respondents based
on their occupation.
Table 5.1 Percentage of respondents based on their profession
Profession Percentage
Technical (engineers, architects, consultants, software) 38.4
Students 28
Teaching (teachers and professors) 4.7
Public Relation (counselors, psychologists, receptionists) 6.6
Medical (doctors, paramedical professionals) 2.8
Business and Commerce (share brokers, businessmen, bankers) 6.2
Others 13.3
Origin and Destination were asked to get information about trip generation and
the trip lengths. Table 5.2 shows the percentage of trip distribution in morning and
evening hours from the city to the suburbs and vice versa. This information is used to
determine the flow and direction of traffic during morning and evening rush hours.
77
Table 5.2 Percentage of Trips in morning and evening hours to and from
suburbs and city
Origin to Destination Per cent trips (A.M) Per cent trips (P.M)Suburbs to City 28 10.4City to Suburbs 10.4 28Suburbs to Suburbs 59.7 59.7City to City 1.9 1.9
Responses also provided information about the usual morning and evening travel
times. Morning and evening peak hours were then calculated from the graph shown in
Figure 5.1. Morning peak hours are 7 am to 11 am and evening peak hours are 5 pm to 10
pm. A concentrated peak travel occurs during 8 am to 9 am in the morning hours and 5
pm to 7 pm during evening hours.
Morning and Evening Peak Hours
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5:00AM
6:00AM
7:00AM
8:00AM
9:00AM
10:00
AM
11:00
AM
12:00
P M
1:00PM
2:00PM
3:00PM
4:00PM
5:00PM
6:00PM
7:00P M
8:00PM
9:00PM
10:00
P M
11:00
PMTime
Perc
ent o
f Tri
ps
Percent trips ateach hour
Figure 5.1 Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel
78
Type of modes used by the commuters and time spent in each mode were also
asked through the survey to analyze the vehicular speeds on roads and the average travel
time. Table 5.3 shows the travel time and speed for each mode. Maximum numbers of
trips take place by railways, followed by the buses. Thus it is seen that public transport is
more popular among the citizens of Mumbai. Travel by railway turns out to be faster and
economical than any other mode. Hence there is more demand for trains in Mumbai.
Buses also form an important part of the transportation system of Mumbai. 55 per cent by
number of trips take place by bus. Most economical short journeys on road are given by
walking and long journeys are given by buses. It is interesting to note that vehicles with
lesser occupancy give more average speed than the vehicles with higher occupancy.
Buses which carry around 4.5 million journeys per day travel at an average speed of 17.5
km / hr during morning hours and 15.5 km / hr during evening hours. This not only
increases the overall travel time and the emissions, but also encourages people to adopt
private transportation for faster travel.
Real distances between the origin and the destination were not available. The
distances were directly measured from a map of Mumbai. On the basis of the measured
distances and travel time, approximate speeds were calculated. A graph of percentile
speed is plotted for all vehicles on the road, taken together (Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3). It
is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of
vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning hours. During the evening hours, 72 per
cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 91 per cent vehicles travel below
approximately 25 km / hr. The average speed in the evening is found to be less than that
in the morning. This may be accounted by the extra recreation trips during evening hours.
79
The average speeds of vehicles on roads are ranging from 9.5 km/hr for buses
during evenings to maximum of 21.8 km/hr for two-wheelers during mornings. Vehicles
in the peak hours are seen at crawling speeds. Average distance of travel for one way trip
is approximately 23 km and 50 per cent of trip lengths are below 18 km. Average travel
time per trip during morning hours is 62 minutes and that in the evening hours is 68
minutes.
Table 5.3 Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average AM and PM
speeds for each mode of travel.
Modes Percentage by
number of trips
Percentage
by distance
AM Average
Speed in
PM Average
Speed in km/hr Train 59.7 61.7 30.5 29.9
Bus 55 23.7 17.5 15.5
Auto rickshaw 18.5 2.2 12 9.5
Taxi 3.8 0.5 17.9 15.4
Cars 11.4 6.2 19.6 16.6
2-Wheelers 6.6 4 21.8 19.1
Walk 57.8 (considerable walk)
1.7
Here, considerable walk means walking distance of at least 100 meter on the road.
57.8 per cent seems to be an underestimated value. The reason might be that commuters
consider it to be quite not worth to mention in their responses, or they are very much
accessible to transportation modes at their origin and destination. Moreover, as discussed
earlier, this questionnaire does not consider the poor people, for whom walking is the
only affordable means to travel.
80
Graph of Percentile Speed (AM)
2
24
57
70
84
96 98 99 100 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Speed in km/hr
Per
cent
age
of v
ehic
les
PercentileSpeed Curve
90
%
63
%
Figure 5.2 Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic
Graph of Percentile Speed (PM)
6
34
66
79
8996 99 99 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45Speed (km/hr)
Per
cent
age
of v
ehic
les
PercentileSpeed
72
91
Figure 5.3 Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic.
81
Respondents also came up with the ideal travel time they would be satisfied with.
