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Life in Samsara: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell Life in Samsara: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell
Maya Shari MacLaughlin Bard College, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation MacLaughlin, Maya Shari, "Life in Samsara: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell" (2013). Senior Projects Spring 2013. 396. https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/senproj_s2013/396
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i
Dedication
Iwouldliketodedicatethisprojecttothosewhohavebeenthroughroughtimes.
FürMama,DaddyundOma.
InGedenkenanMelody
ii
Acknowledgements
ItwasinKristinScheible’sclassaboutBuddhistThoughtandPracticethatIfirst
gotinterestedintheideaofBuddhisthell.Oneofthehomeworkreadingswasaboutthe
BuddhistconceptofhellanditstruckmeasoddbecauseIdidn’tevenknowthat
Buddhistshadahell.Iwasreading,andtheonepartthatstuckwithmethemostwas
abouthellbeingsbeingcookedinmassivevatsofboilingcopper.Thatimageremained
withmeforalongtime.WheneverIdescribetheideaofaBuddhisthelltosomeone,
whoisequallysurprisedaboutitsexistenceasIwas,Imentionthisexample(seeFigure
1).
SowhenIgottoclassIwasquiteexcitedtohearmoreaboutthisgrotesquehellI
hadreadabout.Butnooneelseinclasswasasintriguedbythesehellsasme,andIwas
confusedaboutthat.Ithinksomepeoplethoughtmyinterestaboutthehellswasweird.
Comingbacktothistopicisawonderfulopportunitybecauseitcertainlyissomething
thatshookmyworldviewinmanyaspects.Itgavemeanewperspectiveoncosmic
orderandtheuniverse,ontheconceptofanunfortunaterebirth1andtheideaof
flexibletimeanditchallengedmydeep‐rootedwesternviewofBuddhism.Thechance
towriteaboutsomethingthatcouldsodestabilizemywayofthinking,somethingthatis
bothmysteriousandfascinatingtome,isanhonor.
Iwanttothankmyfamilyforbeingsosupportiveandlovinginthisstressful
timeandalways.DankeMama,dankeOma,thankyouDaddy!Iloveyouallsomuch.I
alsowanttothankmyfriendswhohavebeenmorethanwonderfulandhelpful.Andof
1Rebirth–Thecertaintyofareincarnationafterthepresentlifetime,regardlessoftypeofexistence.
iii
courseKristin,withoutwhosehelpthiswouldneverhavebeenaproject.Thankyouso
muchforbeingthemostamazingadviserandmentorIcouldeverdreamof.Ialsowant
tothankJimandRobforalwayshelpingmeoutandgivingbrilliantfeedback.
Itfeelsverystrangetobecompletingthisproject.Notonlyisitconcludinga
year’sworthofwork,butalsomytimeatBard.Ihavehadafairshareofunpleasantand
miserabletimeshere,butlookingback,ithasbeenthemostamazingtimeofmylifeso
far.ThenumberofgreatexperiencesIhavehadandwillcherishfortherestofmylife
seemcountless.NotonlyhaveIfoundfriendsforlife,butalsolearnedmorethanI
thoughtIcouldaboutmyself.BardistheclosestthingtohomeoutsideofMannheimI
havehadinthepastsixyears,andwhatagreatoneitwas.Theluckofhavingmyfamily
livingsoclosetomeisindescribable,andwithoutthemnearby,mylifeatBardwould
havebeenfarlessenjoyable.
ThanksforeverythingBard,you’recoolandI’llmissyou.
iv
2Figure1
2Figure1,http://bit.ly/15o6HAo,December2012
v
Preface
The Personal Hell
Itmayseemthathelliseverywhereandinevitable.Livinginthisworld,
saṃsāra,3becomesinseparablefromexperiencingdis‐ease,duḥkha,4and
impermanence,anitya5inwhateverlifeform.Thereasonhumanscancreatehellin
theirmindsisduetotheconstantrepetitionstheyconstruct.Usuallythemomentof
distress,sadnessorterrorthatdrivespeopleintodespairisrelativelyshort.Humansdo
notgetoverbadeventsasquicklyastheyhappen.Humanshavebecomemastersat
makingthedays,weeks,monthsandevenyearsafteratraumaticeventintoapersonal
hellofrepetition.Eventhoughanityawillprevailintheendandpermitsonetomove
on,theimmediatestateofdespaircreatedinthemindishellinitspurestform.Instead
oflettingdemonsinflictphysicaltorments,theindividualinflictstheworstandmost
personalpainsontohimorherselfbyrelivingtraumathroughmemory.
Knowingthatapainfuleventisovershouldhelphealemotionalwoundsassoon
asitends.Thesewounds,however,seemtodeepenandbecomemorepainfulafterthe
actualincident.Onceleftalonewithpainfulthoughts,hellreallybegins.Theminddoes
notallowonetomoveon,butratherforcestheindividualtodwellendlesslyonthepain
previouslyexperienced.Relivingpasteventsandimaginingwhatthefuturecouldhave
heldisplayedoverandoverinthemindlikeamovieonanendlessrepeatloop.This
3saṃsāra(Sanskrit):literally,‘wandering’,thebeginninglesscycleofbirth,deathandrebirth,composedoftherealmsofgods,demigods,humans,animals,ghostsandhellbeings.TheultimategoalofBuddhismisliberationfromsaṃsāra.4duḥkha–disease,suffering5anityaimpermanence
vi
repetitionintheheadisthehellthatnooneelsecanberesponsibleforbutoneself.
Controlseemslostsince,consciously,noonewouldchoosetoexperiencethesehorrors.
Itbecomesveryclearthatsaṃsāratrulyisaplaceofpainandanguish,andescapeis
nearlyimpossible.Hellismanifestedwhereveranindividualchoosestomakeit.Unable
toescapeoneself,theonlyoptionistolivewiththispersonalhellonearth.Nooneelse
canmakethoughtsgoawayorchangethem.Atbest,peopletryingtohelpfromthe
outsidecanalleviatesomepainandsuffering,butwillneverbeabletoeradicate
everything.Eventhoughinfullcontrolofalllifechoices,theindividualhasabsolutely
nochoicewhenitcomestothehellinthemind.Whenhellbecomesmorepermanent,as
inadepression,helpfromtheoutsideisessential,butwillnotbeabletocureanything
withouttheindividualcuringhimorherself.
Relivingpasteventsbindstothepain.Theconstantrepetitionsinthemindof
thingssuchasconversations,imagesandemotionsfromthepastarehurtful.The
enormouscapabilityofthehumanbraintocreatewonderfulthingsalsogivesthe
capabilitytoimagineandrelivehorriblethingsasrealisticallyasiftheywereactually
happening.Mostofitstaysinthesubconscious,butintimesofvulnerabilityand
sufferingthesethoughtscometothesurfaceandmakethehealingprocessevenmore
difficult.Onememoryleadstothenext,whichleadsdeeperintothespiralofthe
personalhellinthemind.
Repeatingshortclipsofmemoriesandexcerptsfromaconversationthat
happenedbeforeaterribleeventstaytrappedinthemind,makingdetachmentfrom
thesememoriesmoredifficult.Insteadoflettingthesememoriesgotomakespacefor
newones,theindividualclingstothem.Itisasifthemindwereaprison,inwhich
vii
oneselfisboththepunishedandthepunisher.Oncealoneinthemind,nooneelseis
theretotorturebuttheself.Theselfaloneistheevildoer,hurtingfromwithin.Ifitwere
possibletomastertheartofnotthinkingemotionallywiththeheart,butratheronly
logicallywiththebrain,thesepainswouldbesignificantlylessandwoundswouldheal
muchfaster.AchievingBuddhahood6entailsexactlythis:freedomfromsufferingand
attachment.Everyactiontakeninlifeisachoice.Whencreatingthepersonalhellsit
seemsasifcontrolislostoverthoughtsandonebecomestheirhelplessvictim.The
choicebetweenthinkingandnotthinkingthesethoughtsseemscompletelyannihilated.
Keepingabravefacetotheworldoutsidemaybeeasierforsomethanothers,
butontheinsidehellcanbetearingtheindividualapart.Thedividebetweenwhatis
feltandhowoneactscanbeameanstoovercomesuffering.Thepersonal,mentalhells
createdbytheselfaretheworstbecausenooneknowsbetterandwithmoredetail
whatexactlyhurtsthemostandhowthesepainsaretriggered.Otherpeople’sactions
areoutoftheindividual’scontrol.Onecanhopetoinfluencethemandtheirdecisions,
butultimatelymustlivewithotherpeople’sdecisionsandactions.Oneindividual
cannotchangeanother’sthoughts,feelingsorhopes.Everypersonisuniqueinhisor
heremotionsandothersmustlearntolivearoundthem.Sometimespeoplemustlearn
todealandlivewithunwantedeventsandthings.Thisisverychallengingbecause
humansmakeplansandimaginetheirlivesacertainway.Disappointmentispartof
saṃsāra,sincetheindividualhasnocontrolaboutwhathappensoutsideofhisorher
ownactions.
6Buddhahood–havingattainedenlightenment,becomeaBuddha.
viii
ImagesofhellareessentialinBuddhismbecausetheyareameanstoshow
suffering.Notonlyaretheyvisualaids,butalsoserveasaunifyingtool.Thedidacticuse
ofimagesistocreateacommunalhellfortheviewers.Theinterpretationthrough
representationofhellthroughimagesandliteraturecanbeshared.Acomfortingfactor
amongstallthepainandsufferingoneexperiencesisknowingthatthisisnotaunique
feeling.Thefactthatotherssuffertoodoesnoteliminateorlessenthepersonalpains;
however,itissomewhatconsolingtoknowthatothersalsoexperiencehardships.
Thefeelingsofpainandsadnesscannotbeeliminatedbyreason.Theonlything
thatcanhelptoeasethepainawayandslowlyrecoveristime.Time,aswellasduḥkha,
isimpermanent.LivingaccordingtoBuddhistidealsandrulesentailsacceptanceof
eventseveniftheymayhurt.Knowingthateventheworstpainwillsubside,evenifit
neverfullygoesaway,canbecomforting.Itcanalwaysbereasonedandlogically
explainedthatsufferingisimpermanent;theactualsufferinginthatmoment,however,
isveryreal.Almostnothingcanbedoneintheshorttermtoactuallylessenthepain
triggeredbyterribleevents.Thereisnootherwaytogetoverthesefeelingsthantolive
throughallthepainandlearntolivewithit,knowingthatitwillnotalwaysbeasbad.
Thepainfulmemoryofahappyeventthatcanneverhappenagainduetopersonalloss
hauntsmany,likenightmaresthatneverseemtocometoanend.Knowingthatnothing
willchange,themindinstinctivelyrelivesandrepeatseverythingimaginablethatdoes
notallowlettinggoandmovingon.Buddhistsunderstandthisconceptofcontinuous
repetitionthatcausessomuchpersonalagonyandcallithell.
Nomatterwherethebodygoes,themindfollowsiteverywhere.Physical
locationscanbechanged,butneverwillonebeseparatedfrommemoriesandthoughts.
ix
Thisprisoncreatedfortheselfisthepersonalhellfromwhichnoonebuttheselfcan
salvagefrom.Evenifgettingsupportfromfamilyandfriends,theactualhealingand
recoverycanonlybedonebytheself.Eventhoughanityaisusuallynegative,inthis
relationshipwithduḥkhaknowingthatnothingispermanentcanbereassuring.Even
thoughinvoluntary,everyhumanwillatsomepointexperiencethepiercingpainofthe
deathofsomeoneloved,anunwantedbreakupandinnumerableotherthingsthatcause
irreversiblepain.Theseexperiencesareallcausedbyimpermanence,luckilythepain
theycause,isalsoimpermanent.
ExactlythisideaofanityaiswhyBuddhisthell,inallitshorribleandgrotesque
forms,issoimportanteventhoughitisonethatisoftenoverlooked.Tocontinueonthe
pathtowardsenlightenment,onemustsufferforallthewrongdoingsfromprevious
statesofbeing.Atonementthroughsuffering,retributionthroughpain,andthe
seeminglyendlesstortureofthebody,soulandmindistheonlywaytofurtheroneself
onthewaytoachievingenlightenment.Justaslifeisnotapermanentstateofbeing,hell
isalsoatemporarysituation.Regardlessofthelengthoramountofsuffering,onewill
eventuallybereleasedfromthepersonalhellinwhichoneisconfrontedtocontinuethe
processofpersonalbetterment.Thisprojectwillexplorethecreativityandstructureof
theBuddhistimaginationofhellthroughimagesandtexts.
x
Table of Contents
Dedication iAcknowledgments iiPreface vIntroduction 1
Chapter One: Time 10 MeasurableEternity 10 UnitsofTime 23 RebirthandRevival 25 PermanenceandImpermanence 30 HellishCharacteristics:Repetition 33
TheHellofNeverEndingTorment–Avīci 37
Chapter Two: Location 44 AHellofaLocation 44
FluidityofanImaginedLocation 51 DepictionofHellasaPrison 55 ResidentsofHell 59
TheMindasaLocation 63
Chapter Three: Community 64 AnimalsandVengeance 64 PunishmentandRelease 69 OccupantsofHell 72 TheLackofHappiness 79
Conclusion 88Bibliography 92
1
Introduction
A Place of Torment
InthisprojectIwanttointroducethesubjectofBuddhisthell,itsinterpretation
oftime,location,itscommunitiesanditsrepresentationinart.Thisisasurveyoftexts
aboutBuddhisthellfromvariousBuddhistcultures,includingimagesfromSoutheast,
EastandCentralAsia.Theimageswillhelptoorientthereader,visualizingsomeofthe
intensetormentsthatexistthere.Theseimagesareafleshy,visceralandvisual
introductiontoBuddhisthells.TheyenhancetheintensityofBuddhisthellsbecause
theyarebasedontheperceptionthattheseimagesaregoingtocreateaspecialhellfor
theviewer.Theimagesareshockinglyviolentandgory,andtheologically,theyserveto
bothscaretheviewerintogoodactionandavoidanceofbadactionsandtherefore
becomememorable.Traditionally“it[was]hopedthattheseluriddescriptionswould
serveasencouragementforbeingstotraversetheproperpathofconduct,escapingthe
devastationdepictedinthehells.”1Furthermore,“these[hellimagery]scrollshintatthe
usageofhellimagerywithinapublicsphere.Monkswouldedifylaitywithvisionsofthe
tormentsofhellthatawaitedthem[…].”2Partofancientteachings,theimagesIusein
thisprojectarenotonlysupposedtoshowthenon‐BuddhistreaderwhatBuddhisthell
reallylookslike,butalsotoemphasizeitsintensityandtoserveasadidactictool.