This gave an idea about the social dissatisfaction with respect to the travel time. Since
there are no posted speed limits in Mumbai, the ideal travel time is considered as the best
tool to find out the level of congestion. The ratio of actual travel time to ideal travel time
was found out. This ratio is defined as the congestion index for this study. Value greater
than 1 denotes that the area is congested. The average value of congestion index from 218
responses is 2.1. This indicates that the system is highly congested. It is evident from the
crush load of the trains and buses and crawling speed of vehicles on streets. This value of
congestion index is not very reliable, as it only depends on the perception of the
individual. But the concept can be used in the future, to get a realistic idea about
congestion.
Expenses per kilometer of travel are found out from the responses. Expenses for
public transport (trains and buses) including a combination with intermediate means of
transport is Rs. 0.64 / km and for private transport (cars and two-wheelers) is Rs. 2.01 /
km. 80 per cent of commuters prefer public transport (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per
cent prefer buses), 14 per cent prefer cars, 4 percent opt for two-wheelers and 2 per cent
prefer intermediate transport (auto rickshaws and taxis).
Average delay per trip is found to be 9 minutes in the morning hours and 12
minutes in the evening hours. Thus a commuter on an average experiences approximately
111 hours of loss in working hours per year.
In the end, a question seeking information about the overall performance of
Mumbai Transportation System was asked. Eleven parameters were mentioned and
respondents were asked to rate the satisfaction level. A five point Likert-Scale ranking
82
from Totally Unacceptable (rating 1) to Totally Acceptable (rating 5) was used to
indicate the level of satisfaction based on the parameters. Percentage rating for each
parameter is given in Table 5.4. Statistical Analysis Tests were then carried out to study
how the parameters affect the overall satisfaction level of the commuters.
Table 5.4 Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai Transportation
System and the parameters
Totally Unacceptable
(%)
Fairly Unacceptable
(%)
Average (%)
Fairly Acceptable
(%)
Totally Acceptable
(%)
Mumbai Transportation System
1.32 30.26 30.26 31.58 5.26
Pollution 42.11 38.16 13.16 3.95 1.32 Road Quality 23.68 32.89 25.00 15.79 1.32 Congestion 42.11 38.16 13.16 5.26 0.00 Delay due to Speed of vehicles
11.84 31.58 38.16 15.79 1.32
Frequency of buses and trains 3.95 7.89 26.32 42.11 18.42
Pedestrian facilities 26.32 26.32 31.58 11.84 2.63
Rush in public transport 57.89 30.26 9.21 1.32 0.00
Parking 23.68 31.58 35.53 6.58 1.32 Availability of other modes 13.16 15.79 35.53 21.05 11.84
Comparison with transportation of other cities in India
2.63 11.84 27.63 34.21 18.42
Cost of Travel 3.95 14.47 35.53 21.05 21.05
83
It can be seen from the table that commuters are highly dissatisfied with the
pollution, rush in public transport and congestion. They are fairly dissatisfied with the
road quality, delay due to low speeds and parking. Respondents seemed to have average
satisfaction levels with respect to pedestrian facilities and the cost of the travel. Although
most of the parameters are towards unacceptable levels, Mumbai Transportation System
proves to be fairly acceptable. This might be due to the fact that there are various other
parameters that influence people’s perception which are not accounted in this study.
People prefer Mumbai Transportation System, cost of travel and various alternate modes
available as compared to other cities in India. In order to measure the degree of
satisfaction among commuters during their regular travel, concept of Commuter
Satisfaction Index (CSI) is used.
5.2 Analysis
5.2.1 Commuter Satisfaction
Sustainable transportation demands maximum convenience of commuters with
minimum cost and least adverse effect on the environment and resources. Commuter
satisfaction and convenience are the measures for determining sustainability from social
aspect. An attempt is made to measure the effect of parameters on the performance of the
transportation system of City of Mumbai. It is important to understand the quality
dimensions to assess the sustainability level of a transportation system.
As described earlier, Rating of 1 denotes minimum satisfaction (total
unacceptability) and 5 denotes maximum satisfaction (total acceptability). The average
rating for each parameter is calculated from the responses. The importance level for each
84
parameter is 5, since sustainability requires maximum satisfaction with respect to all
parameters. In all there are 11 parameters, as shown in Table 5.4 above. The weight of
each parameter is calculated as given in Table 5.5. The importance of satisfaction level of
each parameter is considered maximum for sustainability. Thus the weight of each
parameter is same. The product of average rating and weight gives the actual satisfaction
level. Commuter Satisfaction Index is calculated as 2.52, considering the effect of all
eleven parameters. In terms of percentage the index is 50.4 per cent.