1Prebish,CharlesS.HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism.TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993.p.1372Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.EncyclopediaofBuddhism:VolumeOneA‐L.MacMillanReference,p.318
2
ImageshelptoorientthediversityofBuddhistdepictionsofhells.Theyvisually
representtheBuddhistfearsandtormentsinafuturelife.“TheBuddhisthellisaplace
oftormentinwhichformersinsareexpiated,butitisonlyatemporarystateandmay
beimmediatelyfollowedbyre‐birthinoneofthehigherdevalokas.3”4Itisalsoargued
that“theoriginalfunctionofhellinBuddhismwastoillustratetheworkingsofkamma;5
thelaterBuddhisttraditions[…]largelybuiltonthesameprinciplesastheideasabout
hellinearlyBuddhism.”6Variousrealmsofhellaredescribedingreatdetail,eachwith
onespecificfeaturethatisuniquetoeveryindividualhell.Inthisdescriptionofhell,the
CrushingHellisillustratedindetail.Thestorytellshowandwhythesehellbeingsare
torturedinthewaytheyare:
TheCrushingHellInthishell,beingsbythemillionarethrownintovastmortarsofironthesizeofwholevalleys.ThehenchmenofYama7,theLordofDeath,raisetheirhugehammersofred‐hotmetal,asbigasMountMeru8,abovetheirheadsandpoundtheirvictimswiththem.Thesebeingsarecrushedtodeath,screamingandweepinginunimaginableagonyandterror.Asthehammersarelifted,theycomebacktolife,onlytosufferthesametormentsoverandoveragain. Sometimes,themountainsonbothsidesofthevalleyturnintotheheadsofstags,deer,goats,ramsandotheranimalsthatthehellbeingshavekilledintheirpastlives.Thebeastsbuttagainsteachotherwiththeirhorn‐tipsspewingfire,andinnumerablehellbeings,drawntherebythepoweroftheiractions,areallcrushedtodeath.Then,once
3devalokas–worldofthegods4PaliDictionaryp.260,citedfromLaw,B.C.HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective.p.955kamma–(Pali;Sanskrit:karma):literally,‘action’,thelawofthecauseandeffectofactions,accordingtowhichvirtuousdeedsresultinhappinessinthefutureandnon‐virtuousdeedsresultinsuffering(Lopez,Jr.,DonaldS,eds.BuddhistScriptures.PenguinClassics.2004).6Braarvig,Jens.Numen56:“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Brill2009.p.2817Yama–theLordofthedead8MountMeru–(Sanskrit):inBuddhistcosmology,[MountMeru]isthemountaininthecenteroftheuniverse.Godsinhabititssurfaceandsummit(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).InPaliliterature,nottheearth,butMountMeruisthesymbolofstability.
3
more,asthemountainsseparate,theyreviveonlytobecrushedagain. TwohundredhumanyearsareequivalentofonedayforthegodsoftheHeavenWithoutFighting.TwothousandyearsinthatrealmcorrespondtoonedayintheCrushingHell,andthebeingsinthathelllivetwothousandyears.9
Inmanyhellsthesufferersareexperiencingveryprecisepunishmentsthat
relatedirectlytotheevildeedstheyhavecommittedintheirpastlives.TheCrushing
Hellillustratesthiswiththeuseofanimalsaspunishers.Thisstoryencompassesall
aspectsofclearlyidentifyingBuddhisthell.Inthefirstsectionitdiscussesthe
physicalityandappearanceofhell.Eventhoughitdoesnotgivearoadmapofwhere
thishellcouldbelocated,itcanbeassumedthatitisaverylargeareasincethereneeds
tobespacefor“vastmortarsofironthesizeofwholevalleys.”Notonlyisitenormous,
butalsothenumberofhellbeingspunishedthere.Thepunishersaretheretoinflict
“agonyandterror”ontothehellbeingsinorderforthemtoremaininastateoffearat
alltimes.
Theotherbeingsresidinginthishellareanimalsthatwerepreviouslyabused
andusedbythehellbeings.Thehellbeings’karmicactionshaveledthemtothis
unfortunaterebirthinwhichtheyexperiencethepainstheyhavepreviouslycaused
others.InFigure2,animageofJapaneseBuddhisthell,thestampedeofanimals
tramplingoverthehellbeingsillustratestheintensity,dangerandvisualizationofthis
hell.Thecommunityofhellinhabitantsishereillustratedashellbeings,animalsand
henchmenofYama.Eventhoughnotallhellsincludeanimalsinthisparticularformas
primarypunishments,manyotherBuddhisthellsalsomentionanimalstearingathell9PatrulRinpoche.TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher.p.64
4
beingsaspartoftheirpunishment.Thefinalsectionofthishell‐storydiscussestime.
Insteadofdecidingafinitenumberofyearstodescribethishell,anumberofsimilesare
usedtoattempttodefinethisincalculablenumberofyears.
Contrastingtootherreligionsandexplanationsforabirthinhell,Buddhismdoes
notblamearebirthinhellononeindividual’sbadactions.Theconceptofselfin
Buddhismisverycomplex;hencetheselfisnotonlywhatisexperiencedinasingle
lifetime.Theexistenceisstretchedovermillionsofyears,variousbirthsincluded.The
selfiscomprisedofbirthsashumans,animals,godsandotherformsofexistence.Every
singlebadactioninanyoneofthoselivesaccumulatestoanall‐encompassingbad
karmicpotential.Asopposedtohumans,“animals,ghostsandhellbeingshavelittle
freedomforintentionalgoodorbadactions.”10Sincetheselifeformshaveverylittle
personalagency,accumulatinggoodkarmainoneofthelowerrealmsismuchmore
difficultthan,forexample,inahumanbirth.
10PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.41
5
11Figure2
11Figure2,http://bit.ly/ZBmrba,December2012
6
Inthefirstchapterofthisproject,IwillconsiderthewayBuddhistsunderstand
timeinhell.Thesinglelifetimethatisremembered,experiencedandoneismost
involvedin,isnotsoimportantonalargerscaleoftimeandthegreateruniverse.This
ideaemphasizestherelativityandbrevityofthehuman(oranimal)lifespanand
supportstheBuddhistviewofinfiniterebirthsandthereforeaninfiniteexistence.If
thereareaninfinitenumberofrebirthstoawaitandaninfinitenumberoflivestolive
whiletheuniversecollapsesandreconstructsitselfinnumerabletimes,onesinglelifein
helldoesnotseemassignificantandlongasitdoestoahuman.Viewinghellasa
temporarystatefurtherstheconceptofatransitoryexistenceineitherhell,human,
deva12,preta13oranimalrealms.Ifnorebirthisevereternal,thevisionofarebirthin
hellismoretolerablethanknowingthatoncereborninhell,thisstatewilllastforever.
InBuddhism,theaspectoftimeiscrucial,impermanencebeingoneofthemost
importantconceptsofthereligion.Impermanenceistheexplanationforwhynoone
willeverbetrulyhappyinsaṃsāra,andwhyashorthumanlifetimeisalmostnegligible
inrelationtothenumberofrebirthsexperienceduntilhopefullyonedayreaching
nirvāṇa.14Nothinginanyrealmofexistenceispermanent,andeventhehells
themselves,asthehell‐dwellers’existencesinthehells,areimpermanent.Asahuman
onearth,followingtheBuddhisttraditionsandconsciouslytakingcareoftheirgood
karma,theknowledgeofnothavingtospendeternityinhellismildlyreassuring.12deva–deity13preta–hungryghost14nirvāṇa–(Sanskrit;Pali:nibbana):literally‘blowingout’,thecessationofsufferingandhencethegoalofBuddhistpractice.ThenatureofnirvāṇaiswidelyinterpretedinBuddhistliterature,withdistinctionsbeingmadebetweenthevisionofnirvāṇathatdestroystheseedsoffuturerebirthandthefinalnirvāṇaenteredupondeath(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).
7
InmysecondchapterIwillconsiderwhereBuddhistslocatehell.InTibetan
BuddhismhellislocatedintheWheelofExistence,aphysicalrepresentationofsaṃsāra
heldupbyYama,theHenchmanofDeath.Here,hellisasimportantapartoflifein
saṃsāraasthehumanrealm.Viewinghellasmerelyanotherrealmofrebirthmakesit
seemlessunfairorunlikelytobereborninto.Therearemanydescriptionsand
interpretationsoftherealmofhell,mostverysimilarinthewaythehell‐dwellersare
beingpunished,butverydifferentintermsofthedescriptionofhell’slocation.Whereas
theNyingmaTibetantraditionexpressedbyPatrulRinpocheorganizesthehellsby
levelofintensityandevilkarmacommittedinapreviouslifeontopofeachotherlikea
building,othertraditionsdonotstructureitinthisway.Somedescriptionsdonotgive
anyguidelinesastowherethehellscouldbelocated.Thiscreatesaspaceinthemindof
thereader,allowingfortheindividual’simaginationtobethedesignerofwherehellis
takingplace.
EventhoughsomeBuddhisttraditionsteachthat“theprincipalHellsareeightin
number”andthatthereare“eighthothells[and]eightcoldhells,”15itisalsoargued
that“theoverallnumberofworldsystemsthatconstitutetheuniverseinitsentirety
cannotbespecified.”16Thinkingabouttheseindividualhellsindifferentlocations
broadenstheperspectiveonhellsingeneral.Sinceoneisnotboundtoimagineone
singlelocationunderneaththeearthasapossiblelocationbutratherhavetheentire
universetoplacethemmakesitmoredifficulttorealisticallyimagine.This,inturn,
allowsthetextstobetheprimaryagentincreatingthisimaginaryworldforthereader.
15B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.9416Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.184
8
Thevaguenessofpossiblelocationsinseparateuniversesisparalleledbyaveryclear
andorganizeddescriptionofwhatandhowthehellsareorganized.
Buddhistsbelievethattheuniverseconsistsofmanyspheres,eachofwhichhas
itsownearth,sun,moon,heavensandhells.Eachofthesespheresismadeupof
multiplerealmsofexistence.ConsideringthatinBuddhism,hellisnotafixedlocation
butfairlyfreeinitsmanifestationandlocationallowsforagreaterrangeofplacesand
individualuniversestobereborninto.Interestingly,“theuniversehasnospecific
creator;thesufficientcauseforitsexistenceistobefoundintheBuddhistcycleof
casualconditioningknownaspratityasamutpada(dependentorigination).”17
AnalyzingaspaceandplacesuchasBuddhisthellallowsforvarious
interpretationsfromanacademicperspective.Buddhisthell’sviewontime,location
anditscommunityissupportedbyimagesfromvariousBuddhisttraditionsacrossAsia.
Posingthepossibilityofhellonlyexistinginthemindinsteadofinaphysicallocation
alsoopensuppossibilitiesofinterpretingtheentireconceptofhellasmetaphorical.
Thesinsonehascommittedinthislifetimemaynotbetheonlycauseforone’srebirth
inhell.Accumulatedkarmaoverinnumerablebirthsalladdupuntilthekarmic
potentialhasreachedapointinwhicharebirthinhellisjustified.Ifoneselfisnotthe
onlycausefortherebirthinhell,whythen,musttheBuddhistsufferthepunishmentfor
“otherpeople’s”badactions?Buddhistsarguethat“everygod,humanbeing,animal,
restlessghostorhabitantofhellhasbeenborninexactlythatstatebecauseofhisorher
earlieractions,andnotbecausetheyarepunishedorrewardedbyagodordivine
17Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.183
9
being.”18Thismeansthatpreviouslivesareequallyasimportanttothecurrentlifeas
theactualcurrentlife.Oneshouldnotseparatepreviousbirthsfromnow,butview
themallasoneentity.
Understandingthatthislifetimeinhellisequallypartofexistenceinsaṃsāraas
thelifetimeasahumantakesalotofthefearawayandallowsforacceptanceoflifein
saṃsāra.Ratherthanscaringpeopleintogoodbehavior,goodbehaviorisencouraged
byreapingtherewardsofgoodkarma,namelyapositiverebirth.EvenifBuddhistsdo
goodthingsalltheirlife,theywillstillbereborninhelleventually.Noonecanescape
saṃsāra;hencenoonecanescapehell.Even“theBuddhasaysthattobelieveinthese
[karmic]principles,andsoliveamorallife,willleadtoagoodrebirth.”19This
encouragement,evenifitdoesnotguaranteeexclusionfromhell,doesgivelighttoa
positivefuture.Eventhemostmeritoriouspeoplewillexperienceabirthinhell;
thereforebeinggoodcannoteliminatethis,butitwilllessenitsintensity.Goodpeople
willbenefitfromthereapingoftheirgoodkarmabecauseawholelifeleadwithpositive
energyandgoodactionswillhavepositiveresults.Therefore,evenifreborninhell,it
willnot,forexample,beintoAvīci.20Thoughseverityanddurationofsufferingvaries
witheachreincarnation,thehellcycleeventuallyends,bringingtheindividualcloserto
attainingenlightenment.
18Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25519PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.4420Avīci–worstofallBuddhisthells;laterdiscussedinmoredetail.
10
Chapter 1
Time
Measurable Eternity
Buddhistconceptionsoftimeareabstractandfrequentlyimmeasurable.
Mindfulnessteachestopayattentiontothemoment,andnotonlymeasuretimein
minutesanddays.Differentfromtimemeasurementinothertraditions,thenumbers
usedtodescribedistanceandtimeintheBuddhistsūtras21andcommentariesare
imaginarynumbersusedonlytodescriberhetoricallyverylongduration,andnottobe
takenasaccuratenumbers.Furthermore,Buddhistthoughtaboutlifecontinuesfar
beyonddeath.Insteadofbeingboundeternallytoeitherheavenorhellafterdeath,one
simplyreenterstherealmofexistenceforever,oruntilnirvāṇaisreached.“Allbeings
arecontinuallyreborninthevariousrealmsinaccordancewiththeirpastkarma;the
onlyescapefromthisendlessroundofrebirth,[…]saṃsāra,istheknowledgethat
constitutestheattainmentofnirvāṇa.”22
Theimmediacythatisemphasizedwiththebrevityofhumanlifeisthatafter
onehassufferedforkalpas23oraeons24inhell,onehasthepossibility,eventhoughnot
theguarantee,toimmediatelyberebornintoahigherrealm.Rebirthinahigherrealm,21sūtra–(Sanskrit;Pali:sutta):literally,‘aphorism’,adiscoursetraditionallyregardedashavingbeenspokenbytheBuddhaorspokenwithhissanction(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).22Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18323kalpa–measureforaperiodoftime24aeon–extremelylongtimeperiod
11
thatofthegodsorofhumans,showsthatone’skarmicpotentialhasbeensubstantially
lessenedafterthetimesufferedinhell.Thepossibilitiesofsuchanimprovementin
rebirth,fromhell‐dwellertohuman,couldbeworththetimespentinhell.Realizingthe
rarityandunlikelihoodoftheprivilegeofbeingbornasahumanemphasizesthatthis
opportunityissupposedtobeusedtodogoodinthislife,andintentionallynourish
goodkarma.Understandinghowuniqueitistobeborninthehumanrealmisenhanced
bytheextremetimeperiodswithwhichtheotherrealmsaredescribed.Thehuman
birthisofmostimportancebecauseitistheonlystateinwhichnirvāṇacanbeattained.