Table 5.5 Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation
Average Score
Importance score
Weighting factor
Commuter Satisfaction
Index
Pollution 1.87 5 0.091 0.17 Road Quality 2.38 5 0.091 0.22 Congestion 1.84 5 0.091 0.17 Delay due to Speed of vehicles 2.08 5 0.091 0.19
Frequency of buses and trains 3.42 5 0.091 0.31
Pedestrian facilities 2.38 5 0.091 0.22 Rush in public transport 1.58 5 0.091 0.14 Parking 2.30 5 0.091 0.21 Availability of other modes
2.91 5 0.091 0.26
Comparison with transportation of other cities in India
3.58 5 0.091 0.33
Cost of Travel 3.49 5 0.091 0.32 Total 60 2.52
It is seen from Table 5.5 that overall CSI is 2.52 or 50.4 per cent. Although the
overall satisfaction seems to be 50 per cent, it is essential to find out the causes for the
85
remaining 50 per cent dissatisfaction. Commuter Satisfaction Index of only 50 per cent
shows that the system is unsustainable as far as the social aspect is considered. A
detailed statistical analysis is carried out in order to see how the parameters considered as
independent variables affect the acceptability of the performance of Mumbai
Transportation System.
5.2.2 Statistical Analysis
The acceptability of the performance of the transportation system in Mumbai
depends mostly on people’s views. This research studies how the parameters discussed
earlier, based on people’s perception affect the acceptability of overall performance of
Mumbai Transportation System. Two parameters namely ‘pollution’ and ‘comparison
with transportation systems of other cities’ are not considered. These two parameters give
an overall idea of people’s views, but they do not necessarily affect the overall
performance of the transportation system. Thus the remaining nine parameters are
considered. These nine parameters are checked for normal distribution, in order to see if
parametric tests could be applied. It is observed that seven out of nine independent
variables are normally distributed, while two, namely rush in public transport and
congestion are skewed. The dependent variable (Mumbai Transportation System) is also
normally distributed. Figures 5.4 to 5.13 show the graphical distributions.
86
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Mumbai_as_whole
0
10
20
30
40
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = 3.1053Std. Dev. = 0.94628N = 76
Mumbai_as_whole
Figure 5.4 Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System as whole
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Road_Quality
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = 2.3816Std. Dev. = 1.05789N = 76
Road_Quality
Figure 5.5 Distribution of responses about Road Quality
87
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Congestion
0
10
20
30
40
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = 1.8421Std. Dev. = 0.89521N = 76
Congestion
Figure 5.6 Distribution of responses about Congestion
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Delay_due_to_Speed
0
10
20
30
40
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 2.2237Std. Dev. = 0.85788N = 76
Delay_due_to_Speed
Figure 5.7 Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed
88
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Frequency_buses_trains
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 3.4211Std. Dev. = 1.06161N = 76
Frequency_buses_trains
Figure 5.8 Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Pedestrian_facilities
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 2.3816Std. Dev. = 1.0828N = 76
Pedestrian_facilities
Figure 5.9 Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities
89
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Rush_public_transport
0
10
20
30
40
50
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 1.5789Std. Dev. = 0.82078N = 76
Rush_public_transport
Figure 5.10 Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Parking
0
10
20
30
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 2.3026Std. Dev. = 0.95247N = 76
Parking
Figure 5.11 Distribution of responses about Parking
90
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Availability_other_modes
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 2.9079Std. Dev. = 1.19083N = 76
Availability_other_modes
Figure 5.12 Distribution of responses about Availability of alternate modes
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Cost_of_Travel
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Freq
uenc
y
Mean = 3.4868Std. Dev. = 1.13717N = 76
Cost_of_Travel
Figure 5.13 Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel
91
Since most independent variables along with the dependent variable are normally
distributed, parametric tests are carried out. SPSS 12.0, a statistical analysis tool is used
to carry out the statistical analysis.
There are 76 responses in all with nine independent variables and one dependent
variable. A data reduction technique called as Factor Analysis is used to group these
variables into fewer numbers of groups. This method is generally used to reduce a large
number of overlapping variables to a much smaller set of factors. Thus nine independent
variables are grouped into four factors. Table 5.6 shows the factor loadings. Loadings
from rotated component matrix are studied for the factoring of the variables. Highest
factor loadings of the independent variables are shown in bold. These factor loadings
indicate the correlation of the independent variables to each of the factors formed. Thus
congestion, rush in public transport, delay due to speed and parking are clubbed into one
group (factor 1) called as crowding. Frequency of buses and trains and availability of
alternate modes are categorized as availability of transportation modes (factor 2). Road
quality and pedestrian facilities are factored as infrastructure (factor 3) and cost of the
travel is grouped under cost (factor 4). Methods used are Extraction Method with
Principal Component Analysis and Rotation Method (Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization). Only those cases are considered in this analysis where the acceptability
level of Mumbai Transportation is average (rating 3).