Besidestheincalculableyearsspentinhell,anotherreasonwhyhellissohorrific
isthateverythinghappensonarepetitivebasis.Everypunishmentisshortinitself,but
itwill,however,berepeatedwithimmediacyforwhatseemslikeaneternityinhuman
perspective.Thisconceptofrepetitionisusedasapunishmentinitself.Sincethehell
beingsareawarewhatawaitsthemassoonastheyareslicedapart,skinnedoreaten
alive,thiscausesadifferenttypeofpainandanxietyincontrasttohavingdifferent
tormentsinflictedonthemcontinuouslywithoutwarning.Repetitionisacentralaspect
ofthepunishmentsinhell.Thebeingsrebornintheirspecifichellshavebeenreborn
thereforactionstheyhavecommittedinthepast.Thepunishmentsarealsospecificto
eachhell,andbeingsarecondemnedtosufferintheirhelluntiltheirnextrebirth.
Spendinganimmeasurabletimesufferingthesametorturesonlyintensifiestheir
punishmentsbecausetheyhaveabsolutelynootheroption.
Thecreaturesdwellinginhellarenevercompletelydestroyed.Theyaremerely
murderedandtorturedinawaythatallowsthemtoreviveagain,withoutactually
beingreincarnated.Thetotaldestructionofthehell‐dwellerswouldbepointlesssince
12
thatwouldmeantheycouldberebornintoadifferentrealmwithoutcompletingtheir
accruedtimeinhellanderadicatingtheirevilkarma.Therefore,thereis“nototal
destructionoftheinhabitantsofhell.”25Framinghell‐dwellersasinhabitantsand
statingthattheymayneverbetotallydestroyedsuggeststhatthereisaforceorsome
sortofpowerthathascontrolandthatoverseesthisprocessofdestruction.In
Buddhism,thereisacosmicorderinwhichalluniversessymbioticallycoexist,
thereforethewaysinwhichhellworksisanaturalpartofthisexistencethatdoesnot
needasingledecidingforce,whicheliminatestheneedforoneallencompassing,
almightyGod.“Buddhismseesnoneedforacreatoroftheworld,asitpostulatesno
ultimatebeginningtotheworld,andregardsitassustainedbynaturallaws,”26thereis
nootherforcebutkarmatogovernallknownandunknownuniverses.Interestingly
andquiteoppositetoallotherreligions,“iftherewereacreatoroftheworld,hewould
beregardedasresponsibleforthesufferingwhichisfoundthroughoutit.”27
DepictedinFigure3isaTibetanthanka28oftheWheelofExistence,allformsof
existencearerepresentedhere.Thethankaisadetailedpaintingonfabricinwhichall
stagesofexistencearedepicted.Yama,atthetopofthewheel,istheHenchmanof
Death.Heholdsthewheeloflifeinhisarms.Thenever‐endingcycleoflifeandrebirth
isdepictedhere.Thecapturedhellbeingscannotescapethiscycleunlesstheyreach
enlightenment,andthereforeentertheeternalnirvāṇa.“Onsomeaccountsthewheel
representsamirrorheldupbyYamatoadyingpersonandrevealingthevarious
25Law,B.C.HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective.Delhi.p.10226PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3627Jat.v.238,citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3628thanka–TibetanBuddhistreligiouspaintingonascroll
13
possibilitiesforthenextrebirthopentothem.”29EverysectionofYama’scircleisa
differentrealmofrebirth.Hellisthebottom‐mostsection,equallyapartofthecycleas
humans,animals,devasandpretas.Describingtheimage:
Inthecirculardiagramofthebhavacakra,30[…]therearethreerealmsbelowthelineandthreeabove.Thissimpledivisionreflectsaqualitativedifferenceinthatthethreerealmsbelowthemiddleline(hell,theghosts,andanimals)areparticularlyunfortunateplacestobereborn,whilethoseabovetheline(heaven,asuras,31andthehumanworld)aremorepleasant.32
TheWheelofExistencedepictsallofthelifeformsthatcanbeattained.Thehell
realmsarelocatedinsidethewheel,butstillatthebottom.However,eventhoughthey
arethelowestrealm,theyarenotseparatedfromotherrealms.Amidsthungryghosts
andanimals,hellbeingsarepartofthecirclethatrevolvesendlessly.Continuously
circlingaroundintheWheelofExistencebeingsmigratefromonestateofexistenceto
thenext.
Hellbeings,hungryghosts,animals,men,anti‐gods,andsixclassesofgodsdwellinthefirstrealm(desire).Inthesecondrealm(forms)dwellgodswhohavepracticedcertaindhyānas33ormeditations.Inthefinalrealm(formless)dwellthosebeingswhohaveattainedthefourstagesofformlessness.34
29Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24730bhavacakra–symbolicrepresentationofsaṃsāra 31asura–anti‐god,demon32Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24733dhyāna–meditativeabsorption;steady,mindfulconcentrationinasinglephysicalsensationormentalnotion.Sometimesusedtodenotemeditationingeneral,ratherthanspecificstatesofabsorption(Robinson,RichardH.andJohnson,WillardL.TheBuddhistReligion.WadsworthPublishingCompany).34Prebish,CharlesS.,HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993,p.97
14
35Figure3
35Figure3.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.Rubin
15
36Figure4
36Figure4.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
16
“Attheverycenterofthewheelareshownthreeanimals(seeFigure4):acock,a
pigandasnake,whichrepresentthe‘threepoisons’ofgreed(raga),hatred(dveṣa)and
delusion(moha).Itistheseforcesthatcreatebadkarmaandfueltheendlesscycleof
rebirth.”37Theuseoftheseanimalsandattributestoillustratetheuniverse’sbad
karmicpossibilitiesshowshowimportantthesethreeconceptsareinBuddhistthought
andpractice.Definingallfuelforthecycleofrebirthwithgreed,hatredanddelusionis
supposedtoilluminateaboutthecourseofnatureandhowlivingbeingsfunction,
whetherhumanornot.
Thecirclesurroundingthethreecenteranimalsdepictsthenever‐endingcycle
ofrebirthsandconstantfluctuationbetweenpositiveandnegativereincarnations.
Alwaysinfluxfromupwardtodownwardandviceversa,reincarnationsoccurbasedon
theindividual’skarmicpotentialandwhereinthecycleofrebirththeyarecurrently
located.Theonlyescapefromthis“endlessroundisthedirectunderstandingofthe
FourNobleTruths38–suffering,itscause,andthepathleadingtoitscessation–andthe
attainmentofnirvāṇa.”39Otherlifeformsbesideshumanandanimalincludethepreta,
godandasura.Theseotherlifeformsarealldescribedinparticularways.Furthermore,
allrealmsofexistencehaveverydistinctrestrictions:
Someoftherealms[ofexistence]arevisibletoushereandnow,whileothersarenot.Theoneswecanseearethehumanandanimalrealms,andtheoneswecannotseearethoseofthegods,theTitansorasuras,andhell.Ontheborderlineistherealmoftheghosts,beingswhohoveron the fringes of the humanworld andwho are occasionally caughtsightofastheyflitbetweentheshadows.40
37Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24738FourNobleTruths–consideredthemainteachingsoftheBuddhisttraditions.TheFourNobleTruthsareduḥkha,realizingthecauseofduḥkha(attachment),endingduḥkha(practicingnon‐attachment)andthepathtoendingduḥkha(learningthepracticeofnon‐attachment)39Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18640Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p246
17
Theasurasareusuallydescribedasjealousgods,andthepretasashungry
ghosts.Therebirthasapretaisdescribedlikethis:“[One]willbebornasawandering
hungryghostandafterathousandkalpasbecomeananimal.Afterathousandkalpas
morehewillagainbecomeaman.”41Therebirthisduetoevilkarmicpotentialand
shouldsufficeasapunishment.Abirthintherealmsofthehungryghostscanbe
anything,suchasabeingwithamouthassmallasaneedletipbutastomachaslargeas
awholecountry,orathirstybeingdamnedtowanderingtheearthwithoutevereven
hearingthementionofwater.42Afterlivingasahungryghostforathousandkalpas,
whichisaslongasittakesfortheuniversetocollapseandreformitselfmultipletimes,
animmeasurableamountoftimeinhumanyears,thebeingwillthenbereborninthe
animalrealm.Thatmanyyearsandlifetimesinalowerrealmofthehungryghostsand
animalrealmissupposedtolessentheevilkarmathathadbeenaccumulatedover
thousandsofbirthsinthepastwhichcanthenfinallyleadtoarebirthasahuman.
InFigure5thepretarealmshowsthehungryghostsatthebottom,entangledin
fireandexperiencingduḥkha,movingwithdis‐ease.Intheverycenterofthisdetaila
hungryghostisshownwithflaringarms,hopelesslywanderinghisrealm.Thehuge
stomachsandtinythroatsofthehungryghostsaretheirpunishmentforgluttonyand
greedinpreviousbirths.Theregularlifetimeofahungryghostcouldlastthousandsof
kalpas.Oncebornapretaoranimalitismoredifficulttoascendtoahumanrealmbirth.
Arebirthintheserealmscanleadtoinnumerablefurtherrebirthsintheserealmsas
well,withoutleavingorenteringotherrealmsofrebirth.Sincekarmaistheall‐ruling
41B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.10442PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.72
18
force,“everygod,humanbeing,animal,restlessghostorhabitantofhellhasbeenborn
inexactlythatstatebecauseofhisorherearlieractions,andnotbecausetheyare
punishedorrewardedbyagodordivinebeing.”43Sinceeachactioninanyprevious
liveshasaneffectonfuturerebirths,thecycleofrebirthiscategorizedsothat“bad
deedsmakeyouananimalorahungryghost,butareallybaddeedbringsyoutohell–
thesethreestatesarecalledbadstages(duggatti44).”45
43Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25544duggatti–unfortunateformofrebirth45Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256
19
46Figure5
46Figure5.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
20
InBuddhism,themostvalueandattentionisgenerallypaidtothehumanbirth.
BornasahumanisconsideredtobethemostfavorablerebirthamongstBuddhist.Even
thoughtherearemanyhardshipstoendureinthehumanbirth,itistheonlybirthin
whichenlightenmentandBuddhahood47canbeattained.Manytextsemphasizethe
rarityandimportanceofthehumanbirth.AsmostconceptsinBuddhismaredescribed
withsimiles,soisthehumanbirthanditsextremerarity:
Amanthrowsayokewithaholeinitintotheseaanditfloatseverywhere:itismoredifficultforabeingborninthelowerstatesofexistencetoattainhumanbirththanitisforablindturtlecomingtothesurfaceoftheoceaneveryhundredyearstoputitsneckthroughtheholeoftheyoke.48
Thehumanbirthisagoodrebirth,sinceitallowsforaccumulatingmeritand
givingofferings,learningthedharma49andbecomingpartofthesaṇgha.50Amonk’s
lifetimecanbeutilizedtocomeclosertoenlightenmentandeventuallyreachnirvāṇa,
asopposedtoalaypersonthatistryingtoavoidabadrebirth,suchasoneinthehells.
Thisconceptisillustratedinthefollowingexcerpt:
Inthehumanstateoneisable–thatis,ifonehearstheteachingsoftheBuddha–torealize,throughinsightandmeditation,thateverythingisimpermanentandselfless,emptyandbringsonlysuffering;then,onedoesnotseekrebirthagainneitherashumans,gods,orforthatsakeasanimalsorinhell,becausehavinggivenupattachmentstoaself,andthusanyattachmenttolifeinthefive[orsix]statesofexistence,insaṃsāra,onewillreachfinalextinctioninnibbana.51
47Buddhahood–attainmentofenlightenment,becomingaBuddha48Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.270,SNI.5.7‐849dharma–(Sanskrit;Pali:dhamma):althoughdifficulttotranslate,thetermhastwogeneralmeaningsinBuddhism.ThefirstistheteachingordoctrineoftheBuddha,bothasexpoundedandasmanifestedinpractice.Thesecond(intheplural),perhapsrenderedas‘phenomena’,referstothebasicconstituentsofmindandmatter(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).50sangha–(Sanskrit):literally,‘community’,atermmostcommonlyusedtorefertotheorderofBuddhistmonksandnuns,itcanbeusedmoregenerallyforanycommunityofBuddhists,includingfullyordainedmonks,fullyordainednuns,malenovices,femalenovices,laymenandlaywomen(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).51Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256
21
Thelifespansofhumansandgodsareverydifferent,andthatofhellbeingsis
oneofthelongestofthemall.Therelativitybetweenthebrevityofahumanlifein
comparisonbetweenthelifetimesspentinhellissurprising.Somuchbadkarmawas
accruedoverinnumerablelifetimesthatarebirthinhellwasjustifiedandaccountedfor
withpreviousbadactions.Realizingtherarityandslimprobabilityoftheprivilegeof
beingbornasahumanemphasizesthatthisopportunitytodogoodandnourishour
goodkarmamustbeused.Onceoneisananimal,itismoredifficulttoascendtoa
humanrealmbirth:“Thereiseveryreasontoavoidtheduggattis,astheyareextremely
hardtogetoutof:itisverydifficulttoagainattainhumanbirth–whichofcourseisa
greatprivilege,becauseyouthenmayreceivetheteachingoftheBuddhaandbe
liberatedfromthehorrorsofsaṃsāra.”52
Animalrebirth,however,isoneofthethreelessfavorablelifeforms.Since
animalsareunabletobenefitfromBuddhistteachingsorattainenlightenment,this
stateofexistenceisproblematic.Theanimalbirthisconsideredoneofthelowerbirths,
alongsidethehungryghostsandhell.Sinceanimalsaremainly“drivenbyinstinctsthey
cannotcontrol,andbeingwithoutalanguagecapableofconveyingthesubtletiesof
Buddhistteachings,animalscanonlyhopeforanexistencerelativelyfreefrompainand
tobeborninabetterconditioninthenextlife.”53
Thewayinwhichtheindividualrealmsofrebirtharedescribedanddepicted
encouragestheBuddhistobservertoconsiderpossibleoutcomesofhisorheractions.If
itisknownthatcertainbadactionswillinevitablyleadtoareincarnationinoneofthe52Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.27053Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.248
22
lowerrealms,themotivationistoavoidtheseactions.Eventhoughattainingnirvāṇa
withoutgoingthroughhellatsomepointisimpossible,themorepositiveactionsand
deedsonecanperform,themorelikelyonewillbetoamelioratefuturereincarnations.
Regardlessofwhichrebirthisattainedinanextlife,arebirthinhellwillalwaysbe
inevitable.
23
Units of Time
Buddhismunderstandstimeintermsofunits,someshort,somelong.54Eachof
theseunitsandmeasuresoftimeisnamedandhasmorethanonespecificdefinition,
dependingonwhatsourceoneconsults.Buddhisttextsdescribetheseunitsoftime
withextremelyvividsimiles.Here,asimilethatdescribesthelengthofanaeon:
SupposethereweretwentyKosalan55cartloadsofsesamumseedandattheendofeveryhundredyearsamanweretotakeoutaseed,justone;well,sooner[…]wouldthoseKosalancartloadsofsesamumseedbeusedupandexhaustedinthatway[beforeoneaeonconcludes]!56
Anotherexampleofasimiledescribinganequaltimeperiodisasfollows:
Supposetherewasagreatmountainofrock,sevenmilesacrossandsevenmileshigh,asolidmasswithoutanycracks.Attheendofeveryhundredyearsamanmightbrushitjustoncewithafinecloth.Thatgreatmountainofrockwoulddecayandcometoanendsoonerthantheaeon.Solongisanaeon.Andofaeonsofthislengthnotjustonehaspassed,notjustahundred,notjustathousand,notjustahundredthousand.57Thesesimilesareusedtoallowthereadertocomprehendthetimeperiods.The
largeunitsreferencedmostfrequentlyarethekalpaandthegreatkalpa.Thekalpaisa
unitoftimethatdescribestheamountoftimeittakestheuniversetodestroyand
rebuilditself.Thepreciselengthofakalpaisnotdefinedinyears.TheEncyclopediaof
Buddhismdescribesthekalpaas“thelengthoftimeittakesfortheuniverseto
completeonefullcycleofexpansionandcontraction[and]isknownasamahākalpa.58A
mahākalpaismadeupoffourintermediateaeonsconsistingoftheperiodof
54AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.9355Kosala–regioninancientIndia56SNI.15257SamyuttaNikāyaii,181‐18258mahākalpa–greataeon,greatkalpa
24
contraction,theperiodofexpansion,andtheperiodwhentheworldremainsexpanded.
Thelengthofagreataeonisnotspecifiedinhumanyearsbutonlybyreferenceto
similes.”59
Noneoftheseperiodsoftimearerealisticallyimaginablebyhumans.Thekalpa
servesmoreasanideaofanimmensespanoftimeratherthananexactnumberof
years.60Thekalpaisameasureoftimeusedtodescribehowlongsomethingwilltake,
howmuchtimesomeonehastospendinacertainplaceandtomeasurelongperiodsin
theuniverse.ThekalpaisnearlythelargestunitoftimeinBuddhistcosmology.The
onlyperiodlongerthanakalpaisagreatkalpa,whichdurationiseightykalpas.61Asis
traditionalforBuddhisttexts,thedurationofakalpaisdescribedwithasimileinorder
toallowpeopletovisualizethisunimaginableamountoftime:
[Akalpa]isatleastthetimerequiredtotakeawayallthemustardseedsstoredinacastleofonecubicyojana62ifonlyoneseedisremovedeveryhundredyears.Alternatively,itisatleastthetimetakentowearawayagreatrockofonecubicyojanabywipingitwithapieceofsoftcotton(karpasa)fromKāśī63onceeveryhundredyears.64Onlythroughvisualizationcanhumansattempttocomprehendtheseenormous
unitsoftime.Thesimilesthattrytogiveaspatialexplanationofthesetimeperiods
serveasavehicleforthedevoutBuddhistreadertoimaginetimedifferently.Itisalso
supposedtoputintorelationthehumanlifethatislimitedbyaveryshorttimein
comparisontoakalpa.Thereasonitisimportanttoembracethenotionoftimeisto
understandthelengthoftortureonewillendureinhell.59Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18560Ibid.p.18361AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.9562yojana–ameasureofdistanceandspace,inthisexampleitmeasures7.4cubickilometers 63Kāśī–cityinUttarPradesh,India64AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.96
25
Rebirth and Revival
InBuddhism,reincarnationandrevivalaretwoverydistinctconcepts.Whereas
arevivaltakesplacewithinhellandcanbeimmediate,rebirthtransportsoneoutofthe
currentbirth.Reincarnationfromhellcantakemillionsofyears.Thesameconception
oftimecanencompassthesetwovastlydifferentstagesofexistence:thetrillionsof
yearsinhellittakestoreachonesnextrebirth,orthesplitsecondittakesforarevival
inhell.Whileonecanspendakalpabeingtortured,itcantakeonlytheblinkofaneye
toberevivedandtorturedalloveragain.Theexperienceoftimeasrelativeinregardto
whatoneisexperiencinginthemomentisemphasized,sothatevensuchlargeperiods
oftormentcanbefelttopassquitequickly.
Humans,besidesanimals,havetheshortestofallrebirthspossibleinthe
Buddhistcosmos.Whereashumansandanimalsliverelativelyshortlives,various
realmsofexistence’slifespansarevastlydifferent.Thegods,forexample,canlivetens
ofthousandsofaeons.65Theyareintheirformforhundreds,thousands,oreven
millionsofhumanlifespans.Thelengthofarebirthisalsodeterminedbyone’skarmic
potential.Allactionshaveconsequences,and“itissaidthatactsofhatredandviolence
tendtoleadtorebirthinahell,actsboundupwithdelusionandconfusiontendtolead
torebirthasananimal,andactsofgreedtendtoleadtorebirthasaghost.”66Even
thoughallrebirthsaregovernedprimarilybykarma,theactualrebirthitselfalsohas
additionalaspectsofpositivityandnegativity.Theprimaryformofreincarnationis
determinedbykarma,butitdoesnotonlydictatewhichlifeformonewilltakeon,but65Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,USA,p.18566PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39
26
alsoinwhattypeofstandingthisindividualwillbe.Therefore,evenifone’skarmic
potentialwaspositiveenoughtoqualifyforahumanbirth,previousnegativeactions
andemotionscancauseunpleasantthingseveninthisbeneficialbirth.Karmacanbe
viewedasone’ssufferingasarewardincorrespondencewithone’spastactions.This
alsomeansthatnegativerewardscanalsohappeninareincarnation.Thisotheraspect
ofrebirthisthephysicalshapeonetakeson.Consideringthattheevilkarma
accumulatedis“notseriousenoughtoleadtoalowerrebirth,[it]affectsthenatureofa
humanrebirth:stinginessleadstobeingpoor,injuringbeingsleadstofrequentillness,
andangerleadstobeingugly.”67
Thereisnoonesinglepersondecidingaboutgoodandevilbesidestheforceof
karma.“IntheBuddhisthelloneisthuspunishedbytheevilactionsthemselves,notby
somesortofdivinejustice.”68Therefore,“goodandbadrebirthsarenot[…]seenas
‘rewards’and‘punishments’,butassimplythenaturalresultsofcertainkindsof
action.”69Thedifferentrealmsofrebirthcarrydifferingassociationswiththem.Every
individual’sdurationofhellcanbevastlydifferent.Thedurationoftimeonemust
spendinahelldependsonthespecifichell,whichinturndependsonthecauseofthe
punishment.Buddhisthellsaredividedintosuchavastarrayofdifferenthells,that
whereastheleasthorriblehellcanlastonlyafewmillionyears,theworst,Avīcicanlast
wholekalpas.Sincethepunishmentsareconstantlybeingrepeated,therevivalstateof
existenceseemsprolongedevenfurther.Thenever‐endingrevivalphaseofallthehell
realmscanonlybestoppedbythefinalrevival,reincarnation.Atthisstage,insteadof
67M.III.203‐6,citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3968Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25469PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39
27
simplybeingrevivedtosufferfurthermillionsofyears,thehellbeinghasburnedoffall
badkarmaandcanthereforebereincarnatedintoadifferentformofexistencefromthe
WheelofExistence.
Havingtoremaininacertainhelluntilatruedeath,orreincarnation,is
karmicallypossiblegiveslittlehopetotheindividualssufferingsincetheymaynever
knowwhenthispointhascome.Dyinginthiscasemeansattaininganewrebirth,outof
hell.Havingtoremaininhelluntilone’sbadkarmaisexhaustedmeansthatbeing
punishedbydemonsandhybridcreaturesinhellmakesupforbadkarma.Inwhatway,
however,doesbeingpunishedinhellmakeupforhavingcommitted,forexample,a
murdermanylifetimesago?Everybeinginhellhasacertainamountofevilkarmathat
needstobeburnedoffbeforeabetterrebirthcanbeattained.Onecanneverfully
detachoneselffrompreviousactions,since“allintentionalactions,goodorbad,matter;
fortheyleaveatraceonthepsychewhichwillleadtofutureresults.”70
Theconceptofexhaustingone’sevilkarmasupportstheideaofimpermanence:
ifonewasaserialkillerinapreviouslife,eventheirlifeinhellwillnotbeeternal,but
onlyaslongasitwilltaketomakeupfortheirevildeedsinthepastbyburningoffallof
theirevilkarma.Itallrevertsback,however,totheconceptofeveryindividualbeing
responsiblefortheirprevious,currentandfuturelifeforms.“Essentiallytheworldwe
liveinisourowncreation:wehavecreateditbyourownkarma,byourdeeds,words,
andthoughtsmotivatedeitherbygreed,hatred,anddelusionorbynonattachment,
friendliness,andwisdom.Thecosmosisthusareflectionofouractions,whicharein
70PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39
28
turntheproductsofourheartsandminds.”71Therefore,theevilactsonehas
committedinthislifetimemaynotbetheonlycauseforone’srebirthinhell.
Noonecanknowexactlyatwhatpointone’skarmicpotentialhasaccumulated
toapointinwhicharebirthinhellawaits.Unabletoknowhowmanypreviouslifetimes
onehashad,andhowbadone’skarmais,itisalsoimpossibletoknowone’sownmerit
levelwithanydegreeofcertainty.”72Anyfollowingbirthcouldbeabirthinhell.
Humansdonotknowwhenthetimeinhellistocome,butarealsoequallyunawareas
tohowlongonewillhavetoremainthere.Ifoneactioncausesanotherthen
theoretically,abadactioncausesanotherbadaction,andagoodoneanothergoodone.
“Allsufferingismerelytheresultofone’sownkarmaandrepresentitsreward.”73
Iftheoutcomeofkarmaisareward,thenarebirthinhellisarewardforbad
actions.Inthiscase,ifhellisviewedasareward,whyisitconsideredsuffering?Even
thoughthebeingsareexperiencinghorriblepainandtortureswhileinhell,inthebig
picturetheyareactuallybenefitingfromtheirtortures.Whiletheyaresufferinginone
ofthehellstheyareburningofftheirevilkarma,whichcanallowthemtohaveahigher
rebirthinanextlife.Withoutmakingupfortheirevildeeds,theywouldonlycontinue
toliveanincreasinglyworseninglife.Throughtheirpunishmentsinhelltheyare
eliminatingtheirpreviouslyaccruedkarmaandallowingfornew,goodkarmatobe
accumulated.Therefore,hellbeingsareactuallyexperiencingapositiverebirthby
spendingmillenniainhell.Spendingtheirinevitableamountoftimeinhellistheonly
waytheywillbeabletoachievehigherrebirthsinthefuture.Withouttheirtimespent
71SamyuttaNikāyaI,6272PennyvanEsterik,“InterpretingaCosmology:GuardianSpiritsinThaiBuddhism”,Anthropos1982,p.1273DaiganandAliciaMatsunaga,TheBuddhistConceptofHell,PhilosophicalLibraryNY,p.79
29
inhell,thisoptionwouldneverbeopentothemagain.Therefore,arebirthinhellis
actuallynotasnegativeasitmayseem.
30
Permanence and Impermanence
Everyindividualhellhasaspecificamountoftimethatthehellbeingsmust
sufferinit.Describedinhumanyears,god‐realmyearsandhell‐realmyears,every
deeperormoreintensehellhasalongerperiodofsuffering.Thetimesofsuffering
increaseexponentiallywitheachhelllastingincalculableyearslongerthanthe
previous.74Tryingtocalculateevenonlythefirsthell,theRevivingHell,withtheleast
timeofsufferingaddeduptoanumberthatthecalculatorcouldbarelydisplay(exactly
1,642,500,000,000humanyears).PatrulRinpochealsodescribesthelengthonemust
sufferinoneoftheworsehells,theHeatingHell,asfollows:
SixteenhundredhumanyearsequalonedayamongthegodsEnjoyingtheEmanationsofOthers.SixtythousandyearsofthesegodscorrespondtoonedayintheHeatingHell,andbeingsstaytheresixthousandofthoseyears.75Theseimmensetimeperiodsarecompletelyunimaginablerealistically
byanyhuman.Insteadoftakenliterally,theyservemoreasplaceholderfor
eternity.However,sinceBuddhistteachingsheavilyrelyontheconceptof
anitya,orimpermanence,nothingcanbecategorizedasfinite.Thetimespans
describedwiththesecomplexcalculationsaresupposedtogivethesenseof
eternity,whilestillhavingthedefiniteofaninevitableendtoabsolutely
everything.
Anitya,orimpermanence,isoneofthemostimportantconceptsofthereligious
Buddhistteachings.Anityaistheexplanationforwhyonewillneverbetrulyhappyin
74PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofMyPerfectTeacher,p.6575Ibid,p.65
31
saṃsāra,andwhyahumanlifetimeisconsideredsoshortinrelationtothenumberof
rebirthsonewillexperienceuntilhopefullyreachingnirvāṇa.“Sinceonlynibbana76is
permanentandallelsetransient,theunskilledbeingswhohavebeenswallowedbythe
earthwillonedayescapefromAvīci–apurgatoryandnotaneverlastinghell.”77
Nothinginanyrealmofexistenceispermanent,andeventhehellsthemselvesandthe
hell‐dwellersexistence,areimpermanent.Viewinghellasatemporarystate
strengthenstheconceptofephemeralexistence,whetherinhell,human,deva,pretaor
animalrealm.Furthermore,since“inBuddhistrationality,hellsofmanytypes[…]are
anintegralpartof,andorganicallyconnectedto,thedoctrineofkarmaand
reincarnation”78impermanenceisonlyhighlightedbytheever‐changingreincarnation
eachbeingwilllivethrough.