92
Table 5.6 Loadings from Factor Analysis (Rotated Component Matrix)
Component
1 2 3 4
Road Quality -0.041 -0.213 0.786 0.367
Congestion 0.668 -0.236 -0.204 0.358
Delay due to Speed 0.647 0.152 -0.367 0.489
Frequency of buses, trains 0.128 0.944 -0.072 0.023
Pedestrian facilities 0.151 0.270 0.761 -0.137
Rush in public transport 0.866 -0.010 0.211 -0.057
Parking 0.790 0.177 0.112 0.021
Availability of alternate
modes -0.054 0.901 0.130 0.057
Cost of Travel 0.097 0.079 0.137 0.899
These four factors namely crowding, availability of modes, infrastructure and cost
are again checked for distribution. Three out of four appear to be normally distributed
(Figure 5.14 to 5.17). Hence linear regression is used to see which parameters affect the
overall performance of the transportation system based on people’s views. The results are
as tabulated in Tables 5.7 to 5.10.
93
-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000 4.00000
REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1
0
5
10
15
20
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = -0.0045488Std. Dev. = 1.01199717N = 76
Crowding
Figure 5.14 Distribution of scores for Crowding
-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000
REGR factor score 2 for analysis 1
0
5
10
15
20
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = 0.3200328Std. Dev. = 0.94640804N = 76
Availability of Transportation Modes
Figure 5.15 Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation Modes
94
-4.00000 -2.00000 0.00000 2.00000 4.00000
REGR factor score 3 for analysis 1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = -0.2349266Std. Dev. = 0.95380853N = 76
Infrastructure
Figure 5.16 Distribution of scores for Infrastructure
-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000
REGR factor score 4 for analysis 1
0
5
10
15
20
Fre
qu
ency
Mean = 0.0197289Std. Dev. = 0.91251744N = 76
Cost of the Travel
Figure 5.17 Distribution of scores for Cost
95
Summary of statistics for linear regression is as shown in Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. Table
5.7 shows the mean and standard deviation for the factor scores for each factor.
Table 5.7 Summary of basic statistics for the four factors
Mean Std. Deviation NMumbai_as_whole 3.1053 0.94628 76Crowding -0.0045488 1.01199717 76Availability of transportation modes 0.3200328 0.94640804 76Infrastructure -0.2349266 0.95380853 76Cost 0.0197289 0.91251744 76 Table 5.8 Model Summary
R square 0.097Adjusted R Square 0.046Significance of the model 0.118Std error of the estimate 0.92412F 1.917 The results for this analysis are tested at 90 per cent 1-tailed significance level. Thus for a
parameter or the model to be significant the significance should be lesser than 10 per cent
(0.1). From Table 5.8, it is seen that the model is not a significant model. The
significance is 0.118, which is more than 0.1. Table 5.9 shows the significance and
correlations of these independent variables with each other as well as with the dependent
variable. Crowding is low moderately correlated and is statistically significant with the
dependent variable, whereas Availability of transportation modes and Infrastructure are
significant with Crowding. Availability of transportation modes is negatively correlated
where as Infrastructure is positively correlated with the dependent variable. The
96
procedure of linear regression is again continued to get the best fit model with the most
significant parameters affecting the acceptability.
Table 5.9 Correlations Pearson Correlation
Mumbai Transportation as whole
1 0.28 0.044 0.045 0.071
Crowding 0.28 1 -0.219 0.239 -0.053 Availability of
transportation modes 0.044 -0.219 1 -0.169 0.012
Infrastructure 0.045 0.239 -0.169 1 -0.049 Cost 0.071 -0.053 0.012 -0.049 1Sig. (1-tailed)
Mumbai as whole- 0.007 0.354 0.348 0.27
Crowding 0.007 - 0.029 0.019 0.324 Availability of
transportation modes 0.354 0.029 - 0.072 0.461
Infrastructure 0.348 0.019 0.072 - 0.337 Cost 0.27 0.324 0.461 0.337 - Table 5.10 Coefficients from regression analysis
Sig.(Constant) 0Crowding 0.011Availability of transportation modes 0.351Infrastructure 0.961Cost 0.447
Conceptually thinking, it is evident that crowding (congestion, delay, rush and
parking) and infrastructure (road quality and pedestrian facilities) would affect the
performance of the transportation system as a whole. Hence regression analysis is again
carried out considering crowding, infrastructure and the interaction between them as the
97
independent variables. Interaction between crowding and infrastructure is the product of
their individual factor scores.
Results of Regression Analysis are tabulated in the following tables. Table 5.11
correlations and significance of independent variables with dependent variable and each
other. Table 5.12 shows the model summary.
Table 5.11 Correlations and Significance
Mumbai_as_whole Crowding Infrastructure
Interaction Variable
Mumbai_as_whole 1 0.28 0.045 -0.222Crowding 0.28 1 0.239 -0.118Infrastructure 0.045 0.239 1 -0.327Interaction Variable -0.222 -0.118 -0.327 1Mumbai_as_whole . 0.007 0.348 0.027Crowding 0.007 . 0.019 0.155Infrastructure 0.348 0.019 . 0.002Interaction Variable 0.027 0.155 0.002 .