InBuddhistthought,asinglehumanlifetimeisnotassignificantinrelationto
timeasitseemsinthepresentbirth,especiallyinrelationtoalltheextensivetimeof
ourpreviousandnextlivescombined.InaBuddhistmindsetthecurrentlifetimeisa
merefleetingmomentthatwillnotberememberedinthefuture.Infact,itisonlyan
insignificantinstantintheinnumerablerebirthswelivethrough.Eventhoughinthe
momentone’slifeiseverythingonehas,Buddhistsbelievethatthereismoreto
existencethanjustthisonelifethatisremembered.Furthermore,sincethetime
humansspendonearthissoshortthegoalistodoasmuchgoodaspossibleinthis
limitedtime.Andthesegoodactionswillhopefullyleadtoabetterrebirthinthefuture.
TheBuddhistviewofinfiniterebirths,andthereforeaninfiniteexistence,makes
76nibbana=nirvāṇa77I.B.Horner,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae.Supplementum,Vol.23(1966),p.15878Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256
32
individuallifetimespracticallyinsignificant.Ifthereareaninfinitenumberofrebirths
toawaitandaninfinitenumberoflivestolivewhiletheuniversecollapsesand
reconstructsitselfinnumerabletimes,onesinglelifeinhellisneitherasimportantnor
aslongasitseemstoahumanthinkingabouthisorherlifespan.Viewinglifeasamere
instanceonatimeframeofmillionsandmillionsofyears,lessthanonehundredyears
doesnothaveanymajorsignificance.
Withoutunderstandingtheimportanceoftime,onecannotunderstandwhatit
reallymeanstobebornintoahell.Onemustacceptthattheexperienceofthisrebirth
willonlybetemporary,eventhoughitmightseemlikeeternity.Inregardto
permanenceversusimpermanence,eveninaverylocalizedThaiTheravadatraditionit
isconsideredthat“sinceevenlowlevelthewada79livefortheequivalentofmillionsof
years,itisnotsurprisingthatthesespiritsareconsideredpermanent.”80Asanexample
oftimepassinginhell,thisexcerptillustratesthepassageoftime:“formanyyears,for
manyahundred,formanyathousand,manyahundredthousandyearshesuffered[or:
iscooked]inPurgatory[or:hell…].”81
79thewada–ThaiBuddhistdeity80PennyvanEsterik,“InterpretingaCosmology:GuardianSpiritsinThaiBuddhism”,Anthropos1982,p.781stockphrasepassiminKN,MN,SN,andVin
33
Hellish Characteristics: Repetition
EverythinginBuddhisthellshappensonarepetitivebasis.Escapeisimpossible
andtheonlyoptionistoremainthereuntilreleased.Therepetitionthatoccurswithin
hellismanifestedthroughtheindividualpunishmentsofthehellbeings.Theexecution
ofthesetorturesisalwaysthesame,meaningthatoncerebornintoaspecifichell,this
hellhasonepunishmentthatwillalwaysstaythesame.Punishmentsaredesigned
specificallyfortheindividualandthebadkarmatheyharvestedovertheirlifetimes.
Sinceallkarmathathasbeenaccumulatedisascribedtoonlyoneindividual,“ifyouare
here[inhell],youareguiltyandyouhavesetinmotiontheinstrumentsofyourown
torture.”82Oncebornintohellthehellbeingsareboundtoexperiencesuffering,andthe
“beingsinthelowesthellrealmsexperiencevirtuallycontinuouspainandsuffering
untiltheresultsoftheiractionsthatbroughtthemthereareexhausted.”83
Thispunishmentwilllastformillenniawithoutintervalandisintendedtogive
theevildoeranappropriateretribution.One’sentiretimespentinhellisspentinthe
sameplace,withthesametortures.Oncerebornintoaspecifichell,thehellbeingis
trappedinthisonespacefortheremainderoftheirunfortunaterebirth.Eventhough
punishmentsareshortinthemselves,theyarerepeatedwithimmediacyforwhat
seemslikeaneternityinhumanperspective.Throughtheuseofthisseeminglyendless
repetitionofthesamepunishmentthehellbeingsareexposedtotheirevildeeds,only
exponentiallyintensified.
82CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.12183Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.185
34
Ifhellisapunishment,theconceptofrepetitionisusedasatorture.Being
torturedbyvariousanimalsanddemonsishorribleenough,butsincethepunishments
inhellareextremelysimpleandalwaysstaythesame,theagonythehellbeings
experienceinthemomentisevenworse.Thesameshortwhiledtortureisrepeated
innumerabletimesinidenticalorderandlength.Thesimplicityofthetorturesalso
variesfromhelltohell.Insomepartsofhellthehellbeingsareslicedapartwithsaws
onlytobesealedtogetheragain,tobeslicedapartagain.ThisisanexampleoftheBlack
LineHell:
TheBlackLineHellHereYama’shenchmenlaytheirvictimsoutonthegroundofburningmetallikesomanyfirebrandsandcross‐ruletheirbodieswithblacklines–four,eight,sixteen,thirty‐twoandsoon–whichtheyuseasguidelinestocutthemupwithburningsaws.Nosoonerhavetheirbodiesbeencutintopiecesthantheyimmediatelycomewholeoncemore,onlytobehackedapartoverandoveragain84
Inotherlocationsanimalstearattheirvitalorgansuntiltheydieinagony,then
beingrevivedinstantlytorepeatthisexperience.Theseshort‐livedtorturesare
simplisticandveryeasytovisualize.Everyinstanceinhellisdescribedindetailand
withsoundeffects:
Ai!Thecriminalsinthishellhaveallhadtheireyesdugoutandthefreshbloodflows[fromthem],andeachofthemcriesout,theirtwohandspressingtheirbloodyeye‐sockets–trulypitiful!Totheleftamiddle‐agedpersonisjusthavinganeyepulledoutbyoneoftheshades;hestrugglesunceasingly,screaming;hislefteyehasalreadybeenextracted[…].85
84PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.6485RecordofAJourneytoHell[Tiyuyuchi]pp.56)fromCharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111
35
Thisexcerptdescribesinmuchdetailthetortureshellbeingsmustsufferinthis
hell.Rapidlymovingfromonedescriptiontothenext,thisshortpassageisfilledwith
gruesomeimagesthatmaybringpainandshiversuponthereader.Figure6depictsa
similarsceneasdescribedintheChineseexcerpt,originates,however,fromaJapanese
image.Thefactthattorturesandpunishmentsweresosimilarevenacrossmany
differenttraditionsandcountriessupportsthenotionofBuddhistteachingsabouthell
beinguniversallysimilarintheirmethods.
36
86Figure6
86Figure6.http://bit.ly/14U3CJ1.February2013
37
The Hell of Never Ending Torment - Avīci
Avīciisdescribedasfollows:“evenbonesmelttherebecauseoftheheatof
terriblefire;sincethereisnointermissionforcomfort,itisconsideredas‘Avīci’–the
HellwithoutIntermission.”87Thisconceptoftorturewithoutintermissionispresentin
allBuddhisthells,inAvīci,however,itisemphasizedandevenmoregruesome.Since
partoftheindividual’spunishmentistoexperiencetheirownevildoings,theyare
constantlyexposedtoonlyoneformoftorture.Avīciisthehellthatliesdeepestwithin
allimagination,encompassestheworstpunishmentsandthatlaststhelongest.Avīciis
alsocalledthehellwithoutintermissionandsometimesdescribedasahellwith
multiplestages.Thehellbeingsmovefromonehelltothenext,eachinflictingthem
withdifferentpunishments.Avīciistheonlyhellthathasavarietyofpunishments,
whichbreaksthecycleofrepetitionbeforerebirth.
Eventhoughthehellbeingsdoexperiencedifferenttortures,eachindividual
punishmentisinturnenduredforaslongastheprevioushellslast.Therefore,thehell
beingsarestillsubjecttotherepetitionofeachpunishmentforanimmeasurable
amountoftime.ThesepunishmentsceasewhentheymoveontothenextlevelofAvīci,
inwhichtheyaresubjecttothenextpunishment.“Avīci,thenethermostoftheeighthot
hells,isreservedforthemostevilbeingswhomustendureexcruciatingtormentsthere,
whichthoughnoteternalseemunendingastheylastformillionsofyears.”88Ina
ChineseBuddhisttradition,Avīciisdescribedasfollows:“AccordingtotheChinese
account,thelowesthellistheWou‐kan,thehellwithoutinterval(Avīci)i.e.without87DonaldLopezJr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinBooks88Keown,Damien,ADictionaryofBuddhism,OxfordUniversityPress,p.243
38
intervalofrespite,aplaceofincessanttorment.”89AllofthesedescriptionsofAvīci
concludethatitistheworsthellofall,andthatalltorturesareinflicteduponthehell
beingswithoutinterval.
ThisBuddhisthelltricksitsinhabitantsbymakingthemthinktheirpunishment
willfinallychange.Avīci,beingthemostgruesomeofallhells,alsodeceivesthemby
changingtheirrepetitivepunishments.Eveninthechange,however,thepunishments
theydoreceiveareincessant.ThefollowingstorydescribestheNeighboringHells.
ThesehellssurroundAvīciinalldirectionsandarethefinalstagesofthishell,serving
astheultimateandfinalpunishment.
TheNeighboringHells
AroundtheHellofUltimateTorment,ineachofthefourcardinaldirections,thereisaditchofflamingembers,amarshofrottingcorpses,aplainofbristlingweaponsandaforestoftreeswithrazor‐edgedleaves.Thereisoneofeachinthenorth,south,eastandwest,makingsixteeninall.Ineachoftheintermediatedirections–thesoutheast,southwest,northwestandnortheast–standsahillofironshalmali90trees.
DescribingthesurroundingsofAvīci,thereisamultitudeofgruesomeandgross
prospectsineverydirectionimaginable.Thisencompassingofalldirectionsorescape
routesmakestheprospectofleavingAvīciseemeversomuchmoredifficultand
impossible.Exponentiallyincreasinginnumber,thesesub‐hellssurroundingthehellof
ultimatetormentmakeAvīcinotonlymoreterrifyingduetosheersizeandtimespent
there,butalsobecauseitseemsnever‐ending.Thisintroductionleadsintodetailed
examplesoffiveofthesixteenNeighboringHells:
89B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.9490shalmalitree–silkcottontree,alsousedasanayurvedicherb
39
Thepitofhotembers.WhenbeingshavepurgedmostoftheeffectsofactionsconnectedwiththeHellofUltimateTorment(Avīci)andemergefromit,theysee,farawayinthedistance,whatlookslikeashadytrench.Theyleapintoitwithdelight,onlytofindthemselvessinkingdownintoapitofblazingemberswhichburntheirfleshandbones.
DeceivingthehellbeingsintothinkingtheirtormentsareoverisapartofAvīci.Thepit
ofhotembersisthefirstinstancethatreferenceshappinessinhell.Thehellbeings’
delightaboutsalvationintoashadytrenchsuggeststhattheymayexperiencefeelings
ofhappiness.Soonthereafter,however,thesehopesarecrushedagain.Insteadofrelief,
theyaretorturedrepeatedlytoexperiencetheintensesufferingoffleshandevenbones
burning.
Theswampofputrescentcorpses.Thentheyseeariver.Havingbeenroastedinabrazierforawholekalpa,theyaresothirstythatseeingwaterfillsthemwithjoyandtheyrushtowardsittoquenchtheirthirst.Butofcoursethereisnowater.Thereisnothingbutcorpses–corpsesofmen,corpsesofhorses,corpsesofdogs–alldecomposingandcrawlingwithinsectsastheydecompose,givingoffthefoulestofstenches.Theysinkintothismireuntiltheirheadsgounder,whilewormswithironbeaksdevourthem.
Thesecondtimethehellbeingsexperiencethoughtsofhappinessandtheprospectof
escapeisalsoeradicatedbyanothertorture.ThehopeoffinallyescapingAvīciendsin
yetanothersinkingofhope,andthesinkingofthehellbeings.Thegoryimagerycreated
inthisexcerptservestofrightenandscarethereadernotonlythroughtext,butalso
throughvisualization.Thesedescriptionsaimatcreatingavisceralexperienceand
perceptionofthesehells.Thewormswithironbeaksareanaddedtorture,increasing
thelevelofsufferingandpain.
Theplainofrazors.Whentheyemergefromthisswamp,theyarethrilledtoseeapleasantgreenplain.Butwhentheygettheretheyfind
40
thatitisbristlingwithweapons.Thewholegroundiscoveredwithslenderbladesofburninghotmetalgrowinglikegrass,whichpiercetheirfeetwitheachstep,thewoundshealingaseachfootisliftedagain.
Animportantpointtonoteisthateventhoughthehellbeingsthinktheirpredictedtime
inhellhaspast,inactuality,ithasnot.Therefore,eventhoughthehellbeingsthink
whatliesaheadofthemissalvation,inrealityitisamerecontinuationofhell.This
disappointmentofheadingtowardapositiveplaceaheadofthemisalsoapartofthe
punishmentthebeingsmustendure.Therepetitionofpunishmentisillustratedby‘the
woundshealingaseachfootisliftedagain’,whichshowstheincessantrepetitionof
painandtorment.
Theforestofswords.Onceagainfree,theyrejoicetoseeabeautifulforestandrushtowardsit.Butwhentheygetthere,thebeautifulforestturnsouttobeathicketwhosetreeshaveswordsgrowingontheirmetalbranchesinsteadofleaves.Astheystirinthewind,theswordscutthosebeings’bodiesintolittlepieces.Theirbodiesreconstitutethemselvesandarechoppedupoverandoveragain.
ThissectionfocusesevenmoreontherepetitivenatureofBuddhisthell,andhowone
simplepunishmentcanbesogruesomeandtorturous.Theimageofsomethingvery
familiar,atreeswayinginthewind,istakenoutofapeacefulcontextandreplacedwith
theagonizingpainofbeingslicedintolittlepieces.FortheBuddhistreaderthese
imagesarerelatablewhilestillservingasadidactictooltodeterfrombadbehavior.