Sig. (1-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Table 5.12 Model Summary
R square 0.122
Adjusted R Square 0.085
Significance of the model 0.024
Std error of the estimate 0.9051
98
Table 5.13 Coefficients and significance values for linear regression
Constant 0
Crowding 0.018
Infrastructure 0.443
Interaction Variable 0.064
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Observed Cum Prob
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Expe
cted
Cum
Pro
b
Dependent Variable: Mumbai_as_whole
Figure 5.18 Graph of Linear Regression
From Table 5.11, it is seen that crowding and interaction variable are significant
with the dependent variable. They also have a correlation with the dependent variable at a
moderately low level. Thus, it is inferred from this statistical analysis that Crowding and
Infrastructure significantly affect the performance of Mumbai Transportation System
from people’s perspective. Table 5.13 shows their individual significance levels.
Crowding and Interaction variable are statistically significant (values less than 0.1).
99
Figure 5.18 shows the graph for linear regression.
Thus for reducing the dissatisfaction amongst the commuters, there should be
reduction in congestion, rush, delay and parking problems, with an improvement in
pedestrian facilities and road quality.
5.3 Environmental Aspect
Pollution level in Mumbai is very high as discussed in Chapter 3. Emissions of
CO, NOx, soot, particulate matter, hydro carbon have started deteriorating the health of
people. Bronchitis, Asthma and many other respiratory problems have become very
common with the citizens of Mumbai. Environmental pollution is increasing with high
growth in vehicular population, traffic congestion and due to very low speeds of vehicles.
As seen in Table 5.3, vehicles on roads have low speeds. Speeds further decrease
during evenings. As discussed earlier, it is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below
15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning
hours. During the evenings, 72 per cent of vehicles run below 15 km / hr and more than
91 per cent vehicles run below approximately 25 km / hr. Speeds of vehicles are seen
ranging anything between 5 to 8 km/hr during the AM and PM peak hours. Apart from
causing delay, these vehicles also cause very high emissions of pollutants. Figures 5.19,
5.20, 5.21 and 5.22 show the emission levels of different pollutants in gm/km for heavy
vehicles running on diesel (buses and trucks), four wheelers running on gasoline (cars)
and two wheelers with respect to speed [48]. The graphs show that at for the speeds of
vehicles in Mumbai, emissions in gm/km are high. Moreover, if these vehicles continue
to move on for long distances, the emissions increase further. Pollution levels in Mumbai
100
have already reached alarming values as discussed in Chapter 3, and the condition will
worsen if the inventory of personal vehicles still continues.
Emission (gm/km)with respect to speedBuses / Trucks
252.3
167.6 188.8 157 158.6 159.7
667.1
499.1443.1 415.1 419.2 421.9504.3
351.9301.1 275.7
194.4226.9
0
100200
300
400
500600
700
800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
FC
CO2
NO
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedBuses / Trucks
6.1
4.6 4.6
3.8 3.9 4
3.2
2.52.2 2 2.1 2.1
4.6
3.43
2.92.92.8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
CO
SO2
PM
Figure 5.19 Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with respect to speed
Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:
Generation and Source [48]
101
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedFour Wheelers (Gasoline)
10080 73.3 68 66 70
287
232212.67
165.5144.8 137
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
FC
CO2
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedFour Wheelers (Gasoline)
1611.5 10.33
29.75
39
52
5.2 4.95 1.054.67
0.66 0.470
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
CO
NO
Figure 5.20 Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed
Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:
Generation and Source [48]
102
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Four Stroke
128.2 7 7.8
10.813.4
35.3
24.220.5 22
28.6
36.9
0
5
10
1520
25
30
35
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
FC
CO2
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Four Stroke
1.6
1.1 11.4
3.3 3.2
2.04
1.41.2
0.80.55
0.9
0
0.5
1
1.52
2.5
3
3.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
NO
CO
Figure 5.21 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke with respect to
speed
Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:
Generation and Source [48]
103
Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Two Stroke
14.7011.03 10.30 11.20
13.33
36.20
27.9025.15 26.10 26.80 26.68
3.60 1.95 1.40 2.03 3.757.59
1.20 1.50 1.02
11.809.26 7.59
18.30
8.84
2.25 1.30 1.16
10.30
5.00
05
10152025303540
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Em
issi
on (g
m/k
m)
FC
CO2
CO
NO
HC
Figure 5.22 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke with respect to
speed
Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:
Generation and Source Characterization [48]
It is observed that an increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr causes a
considerable reduction in fuel consumption and pollutant emissions [48]. Thus vehicles
moving at optimum speed produce economical as well as environmental gains. Table
5.14 shows the percentage of reduction in fuel consumption and emissions with an
increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr in each mode of road transportation.
2W–2S = Two Wheeler, Two Stroke 2W-4S = Two Wheeler, Four Stroke
3W-2S = Three Wheeler, Two Stroke 3W-4S= Three Wheeler, Four Stroke
4W-G = Four Wheeler, Gasoline (Cars) 4W-D = Four Wheeler, Diesel (bus, truck)
104
Table 5.14 Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and emission of pollutants
with increase of vehicles from 15 km/hr to 25 km/hr
Fuel Consumption
17 23 20 25 25 16
CO 36 22 20 78 79 16CO2 11 23 17 22 22 16NO 9 21 18 Increase by
41%Increase by
46%20
HC 46 56SO2 16Soot 19
3W-4S ideal Speed 30
km/hr
4W-G ideal Speed 40 to
60 km/hr
4W-D ideal Speed 40 to
60 km/hr
2W-2S ideal Speed 30 to
40 km/hr
2W-4S ideal Speed
30km/hr
3W-2S ideal Speed 30
km/hr
Table 5.15 gives the values of actual emissions at the average speeds of vehicles in
Mumbai and the emissions that would have occurred at their ideal speeds (values taken
from graphs in Figures 5.18 to 5.21). It shows that emissions exceed the ideal optimum
values approximately 1.5 times. This information gives evidence that Mumbai traffic has
been adversely affecting the environment and causing very high air pollution.
Table 5.15 Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed and ideal speed of
vehicles in Mumbai
Emission
at Speed
Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual
4W-D 3.9 5.12 419.2 557.9 158.6 197.24 2.9 3.82 2.1 2.754W-G 39 12.4 144.8 243 66 842W2S 1.4 1.95 25.15 27.9 5 8.84 10.3 11.032W4S 1 1.1 20.5 24.2 7 8.23W2S 6.22 7 45.49 68.4 3.33 19.7 19.7 30.53W4S 0.434 5.2 71.2 115.2 23 39.5
PM SO2CO CO2 HC FC
105
From the questionnaire responses, it is observed that 37 per cent of people
regularly commuting by personalized vehicles prefer public transport for traveling. This
might be due to lower cost of public transport, better speed by trains and less effort to
drive through the traffic on the roads. Thus if public transportation is enhanced, there is a
possibility that at least 37 per cent of all car and two wheeler trips will be reduced. This
gives an idea about the reduction in pollution and traffic congestion. Fuel consumption
will decrease with a reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions in particular. This modal shift
will also increase the speed of vehicles on the road. These observations and results make
it clear that public transportation and walking facilities should be improved to such an
extent that people are encouraged to use these modes of transportation. At the same time
it is imperative to curb private vehicles on the road. This is the most simplest and
economical measure for a developing city like Mumbai.
106
Chapter 6
Results and Conclusions
6.1 Interpretation and Conclusions
It is inferred from the analysis that crowding forms a significant parameter in
determining the sustainability of a transportation system. Crowding, which includes rush
in public transport, congestion, delay due to vehicular speed and parking thus adversely
affect the environment and the social well being of people. Rush in the public
transportation facilities makes people dissatisfied in the form of inconvenience, noise and
smell. Congestion hinders the smooth movement of people as well as the vehicles. It
reduces the speed of travel, thereby wasting valuable time of the commuters. It also
results into air pollution, vehicle- pedestrian conflict and unnecessary fuel consumption.
Parking at wrong places due to unavailability of proper space, causes the vehicles to
create traffic jams. Free parking further encourages the personalized vehicle use.
Apart from crowding, people are seen to be dissatisfied with respect to
infrastructure. Infrastructure in form of bad road quality and improper pedestrian
facilities mainly contribute to people’s dissatisfaction. Although availability of
transportation modes is not seen to be a statistically significant variable, people are not
very satisfied with the frequency of buses and trains. People are seen to be fairly satisfied
with the cost of travel. Although the commuter satisfaction index is found to be 50 per
cent in this study, an overall analysis of the entire city will definitely reduce the CSI. This
107
is due to the fact that the survey reached to educated people only. These people have a
better access to various means of transportation than the poor people. Attempt is made to
develop a method of calculation of social well being that affects sustainability. Hence the
mitigation measures take not only the parameters into consideration but also the overall
condition of Mumbai Transportation System in general.
6.2 Suggestions for Mitigation
6.2.1 Dispersion of Population and Employment – Satellite Towns
Problems arise in Mumbai due to high population and concentration of
employment and housing. With migration of more and more people from other places in
India, settlements have started spreading all over the City of Mumbai in form of large
numbers of residential complexes and slums. People come to Mumbai in search of
employment and in the hope of getting a shelter. This has caused a strain on all
transportation facilities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the slum formations have become
very common on the road and highway sides, causing a high risk of road accidents.
Concentration of employment is more in CBD area of Mumbai. As the city is growing
northwards, many small scale factories and job opportunities are being created in these
areas. Thus there is uncontrolled growth of population and slums in a haphazard way.
Attempts are being made to shift employment to Bandra-Kurla Complex in the suburban
area and in Navi Mumbai. This can prove to be an efficient measure if planned properly.
The concept of satellite towns similar to Singapore can be used to evenly distribute the
population and employment. These satellite towns should be connected by an efficient
rail and bus network to each other and the city center. These satellite towns will have job
108
opportunities for the residents, thus avoiding long trips to the city center and to the other
parts. Strategic planning of this kind has totally stopped the urban sprawl in Singapore,
and can be an effective measure for Mumbai.