Thehillofironshalmalitrees.Itisherethatloosemonksandnunswhohavebrokentheirvowsofchastityandpeoplewhogivethemselvesovertothefootoftheterrifyinghillofironshalmalitrees.Atthetoptheycanseetheirformerloverscallingthem.Astheyclimbeagerlyuptojointhem,alltheleavesoftheirontreespointdownwardandpiercetheirflesh.Whentheyreachthetop,theyfindravens,vultures,andthelikethatdigouttheireyestosuckupthefat.Againtheyseetheirfriendscallingthem,nowfromthefootofthehill.Downtheygo,and
41
theleavesturnupward,stabbingthemthroughthechestagainandagain.Oncetheygetdowntotheground,hideousmetallicmenandwomenembracethem,bitingofftheirheadsandchewingthemuntilthebrainstrickleoutofthecornersoftheirmouths.91
ThisparticularsectionoftheNeighboringHellsstrikesmeasthemostshocking,
disturbing,yetalsoveryimportant.Itreferstopunishmentduetounchastelybehavior,
somethingmostpeoplehaveengagedin.Sincethisbehaviorissocommon,itisavery
likelyfutureforthemajorityofpeople.InFigure7hellbeingsaredepictedclimbing
theserazorbladespeckledtreeswhilealsoharassedbyothercreatures.Creatinga
spaceinhellthatisdirectlyorientedtowardssuchcommonbadmeritsuggeststhat
everyonewillpassthroughthissectionofhelleventually.Theprospectofexperiencing
theseemotionsoflongingandthennotonlydisappointment,butthisextremeintensity
oftortureservestodeterpeoplefromfollowingthesedesiresintheircurrentlifetimes.
Itcanbearguedthattheprospectofatormentofthiscapacityinafollowing
reincarnationcouldhavebeenreasonenoughnottoengageinunchastebehavior.
91PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,pp.66‐67
42
92Figure792Figure7,http://bit.ly/13mIKJt,April2013
43
Thefinalsentencefromthispassage,“hideousmetallicmenandwomen
embracethem[thehellbeings],bitingofftheirheadsandchewingthemuntilthebrains
trickleoutofthecornersoftheirmouths”aimstocreateunparalleledimagesofterror
inthereader’simagination.Thefuturisticideaofmetallichumansisveryinteresting,
andtheimageoftheserobot‐likecreaturesdevouringsomeone’sbrainisanimagethat
stayswiththereader.Theseinsightsintohellmayhavebeenusedtocreateatypeof
cautioninthedevoutBuddhistreader.Iftheseimagesandtextswerewidely
understoodthroughteachings,theknowledgeofthesepunishmentsforcertainactions
coulddeterpeoplefromcommittingthem.
44
Chapter Two
Location
A Hell of a Location
Havingaplethoraofhellsalsogivesrisetothequestionofspaceandlocation.
Whereareallthesehellslocated?Thehell’slocationiseitherdescribedasbeingina
verylogicalandpreciseorder,orlikeabuilding,fromtoptobottom93orinacircle
surroundedbyYama94orscatteredinmultiplelocations.Theconceptofhellexisting
beloworinsideearthwhereitishotandfieryisreminiscentoftheearthopeningitself
toreceivehell‐dwellersfromabove.Thesepeople’skarmicpotentialwassobadthey
wereinstantlyreceivedintoAvīci.Itissaidthattheearthcannolongerbeartheweight
oftheevildeedsthesepeoplehavecommitted.Asinthisstory,
Thecompactearth,ghanapathavi,unabletosustainKingMahapatapa’s(Devadatta95)evilqualitiesofjealousyandanger,splitasunder,formedafissure.Aflameshootingup,utthāya,fromAvīci,wrappinghimaround[…]takinghim,plungedhim,khipi,intoAvīci.96
ThisstoryaboutDevadatta’sentranceintoAvīcishowshowhelldoesinsomecases
manifestitselfon,orin,earthitself.Insteadoflaterreincarnation,Davadattawas
93PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.6494N.W.Thomas,ABuddhistWheelofLifefromJapan,image95Devadatta–DevadattawasacousinoftheBuddhawhoenteredtheOrderandgainedsupernormalpowersofthemundaneplane(puthujjanaiddhi).Later,however,hebegantoharborthoughtsofjealousyandillwilltowardhiskinsman,theBuddha.(http://www.buddhanet.net/e‐learning/buddhism/bud_lt28.htm,April2013) 96Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,pp.157alsoJa.No.358,vol.iii,p.177ff
45
instantlywrappedupbyflamesandplungedintoAvīci.OtherstoriesaboutDevadatta
exist,describinghisplummetingintotheearth:
Devadattagotupandputbothfeetontheground:theyenteredtheearth,pathavimpavisimsu,tobefollowedinturnbyhisankles,knees,hips,breastandneck.Whenhisjaw‐bonewasrestingonthegroundhespokeastanzadeclaringthathetookRefugeintheBuddha.97[…]Foronlyifhediedasamonkcouldhe,whatevertheweightofhiskamma,havesomethingtohopeforafterhiseonsoftormentinAvīciwereover.ForheenteredtheearthandwasreborninAvīci,theGreatNiraya.98ThisstorypaintsapictureofDevadattaslowlysinkingintothebareearthasif
throughquicksand.Onlyinthelastmomentsofhisearthlyexistencedoeshetake
refugeintheBuddhatolessenhispunishmentevenifonlyslightly.Theplacehumans
dwellon,earth,isjustanotherpartoftheuniverse,oneofmanyregionsandrealmsin
space.Thiscorrelatesdirectlytotheideathathellbeingsinhabithell.99Settinghumans
andhellbeingsonasimilarlevelofinhabitingacertainspacemakesthemlessunique
andmoreamerepartofalargersystemofmultiplerealmsandmultiplespacesto
inhabit.
Theimageoftheearthsplittingopenandemittinghell‐firefromwithinthecore
isverypowerfulandmemorable:“Thegreatearth,splittingopenorburstingasunder,
bhijjitva,formedafissure,acleft,achasm,orgavenanopening,vivaramadasi.Aflame
shotup,utthahi,fromAvīciandshe(abrahman100girl)[…]wasrebornthere.”101The
97RefugeintheBuddha–totakerefugeintheBuddhameanstotakerefugeintheBuddha,thedharmaandthesangha.Thesethreearealsocalledthethreejewels.98Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,p.155,also(Ap.P.300;ApA.121ff.DhA.i.147ff)99B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.102100Brahman–theAbsolute,essenceoftheuniverse.Agod;inhabitantoftheheavensofformorformlessness.Astatetobeattainedthroughthepracticeofdhyānaandthedevelopmentofthefour“Brahmaviharas”(SublimeAttitudes):goodwill,compassion,appreciation,andequanimity(Robinson,RichardH.andJohnson,WillardL.TheBuddhistReligion.WadsworthPublishingCompany).
46
imageoftheearthsplittingopenandemittinghell‐firefromwithin,suckingtheevil‐
doerintothecorecreatesavisualexperienceforthereaderthatisterrifyingand
unforgettable.Theintensityoftheimageofbeingengulfedbytheearthforone’sbad
actionsissupposedtoactasameanstodeterpeoplefromcommittingbadactions.
Insteadofusingonlytypesofshockandfearinducingstoriesinordertodeterpeople
fromdoingbadthings,Buddhismalsohastheseveryvisualmeanstoencourage
accruinggoodmerit.
Earthisjustanotherpartoftheuniverse,oneofmanyregionsandrealmsin
space.Thereareexceptionstogodsordemi‐godslivingonearth,suchasHisHoliness
theDalaiLama,thereincarnationofthebodhisattva102ofcompassionthatlivesamongst
humans.Godsandotherbeingsarenotboundtoarebirthonearth,whereashumans
andanimalsare.Referringtotheearthas“theregioninhabitedbyman,”suggeststhat
thereareamultitudeofregions,notallinhabitedbymanoranimals.Interestingly,
“unliketheSouthAsianprototypes,Chinesehellsappeartobemodeledontheimperial
bureaucracyandadministeredbyahellishstaff(seeFigure8).The‘court’layoutoften
majorandnumeroussubsidiaryhellsmimicChinesepalaceandtemplearchitecture.”103
101Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,p.153,alsoDhA.Iii.178;theIntroductiontoJatakaNo.472102bodhisattva–afutureBuddha(Sanskrit;Pali:bodhisatta):abeingwhoistobecomeenlightened.Thesebeingshavetakenaspecialvowtocontinuebeingrebornintosaṃsāraratherthanenteringnirvāṇainordertohelpothersridthemselvesfromtheirsufferingbyaidingtheattainmentofenlightenment.103CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.112
47
104Figure8
104Figure8.http://bit.ly/10gvtdI.April2013
48
AnotherverydifferentideaisthatBuddhisthellsonlyexistinthemental
spheresofeveryindividual.ThisideaofBuddhisthellslocatedwithintheimagination
ofthehumanrealmcouldchangetheirperceptionofbeingphysicallyintegratedinto
theuniverse.Theideaofhellnotonlyexistingindifferentlocationsafterdeath,butalso
inthepresentstate,furtherallowspeopletoviewhelldifferently.Hellbeinga
constructionofthemindcouldmeanthatonecanenterbutalsoexithellinonesingle
lifetimeonearth.
FromthetimeofearliestBuddhism,rebirthwasseenbothasaprocesswhichtakesplaceafterdeath,andalsoasaprocesstakingplaceduringlife.Thatis,weareconstantlychangingduringlife,‘reborn’asa‘different’personaccordingtoourmood,thetaskweareinvolvedin,orthepeoplewearerelatingto.Dependingonhowweact,wemayexperience‘heavenly’or‘hellish’statesofmind.105Thisabilitytocreateanddestroythepersonalhellgivesimmensepowertothe
individual.Bybeingone’spersonalruler,punisherandpunished,hellcanlastaslongor
shortastheindividualchooses.Perceptionsofhellchangevastlyiftheyarenotuptoa
higherforce.InBuddhism,thisforceiskarma.Hell,governedbythemindofthe
individualratherthantheuniversalconceptofkarma,mayallowfortheeliminationof
theneedforendlessrebirthsandburningoffevilkarmainhell.DifferentBuddhist
traditions,suchasMahayana106andTheravada107,viewthisquestionofthelocationof
theactualhellverydifferently.Structurally,alltypesofhellarepossiblescenarios.Ifit
105PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.45106Mahayana–(Sanskrit):literally,‘greatvehicle’,atermusedbyproponentsofsūtrasthatbegantoappearsomefourcenturiesafterthedeathoftheBuddhaandwhichwereregardedbythemasthewordoftheBuddha.ThetermhascometomeanbyextensionthoseformsofBuddhism(todaylocatedforthemostpartinTibet,China,KoreaandJapan)thatbasetheirpracticeonthesūtras(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).107Theravada–(Pali):literally,‘SchooloftheElders’,abranchoftheIndianStharivaradaschoolthatwasestablishedinSriLankainthethirdcenturyBCE.IntheeleventhcenturyCEtheTheravadabecamethedominantformofBuddhisminSriLankaandSoutheastAsia(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)
49
isacceptedthatthehellscouldbelocatedanywhere,thenitmustalsobeacceptedthat
theycouldbelocatedinthemind.Somestatesofmindcanbeasabstractasthe
Mahayanatraditionbuddhafields108suchasthePureLand109BuddhistideaofthePure
Landthatmaypossiblyonlyexistintheindividual’simagination.
FromamorephysicalBuddhistview,itisunderstoodthat“theuniverseconsists
ofmanyworldearths,heavensandhells,andeachsystemorsphereisdividedinto
threeregions.”110Inmoredetail:
Inthetripartitemodel,thelowestandmostearthlyofthethreespheresisknownasthe‘sphereofsense‐desires’(kamavacara111),andincludesalloftherealmsuptothesixthheavenabovethehumanworld.Nextisthe‘sphereofpureform’(rupavacara112),ararefiedspiritualspaceinwhichthegodsperceiveandcommunicatebyakindoftelepathy.[…]Highestofallisthe‘sphereofformlessness’(arupavacara113),astatewithoutmaterialshapeofform(rupa114)inwhichbeingsexistaspurementalenergy.115
CentrallylocatedintheWheelofExistenceheldupbyYama,hellisasimportant
apartoflifeinsaṃsāraasthehumanrealm.SectionedandseparatedontheWheelof
Existence,allcyclesoflifeareconstantlyrepeated.Everysectionofthewheelis
devotedtoaformofrebirthintherealmsofsaṃsāra.Byplacingtherebirthinhellina
108buddhafield–aBuddha’ssphereofinfluence109PureLandBuddhism–alsoreferredtoasaBuddha‐field,thedomainthataBuddhacreatesasanidealsettingforthepracticeofthedharma.IntheMahayanathepurelandisconsideredaformofparadise(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).110B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.93111kamavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:kamadhatu):DesireRealm,thelowestofthethreerealms(theothersbeingtheFormRealmandtheFormlessRealm)inBuddhistcosmology,populated(inascendingorder)byhellbeings,ghosts,animals,humans,demigodsandgods.(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)112rupavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:rupadhatu):inBuddhistcosmologyarealmofheavensabovetheDesireRealmreservedforthosewhoattaincertainstatesofdeepconcentrationintheirpreviouslife(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).113arupavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:arupyadhatu):inBuddhistcosmology,thehighestrealmwithinthecycleofrebirthwherebeingsexistasdeepstatesofconcentration.LiketheFormRealm,itisreservedforthosewhoachievethosestatesintheirpreviouslife.(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)114rupa–materialform115Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.250
50
specificlocationontheWheelofExistence,onecanpictureit,andthroughitsmany
representationsinart,visualizesomeofwhatawaitsinafuturerebirth.“Theearliest
extantpictorialrepresentationofthewheelisatAjanta;116itwasdevelopedespecially
inTibetanBuddhistart,wherethewheelwasoftenconspicuouslypaintedinmonastery
vestibulesoronhangingscrollsusedformeditation.“117TheWheelrepresentsall
possiblelifeformsandvariousnaturalcyclesofreincarnation.“Asthewheelofsaṃsāra
movesaround,beingsmigratethroughthevariousdomainsinaccordancewiththeir
karma,orthegoodandevildeedscommittedineachrebirth.”118
Viewinghellasmerelyanotherrealmofrebirthratherthanaverydistantplace
unrelatedwiththecycleofrebirthmakesitseemlessunfairorunlikelytobereborn
into.Sinceitislocatedadjacenttoboththehumanandanimalrealms,onecanroughly
picturewhereitcouldbelocated.Interestingly,however,thisvisualizationinaphysical
orgeographicalsenseoflocationisnotsupposedtoimplythattherealmofhellis
actuallylocatedinbetweenhumansandanimals.Itislocatedonthebottomofthe
wheel,whichsuggeststhatitisthelowestofallrealms.