An efficient development can be achieved only when the areas have a good
transportation system for convenient movement of people. The satellite towns should be
made self sufficient with proper pedestrian facilities and public transportation. Slum
population needs to be rehabilitated away from the dangerous traffic and given some
incentives like job opportunities, which will avoid their settlements again on roads and
highways. Improvements like increasing the frequency of trains and buses, building
flyovers and widening roads seem to be short term goals. These measures do not intend to
curb the unplanned growth. Policy measures and efficient planning is needed to bring the
situation in control. As discussed in the literature review, transportation planners can
study the examples and experiences of demand management and land use planning in
developed and developing countries.
6.2.2 Facilitation of Public Transportation
It is seen from the online survey that 60 per cent of trips are within suburbs, 28
per cent from suburbs to the city, 11 per cent from the city to the suburbs while 2 per cent
of trips are within the city. Although these figures do no necessarily give the exact
percentage of trips taking place in the entire Mumbai, it gives a fair idea in terms of
proportion. Of all the trips (rail and road) surveyed through the questionnaire,
approximately 35 per cent of trips take place in the east-west direction. Out of all railway
trips, 30 per cent of commuters have to transfer the train from Western Railway to
109
Central Railway or vice versa at Dadar Station. This increases their travel distance to
almost twice of the direct distance between the origin and destination. Thus commuters
waste their time, energy and resources. A person traveling from eastern suburb to western
suburb or vice versa by train has to travel in north-south direction at least once. This is
due to the fact that there is no railway line connecting east to west directly. Presently
there is a bus network, but buses often take longer times to travel due to the gridlocks on
the roads. This explains the main cause of longer travel time and delays. To improve the
direct east-west connection public transportation should be improved. Mumbai is
experiencing construction of flyovers which is not going to help much, since it will
attract more cars and two-wheelers. A common belief among people is that they can
travel faster with their own modes of transport. In fact this causes more traffic and
inconvenience to them as well as others. A rail system and priority to the public buses
can help solve some of the congestion in Mumbai. A railway system running east-west
can be then extended to Navi Mumbai, a proposed satellite town in order to grow trade
and business. This will also alleviate the problem of excessive concentration of
employment and population in Mumbai itself. Moreover, this will reduce the strain on
already existing Central and Western Railway. In spite of the rush and inconvenience
through railways and buses, it is found through online survey that 80 per cent of people
still prefer them (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per cent prefer buses). This might be
due to the low costs (as discussed earlier, the cost per km for public transport modes is
three times lesser than the personalized vehicles). 18 per cent of respondents prefer to
have personalized vehicles, in the form of cars or two-wheelers. 2 per cent of people
prefer intermediate transport, which includes auto rickshaws and taxis. These statistics
110
show the need to make improvements in public transport systems.
Another improvement that can be suggested is laying new tracks or assigning
separate tracks for intercity and goods trains. These trains running during peak hours
create disturbance in the regular train schedule, causing inconvenience to people in form
of longer waiting times and rush.
6.2.3 Parking
Parking is seen to be another critical problem of Mumbai transportation system.
There are no appropriate spaces provided for parking in residential complexes and
offices. Thus people are forced to park their vehicles on nearby streets. Parking if
provided is generally free or at a reasonable rate, easily affordable by the car owners.
This encourages more use of cars and two-wheelers. Parking at wrong places creates
confusion to the drivers, occupies the narrow roads and results into vehicle pedestrian
conflict, thus causing a dangerous situation for drivers and pedestrians.
Parking should be made strict in Mumbai. Fines should be high for illegal parking
and free parking should be totally eliminated. Multi-storey parking lots can be provided
around big offices and large residential complexes, where the personalized vehicles are
bound to be more. Special parking zones should be provided for bicycles around railway
stations and other public places.
6.2.4 Pedestrian Convenience
Another important development that Mumbai requires is improvement in
pedestrian facilities. Sustainability demands convenience of people, irrespective of their
111
age and economical background. It is seen that roads are built or widened considering the
convenience of vehicle owners, without giving enough thought to the pedestrians. Most
trips involve walking and at least 60 per cent requires considerable amount of walk on
roads. Accidents mostly involve pedestrians, and hence there is a need to place them in a
safer environment. Sidewalks, pedestrian signals and pedestrian crossings should be
provided at all places. Special sound systems should be provided at the traffic signals
especially for the blind.
6.2.5 Curbing personalized vehicles on roads
Various suggestions have been given on the idea of curbing personalized vehicles.
Some people suggest that the cars be banned on roads a few days in a week, while some
feel that higher taxes should be incurred on these vehicles and fuel. While all these
measures contribute towards reduced use of cars and two wheelers on the road, it is not
practically feasible to adopt these options without arranging alternate means of public
transportation. Railway capacity which gets exceeded by almost 3 times, cannot be
further strained by allowing no cars on the road. Banning cars and two-wheelers on roads
will only add to the dissatisfaction of the commuters. Public transportation facilities
should be enhanced to such an extent that people will prefer these modes more than their
cars. Taxes on vehicles and fuel along with parking costs will definitely reduce the
vehicle use provided people have better options for traveling. People will avoid their
vehicles and shift to public transportation, only when the later offers faster means of
travel. Hence bus priority and improvements in railways would be the best solutions to
solve the transportation problems. Imposing stricter rules and policy norms on use of old
112
vehicles, on emission standards and fuel quality, will further help in alleviating
transportation problems in Mumbai.