116Ajanta–theAjantacaves,locatedintheAurangabaddistrictofMaharashtra,India,housesomeofthefirstBuddhistpaintingsandsculptures117RichardH.RobinsonandWillardL.Johnson,TheBuddhistReligion,WadsworthPublishingCompany,p.20118Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.246
51
Fluidity of an Imagined Location
Therearemanydescriptionsandinterpretationsoftherealmofhell,mostvery
similarinthewaythehell‐dwellersarebeingpunished,butverydifferentintermsof
thedescriptionofhell’slocation.Buddhisthellissovagueinitsconceptoflocationthat
almostanydescriptionofalocationcanbeaccurate.DifferentBuddhisttraditionsplace
hellindifferentlocations,bothphysicalandmetaphysical.Thereareupwardofsixteen
hells,andsincetheyarenotallinonespace,thereisnotasinglespecificplacetowhich
theycanbeprescribedto.Somedescriptionsdonotgiveanyguidelinesastowherethe
hellscouldbelocated,creatingthepossibilityofaspaceinthemindofthereader,
allowingfortheimaginationtobetherulerofwherethishellistakingplace.Unlike
otherreligioustraditions,theBuddhisthellisnotfixedtoonelocationbelowearthin
itsfierypits,itisnotevenasingularhell.Buddhisthellcanbeimaginedasanundefined
placeofpunishmentsandpainsthatseemendlessbutaseverythingelse,doend
eventually.
Thinkingabouttheseindividualhellsindifferentlocationsbroadensthe
perspectiveonhellsingeneral.Insteadoflimitingtheirexistencetoonesinglelocation
inspace,theBuddhisthellsaresoversatilethatevenifonedoesnotknowhowto
visualizetheminthislife,theperfecthellforeveryonedoesexist.Ahellthatfitsexactly
toeveryone’sevilkarmaexistssomewhereoutthere;whetheritishotorcold,scaryor
painful,orevenjustimaginary.Apartofwhatcancreatemoredis‐easeisnotknowing
whichhelloneiscondemnedtobereborninto.Beforeactuallythere,whichis
unfortunatelyinevitable,onecanonlyspeculate.Somemaybemoreinvestedin
52
thinkingabouttheirfuturelivesthanothers,buteveryonedoeswonderatsomepoint:
whatcomesnext?Sometimestheconceptofhellinotherreligionsmaynotcauseas
muchdiscomforttothinkaboutastheBuddhistonebecauseitisnotasmuchofa
mystery.IntheBuddhisthell,nothingispredictable,notevenitslocation.InFigure9
thesectionofhelloftheWheelofExistenceisdepicted.Thelowestofallrealms,here
thehellbeingsarepunished,chasedandburnedbydemonsandhellfire.The
punishmentsareveryvariedsincethisdepictiondoesnotfocusononespecifichell.
53
119Figure9
119Figure9.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
54
InBuddhismtheexistenceofmultipleuniversesandrealmsisacommon
conceptandinfact,“Buddhistcosmologicalnotionsaremuchmoreinlinewiththoseof
modernastronomyinthewaythelatterenvisagesthescaleandextentofthe
cosmos.”120Thepossibilityofplacingthehellsinlocationssodistantliterally
unimaginabletohumansputsacertaindistancebetweenthesehellsandthehuman
birth.This,inturn,allowsthetextsdescribinghellstobetheprimaryagentsincreating
thisimaginaryworldforthereader.Thevastnessofpossiblelocationinseparate
universesisparalleledbyaveryclearandorganizeddescriptionofwhatandhowthe
hellsareorganized.Thepreciselocationsareleftsovaguewhiletheexactpunishments
aredescribedinimpeccabledetail.Itseemsasifnothingislefttochanceinsomeofthe
descriptionsofindividualpunishments,whereasthelocationofthesepunishmentsare
occurringisnotmentioned.
Apossibleexplanationcanbethateventhoughthesehellsareconsideredreal
andareboundtohappen,theirlocationcannotbepinpointedbecauseeveryindividual
ispersonallyresponsibleforcreatingtheirownhell.Everyindividual’shellissospecific
andonlyappliestothatoneperson,thatitisnotpossibletoprescribeacertaintypeof
helltoasingle,allencompassinglocationforall.Buddhisthellscouldbelocatedinany
partoftheknownandunknownuniverse,butalsoinamentaluniverseorrighthereon,
orinside,earth.Sincehellissuchapersonalexperience,eventhoughsometimesoneis
condemnedtoenteraspecifichell,itslocationcouldstillbeasfluidastheimagination
ofit.
120Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.245
55
Depiction of Hell as a Prison
“TheBuddhisthells,theprisonofthelost,areinsomecasessituated
underneaththeregioninhabitedbyman.”121Even“theChinesetermforhell,diyu
(地狱)translatesas‘subterraneanprison.’”122DescribingtheBuddhisthellsasaprison
providesaclearanddistinctimageofhellinhumandiction.Imagininghellasaprisonis
apowerfulwayinwhichtocomprehendtheconcept.Sinceeveryoneknowswhata
prisonisandwhatitmaylooklike,describingthehellsassomethingeveryonecan
relatetomayjustfunctionasavisualaidforthelayman.Aprisonisaconfinement,one
thatcannotbeescapedfrom.Similarly,hellisatypeofconfinementthathasnoexits
exceptreincarnation.Thinkingabouthellasaprisonemphasizestheideathatone
cannotescapethisplace,cannotleaveuntilduetimehasbeenserved.Furthermore,
comparinghelltoaprisonsuggeststhatitisnotonlyuptotheindividualtobesent
there,butthatthereareoutsideguidingforcesthatplayaroleaswell.Eventhough
thereisnoindividualorcollectionofdeitiesthatmakesdecisionsaboutwhogoesto
hellandwhodoesnot,one’sactionsinlifecreateajudgmentinthemselveswhichisthe
decidingfactoraboutwheresomeonewillbereborn.
Leavinghellisaverykarmicallystructuredprocess,and“beingsinthelowest
hellrealmsexperiencevirtuallycontinuouspainandsufferinguntiltheresultsoftheir
actionsthatbroughtthemthereareexhausted.”123Breakingoutofprisonisusually
futile,theattemptsstillalwaysexisteventhoughalmostnoonemanagestoescape
121citedfromB.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.104122Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.318123Ibid.p.185
56
successfully.Asfromhell,anescapeseemsvainsincethebreakoutwouldnotjustbe
fromabuildingwithguards,butfromanentirerebirthinanunknownlocationwith
unknownobstacles.FleeingfromaBuddhisthellisnotacommonconcept.Surprisingly,
however,theideadoesgetmentioned.ThereisoneshortsectioninPatrulRinpoche’s
TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacherinwhichaburningbuildingisdescribedfromwhichit
wouldbeimpossibletoflee124orfromaTibetanJataka125tale,as“anironhouse
withoutdoors.”126Thenotionoffleeing,therefore,doesexist.Themanifestationofhell
issodeepthatitsescapeisnotreallyaplausiblethought.
Beingcondemnedintothisprisonbyone’sownactionsthatcausedthe
accumulationofevilkarmaistheonlyfairwaytomakeupforthesedeedsandcleanthe
slateinordertohavetheabilitytoaccruegoodkarma.Allactionshaverepercussions
andwillaffectone’sfuturebirth.ThedifficultyinBuddhism,however,isthatnomatter
whatonedoes,abirthinhellisalwaysinevitable.Itisoftenthoughtthatonecanavoid
hellbynotkillingorlying,orevenbeingvegetarian,butitismuchmorecomplexthan
that.Evenifoneeatsnothingbutplainricefortheirentirelife,theinsectskilledby
tilling,plowingandwateringthericefieldsarelosseslargeenoughtoqualifyforabirth
inhell.Withtheknowledgethatnomatterhowwellonebehaves,themereactofbeing
aliveisenoughtoberebornintohell.Tosurviveinsaṃsārawemusteatanddrink,
whichinevitablycausesthedeathofsomeanimalorinsect.
Whichhelloneiscondemnedtoreliesonthelargeraccumulationofsinsand
mistakesthatwerecommittedinone’slifetimes.Thereareaplethoraofdifferenttypes
124PatrulRinpoche’sTheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.65125Jatakatales–storiesaboutthepreviouslivesoftheBuddha126Wenzel,H.“AJataka‐TalefromtheTibetan”,JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyofGreatBritainandIreland,NewSeries,Vol.20,No.4(Oct.,1888),p.505
57
ofhells,someforlyingandstealing,someforhurtingotherhumansandanimals,and
manyothers127.Accordingtowhatone’scrimeswereinpreviouslives,evenifthese
crimesseemnegligibletosome,theindividualwillbeassignedtoaspecifichellin
whichtosufferfornearlyeternity.Figure10showsthesceneofdemonsboilinghell
beingsinhugevatsofboilingmetalwhilecontinuouslystabbingthem.Thispunishment
isinflictedduetopreviousbadmeritandservesasadidactictooltoscarethereader.
127CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111
58
128Figure10
128Figure10.http://bit.ly/14U41eu.April2013
59
Residents of Hell
Thereexiststheideathathellbeings“inhabithell”.129Thinkingofinhabitation
suggeststhatitismoreorlesspermanent.Itisgreatlydifferentthansuggestingthat
humansmovetohell,sincemovingimpliesalsomovingoninthefuture.Onceone
inhabitsaspace,movingislesslikely.Lettinghellbeingsinhabithellgivestheman
interestingpoweroverthespace.Theyarenotjustconsideredvisitors,theylivethere,
hellistheirspace.Atthesametime,however,theyarecompletelystrippedofanytype
ofpowerbecausetheyaresubjectstotheirpunishments,punishersandmentalagonies.
Settinghumansandhellbeingsonasimilarlevelofinhabitingacertainspacemakes
themlessspecialandmoreamerepartofalargersystemofmultiplerealmsand
multiplespacestoinhabit.Ashumansandanimalsinhabittheearth,hellbeingsinhabit
hell.
AccordingtooneBuddhistdictionary,hellsaredescribedas“placeslocated
undertheearththataretypifiedbyextremephysiologicaland/orpsychological
suffering.”130Theideaofhavinganentirerealmofexistencededicatedsolelytotorment
showshowimportantthisrealmofexistenceisforBuddhists.Notonlyisitdescribedin
utmostdetailinscriptures,buttheplacementofanentirerealmforhellshowsthatitis
asubstantialpartofexistenceforalllivingbeingsandcannotbeneglectedin
importance.“Aplaceoftorment”triggersanimageofhorror,aplaceofpainandtorture
withouthappiness.Thisplacehasthepurposeofcreatingfearandreverenceinthe
129B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.102130Prebish,CharlesS.HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism.TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993.p.137
60
reader.Beingreborninsucharealmandbeingexposedandforcedtoexperience
nothingbuttormentforanincalculableperiodoftimedoesnotallowspaceortimefor
anythingpositive.FortheBuddhistreaderthesestories,imagesanddescriptionsofhell
meanmorethanjustanunluckyrebirth;theyembodythecycleofsaṃsāra.Bybeing
aliveonthisearth,theyarepartofthecyclethroughneverendingreincarnations.Being
Buddhistalsomeansunderstandingtheserebirths,whilesimultaneouslyhavingfaith
thatthenextrebirthwillbemorepositive.Generallyspeaking,“thenamesofthe
varioushellsdenotesufferingandtorture,expressiveofthetorturegoingonthere
whenkammais‘matured’or,literally,‘boiled’(Pali:paccati)–implyingontheonehand
thatthesuffererispurifiedofhisbaddeeds,butalsoplayingonthewordtoindicate
thatboilingispartofthetorture.”131
TheBuddhistuniverseiscomprisedofmanydifferentlifeformsandvarious
statesofexistence.AccordingtotheHistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,“theuniverseis
dividedintothreerealms,thekamadhatuor‘RealmofDesire’,rupadhatuor‘Realmof
Form’,andarupadhatuor‘FormlessRealms.’”132Eachlevel,orlayer,islabeledinterms
ofhowhumansinteractwiththe“realmofdesire(kama)”whichreferstotherealmof
karma.One’sownkarmicactionsandpotentialaccumulatesovertimeandinnumerable
rebirths.Asourkarmicactionsdictateourphysicalrebirthstherealmofkarmaisthat
inwhichweaccumulateourkarmicpotential.Bothhumansandanimalscanaccumulate
goodandbadkarma.Karma,however,islargerthanthecurrentlifetime,“karmadoes
notjustbringresultsinthenextlife:anactionissaidtohaveeffectslaterinthepresent
131Braarvig,Jens.Numen56:“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Brill2009.p.264132Prebish,CharlesS.,HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993,p.97
61
life,thenextlife,andalsoinsomesubsequentones.”133Allhumanexperiencedictates
circumstances,andeverythingthathappensisnocoincidence,butpredestinedby
karma.
Secondly,thereisthe“realmofmatterormaterialform(rupa)”whichrefersto
therealm’sphysicalexistence.Somuchinlife,insaṃsāra,isdictatedbyattachments,
bothemotionallyandphysically.Realizingthattherealmofmatterisjustanother
realm,notanymoreofareality,shouldhelplessenattachments.Humansareboundto
experiencesufferingifcontinuouslyattachedtomaterialorlivingthings.Sincenothing
ispermanent,everythingonebecomesattachedtowilleventuallydisappear,causing
inevitablepain.Thiscycleofneverbeingabletoescapeduḥkhaisasmuchpartof
saṃsāraashellitself.Thethirdrealm,“therealmwithoutform(arupa)”refersto
realmswithoutphysicalpresence.Thisstateisjustbeforeenlightenment,andtherefore
nirvāṇaisattained.Onlyinthatstatecanonefinallyletgoofallattachmentsandbe
releasedfromtheendlesscycleofrebirthintosaṃsāra.Oneofthegoalsandrewards
forbeingeliminatedfromthiscycleistheendtorebirthsinhell.“Nirvāṇaisthe
unconditioned,thedeathless,beyondspaceandtime,knowndirectlyatthemomentof
enlightenment.”134Oncereleasedfromendlessdukhkainsaṃsāra,andtheultimate
rewardoffinallyreachingnirvāṇaisbeingfreefromearthlyoruniversalattachments.
Itissuggestedthatthedifferentrealmsofexistenceandnon‐existenceareeach
dividedintothreeregions.Doesthismean,thatineachearth,heavenandhellthere
existallthreerealmsofdesire,materialformandno‐form?Eachrealmofexistenceis
dividedintothreeseparatelayers.Thesethreelayersofexistencethereforedonotonly133PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.41134Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.186
62
existinthehumanandanimalrealms,butalsointherealmsofhell.Couldthismean,
thatintherealmofhell,thereexistsalayerinwhichnirvāṇacanbeattained?Viewing
eachrealmofexistenceassoseparatefromoneanotherthateachhasthepossibilityto
berebornoutofbutalsoreachnirvāṇaisnotacommonconceptinwritingsaboutthe
Buddhisthell.Likeeverythingelse,hellisnoteternalbuthasanendinsight.Therefore
theslightchanceofattainingimmediatenirvāṇainsteadofanotherrebirthfromhell
exists.