113
Chapter 7
Conclusion and Recommendation
7.1 Conclusion
The mitigation measures suggested in the previous chapters are important steps
towards sustainable growth of transportation in Mumbai. These measures can definitely
improve the quality of transportation, with a reduction in accidents, pollution, health
problems and inconvenience. With the modal shift towards public transportation, traffic
congestion will reduce, thereby increasing the speed. Improvement of speed from 15
km/hr to 25 km/hr will cause significant reduction of pollutant emission as discussed in
Chapter 5. Bold steps that should be taken in making Mumbai a sustainable city are as
follows:
1. Land Use Planning – Population and employment should be dispersed, thus
avoiding their concentrations in a particular area. The concept of satellite town
as discussed in the previous chapter is an effective tool to reduce the travel
distance, time, effort, pollution, fuel consumption, thereby reducing strain on
the present transportation system.
2. Enhancement of Buses and Railways – East-West connection should be
provided in form of public transportation in order to increase the convenience
of people traveling in East-West direction. Funds which are invested in
developing flyovers can be directed towards improving the public
114
transportation facilities in form of frequency and infrastructure. Buses should
be given priority on roads as compared to the other vehicles. It is absurd to
note that a transportation mode which carries maximum number of people in
Mumbai travels with the lowest speed the roads.
3. Transportation Planning – Long term and a comprehensive planning is
required for Mumbai. Increasing the frequency of buses and trains, creating
spaces for parking free of cost, building flyovers are short term improvements,
as discussed earlier. These planning measures intend to cater to the present
demand, without taking into consideration the high rate of growth in vehic les
and population. Planning measures should not only include providing facilities
for transportation, but should include measures which reduce the need to
travel.
4. Restriction of personal vehicle use – Taking into consideration the current
scenario of existing pollution levels, traffic congestion and the travel speed, it
becomes an urgent need to take some bold steps before the situation goes out
of control. This can be achieved when the use of vehicles is decreased
considerably. Norms should be made in order to curtail the car use, and
provisions should be made simultaneously have a modal shift to walking and
transportation.
115
7.2 Recommendations
Most results in this study are based on the online survey posted on the web site.
Further research is needed to consider the entire section of Mumbai population. For a
sustainable transportation system, there should be a balance between the social,
economical and environmental aspect. This study is more focused on the social aspect, as
it mainly tries to quantify the social satisfaction. Detailed study is required to gauge the
social, environmental and economical benefits taken together. Benefit cost study is to be
carried out for comprehensive long term planning of the city.
In order to measure the social satisfaction, eleven critical parameters were
considered. There are many more secondary parameters that influence people’s
acceptability which the study does not account for. Research should be carried out further
with more influencing factors. This will increase the reliability of the results, thus giving
a broader understanding of achieving sustainability.
116
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122
Appendix
Online Survey
I am Bhairavi Dhakras, a graduate student in the University of Toledo (USA), doing my
masters in Civil Engineering. I am working on my thesis "Study of parameters in the
development of sustainable transportation system in the City of Mumbai". I need your help in
developing data about the current transportation scenario in Mumbai, the usual problems people
face and their expectations from a good transportation system. If you are a regular traveler in
Mumbai, please answer the following questions. The questionnaire will take only 5 to 10 minutes
to answer. Your responses are important and valuable to me. If you have question(s) or
suggestion(s) please feel free to email me at [email protected].
I appreciate your feedback.
1. Your Profession
2. Where do you start your journey for going to work / school (Origin)?
3. Where do you go for your work / school (Destination)?
4. What time do you start your journey?
In the morning Hours Minutes.
In the evening Hours Minutes.
5. Indicate your time (in minutes) and distance (km) spent in each mode
In the morning
Train
Bus
123
Auto rickshaw
Taxi
Car
Two-Wheeler
Bicycle
Walking
In the evening
Train
Bus
Auto rickshaw
Taxi
Car
Two-Wheeler
Bicycle
Walking
6. What is the average delay (in minutes) you usually experience?
In the morning
In the evening
124
7. What is the duration of time you would be satisfied with for your one way journey?
8. What are your approximate travel expenses (in Rupees) per day?
9. Which mode of transport do you prefer?
10. How would you overall rate the following?
Totally Unacceptable
Fairly Unacceptable
Average Fairly Acceptable
Totally Acceptable
1. Pollution
2. Road Quality
3. Congestion
4. Delay due to Speed of vehicles5. Frequency of buses and trains6. Pedestrian facilities
7. Rush in public transport8. Parking
9. Availability of alternate modes to 10. Comparison with transportation of other cities in India11. Cost of Travel
12. Mumbai Transportation as a whole