63
The Mind as a Location
Thetheorythatthehells,insteadofbeinglocatedinaphysicalspace,areactually
onlyexistentinthemindrelatestoeverydaysituations.Indailylifeonehearspeople
referencinghellinvariousways.Itcanbeemotionally,situationalorphysical.This
conceptofhellonlyexistentinplacescreatedinthemindisfascinating.Havingthe
powertoenter,ornotenter,ahellisuptotheindividual.Aseveryonehasexperienced,
however,itisnoteasytoescapethementalhellbecausetheindividual’smindknows
besthowtotricktheselfintosadnessandunpleasantthoughts.Onecreatesamental
hellindailylife,sometimesmoreintensethanatothertimes.
Ifallhellsareonlymentalandcreatedinthemind,thenonedoeshavethe
possibilitytoreachnirvāṇainthesamelifetimeoneexperienceshellin.The
imaginationabouthellcanbefullymetaphysical,whichcanalsoallowsteppinginand
outofitonone’sownaccord.Eventhoughleavinghellmightnothappeninasingleday,
throughpersonalgrowthandtimeonedoeshavethepowertoescapeandmoveon.
Therefore,ifonehasexperiencedhellinalifetime,thementalhellofrepetitionand
fear,thentechnicallyalsotheabilitytomovesofarastoreachnirvāṇainthesamelife
exists.Previouslyallemphasiswasplacedonthefuturerebirthandthatallexistence
mustpassthroughhelleventually.Withthenotionofhellpossiblybeingpartofevery
lifetimeinthepresent,manynewpossibilitiesariseabouthowtointerpretBuddhist
conceptsoflifeanddeath.
64
Chapter Three
Community
Animals and Vengeance
Someonewhohasmistreatedanimalsintheirhumanbirth,willinturnbe
mistreatedbyanimalsinhell,orreceivethesametreatmenttheanimalsreceived.The
CrushingHell,mentionedearlier,isanotherrepresentationofactionsinthehuman
lifetimedirectlyinfluencingone’spunishmentsinhell.Somehellsaredirectlyrelatedto
animalabuse.Thisexcerptisdirectedtothemistreatmentsofdogs:“TwodogsSabala
andSamaofgiantsize,mightyandstrong,devourwiththeirironteethhimwhois
drivenhenceandgoestoanotherworld.”135
ReferencedinarelativelymodernChinesetextabouthell,thepunishmentofthe
hellbeingisbeingdirectlycomparedtotheslaughterofananimal:
Ai‐yah!…Eachofthecriminalsisboundtoanironpillarandtheox‐headeddemonsareintheprocessofadministeringpunishment–usingironcopperbladestheypeeltheskinoftheperson’sface,justasabutcherkillsapigandthenflaysit.Eachofthecriminalghostsscreamsinpain[…].136Theseintensetextualimagescausevisceralreactionsinthereader.The
punishmentinthiscasedirectlyrefersbacktotheactionsofhumanstowardsanimals.
Instillingveryvivid,scaryandgruesomeimagesintothereader’simaginationservesas
atooltodeterthemfromaccruingbadkarmainthefuture.Eventhoughthetext
135JaIV.124‐25136RecordofAJourneytoHell[Tiyuyuchi]pp.56)citedinCharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111
65
describedhereisfromChineseorigin,theseimages,Figure11(Thailand)andFigure12
(Japan)bothalsoshowthetorturesofbeingskinned.InFigure11animalscanbeseen
inthebackground,watchingasthehellbeingsarepunished.Figure13depictstheexact
courseofactionandaccordingpunishment.Thishellbeingisbeingpunisheddueto
theirmistreatmentofanimalsinpreviouslives,andisnowbeingshownwhichbad
karmabroughtthemtotheircurrentstate.Theonlywaytoburnoffthisevilkarmaisto
sufferthesametorturespreviouslyinflictedontoothers.Besidesdemonsinmany
shapesandforms,manyhellsreferenceanimalswithmetallicbodypartscausing
immensesuffering:“apairoflargebirds,whosefunctionistotearatthevitalsofthe
suffererswiththeirmetallicbeaks.”137Thebirds’onlypurposeisneverendingand
robotic,theycontinuetofulfilltheirtasksuntilthehellbeingisreincarnated.Oncethey
arereborn,anotherhellbeingwilltaketheirplaceandexperiencethesametortures.
137A.B.Griswold,“AWarningtoEvildoers”,ArtibusAsiae,Vol.20,No.1(1957),p.27
66
138Figure11
138Figure11.http://bit.ly/L6FUMQ.April2013
67
139Figure12
139Figure12,http://bit.ly/1753VhD,April2013
68
140Figure13
140Figure13,http://bit.ly/11AfFpX,January2013
69
Punishment and Release
Animalsanddemonsareonlyinplacetofulfillonesingleroleoftorture.Their
movementsandactionalwaysstaythesame.Accordingtosome,however,these
demonsandguardsarenotactuallyresponsibleforthehell‐dwellerstorments:“you
onlyareresponsibleforyourownsuffering–don’tblamethegaolers,theyareonly
doingtheirduty.”141Thehellbeingsknowtheirpunishersandwhattoexpectonce
revivedagain.Knowingwhatwaitsaspunishmentmightbeevenworsethanoblivion
becausenotonesecondcanbelivedwithouteitherexperiencingthepainor
anticipatingit.
Thereasoningbehindtheseawfultorturesisthatonlythroughtheburningoffof
thisevilkarmacanthe‘karma‐slate’becleared.Beingtormentedwiththesame
torturesrepeatedlyhasacertaintypeofagencywithinthemajorpunishment.The
torturethatisexperiencedbesidestheactualphysicalpainbecomesmental.Ifthese
torturesaremental,thiscouldsuggestthattheentireexperienceofhellcouldallbe
metaphysical.Ifthehellbeingcanremembertheirtorturesfromonerevivaltothenext,
theirmentalstateaswellastheirphysicalstateisdemolished,whichleadstoboth
physicalandmentalagony.Comparingtherepetitionofpunishmentsinhelltosimple
annoyingthingsineverydaylifecanhelpilluminatehowtheirtortureswithout
intermissionmayaffectthehelldwellers.Imaginingsomeoneclickingonapengets
annoyingevenafteronlyashortperiodoftime.Theprospectofsomeoneclickingona
penformillionsofyears,however,wouldleadtoinsanitythroughextrememental
141CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.124
70
stress.Whentheharmless,painlessclickingofapenisreplacedwithbirdspeckingat
one’svitalorganswithmetalbeaks,thisagonyisexponentiallyincreased.
Hell’scharacteristicoflettingthedamnedsufferonlyonesinglepunishmentfor
theentiretimespentinhellisalmostashorribleofapunishmentassufferinginhellat
all.Besidesthefactthatthepunishmentsthemselvesareterrifying,thefamiliardistress
oftherepetitionofbasicallyanythingonsuchascaleissupposedtodeterpeoplefrom
accumulatingevilkarma.Therepetitionexperiencedinhellleadstobothphysicaland
mentaldeteriorationofthesufferer,makingtheiroriginalsufferingincalculablyworse.
Thehellbeingsmaybeawareofwhatawaitsthemassoonastheyarerevivedwhich
causesforadifferenttypeofpainandanxietyincontrasttohavingdifferenttorment
inflictedonthemallthetime.
Ifhellisequallyapartoflife’sexistenceasearth,whyisitsomuchmore
gruesomethanthehumanoranimalform?Itcanbearguedthatthehellrealmsare
gruesome,butnotalwaysworsethanwhatcanbeexperiencedinotherrealms.Eachof
thesixrealmsofexistencehasinstancesofextremesufferingthatmayseemlikehellin
thepresentstate.Forexample,apersondyingofstarvation,freezingtodeathor
burningaliveisactuallyexperiencingpretaexistenceorhellintheircurrentlifetime.At
thesametime,veryluckyindividualsmaybeexperiencinggod‐likehappinesson
earth.142Furthermore,evenifnoteveryindividualonearthisexperiencinghell,there
arebeingsthatareatalltimes.Themistreatmentofanimalsandpeopleislikehellfor
theone’sinvolved.Technicallytheconceptofbutcheringandmeatpreparationcanbe
regardedashell.Theanimalsbeingslicedapartandcutintopiecesbythebutchersare
142InterviewwithLamaTenzin,BardCollege,Annandale‐on‐Hudson,NY.April4th2013
71
actuallyinhellatthattime.Inanotherlifetime,thesebutcherswillthereforehaveto
sufferthesamepunishmentstheypreviouslyinflictedontoothers(seeFigure13).
InBuddhism,saṃsāraissuffering.Hellcouldbeseenasamoreextremeversion
ofthedailysufferingsweexperienceonearth.Sinceanityaisthebasicprincipleof
impermanenceinBuddhism,thelackofpermanenceinourexistenceonearthcouldbe
madeupbypermanenceinhell.Beingconstantlytornandsufferingonearthduetoour
never‐endingattachmentsisthemostbasicBuddhistteaching.Attachmentand
suffering,anityaanddukhka,arethefirstoftheFourNobleTruthsinBuddhist
teachings.Theystatethatalllifeissuffering,andsufferingiscausedbyattachment.
Humansdevelopemotionsforotherlivingbeingsandmaterialobjects,whichresultsin
attachmenttothesethings.Oncetheyaretakenaway,lost,leaveordie,theattachment
thatwasbuiltupovertimeresultsinsufferingduetotheloss.
Thisattachmentistakentotheextremeinhell.Thesuffererisforcedto
experienceextremeattachmentthroughtheirpunishments.Notlettinggoofthingsand
beingaslavetothefaultyhumannatureofattachmentispunishedinhellbybeing
overlyattached,notabletodetachfromone’spunishments.Thepunishedinhellhave
becomesoattachedtotheirtormentsthattheywillneverleavethem.Thisextreme
versionofattachmentcouldservetoemphasizehowawfulattachmentcanreallybe.
Thetwofoldpurposeofhellinthiscase,bothburningoffevilkarmaandteachinga
lessonaboutattachmentisimplementedthroughtheextensivenessofthese
punishmentsandtheirnever‐endingrepetitions.
72
Occupants of Hell
Hellbeingsarealwaystorturedandmassacredbydemonsoranimals.These
creaturesareoftenportrayedashalfanimalandhalfman.Thesedemonsaredescribed
anddepictedtorturingthehellbeings(seeFigure14,ahalf‐animaldemon).Thereare
otherinterpretations,however,inwhichthe“Andhakas143supposethatthereareno
guardsinhellchargedwithtorturingandpunishing;rather,thesetorturersarenothing
butthebadactionsthemselves,committedintheshapeofhell‐keeperswhopurgethe
sufferers.”144Sometimes,theyaretheonesthatcausethehellbeingspainbypuncturing
them,sawingthem(Figure15),andrippingthemapart.
143Andhakas144Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.262
73
145Figure14
145Figure14.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
74
146Figure15
146Figure15.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
75
Inthisstoryamonk’sjourneythroughhellisdescribed:
“TheunfortunateishurledaroundtheGreatHellagainstthefourgates,burnedandtortured.Andthen:
Monks,therecomesatimeonceinaverylongwhilewhentheeasterngatewayofthisGreatNirayaHellisopened.Herushesthereswiftlyandspeedily;whileheisrushingswiftlyandspeedilyhisskinburnsandhishideburnsandhisfleshburnsandhistendonsburnandhiseyesarefilledwithsmoke–suchishisplight.Andthoughhehasattainedmuch[spentmanyhundredthousandyearsinAvīci],thegatewayisneverthelessclosedagainsthim.Thereathefeelsfeelingsthatarepainful,sharp,severe.Buthedoesnotdothistimeuntilhemakesanendofthatevildeed.147Notunexpectedly,heexperiencesthesameattheothergates,but,intheend,theeasterngateisopenforhim,butonlyforhimtobereborninanotherhell:theGreatFilthHell,wherehisskin,fleshandbonesarecutoff.ThenheisrebornintheEmberHell,theForestofSilk‐CottonTrees,whichhehastoclimb–theyareofcourseburning–andthentheHellofburningwater.Heishungry,askingforfood,andtheguardshaulhimoverwithafishhookandfillhismouthwithglowingcopperpelletsthatburnhischestandstomachbeforetheypassoutwithhisbowelsandintestines.Whendaringtosayheisthirsty,hegetsasimilartreatment.”148
Thisexcerptdepictsthesadandhorrificsufferingsofamonkinhell.Hereitis
mentionedthateventhoughhehasalreadysufferedsuchimmensetimeperiodsinhell,
hisevilkarmahasnotyetbeenburnedoff,andthereforeheiscontinuallyreborninto
differenthells.Thistreatmentofhell’s‘inmates’showshowbrutalandunforgiving
Buddhisthellis,andthatnoactionscanchangethis.Figure16isanexampleofsomeof
theterriblepunishmentsthere.Eventhoughtheseimagesoriginatefromdifferent
Buddhisttraditions,theyalldepicttorturesthatrelatetothisstory.
147MA4.235asinMNIII,tr.p.227n.5148citedfromBraarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.272
76
149Figure16
149Figure16,http://bit.ly/11jYTdt,April2013
77
150Figure17
150Figure17.SculpturesinatempleinXi’an,China.
78
Withthehelpofanimals,metalbeakedbirdsandworms,thesedemonsallow
thehellbeingstoburnofftheirevilkarma.Thedemonsareoftendepictedsmilingand
laughing.Seeminglytheyareverymuchenjoyingtheirjobofpunishingandtorturing
hellbeings.Eventhoughhellissupposedtobelackingtheconceptofhappiness,these
demonsaregleefulandhappy.Inthisstoryanothermonk’stortureandtreatmentby
theguardsisdescribed:
Him, bhikkhus151, Hell’s guards make to lie down and flay him withhatchets[…]theyplacehimdownwardsandflayhimwithknives[…]they bind him to a chariot and drive him to and fro over burning,blazingglowingground[…]theylifthimupontoagreathillofburning,blazing, white hot coals and roll him down a fiery slope […] theydouble him up and cast him into a hot brazen jar, burning glowingwhereheboils, comingup like a bubble of foam, then sinking, goingnow to this side,now to that.Therehesuffers fierceandbitterpain,nor does he die till that evil karma is cancelled. Him,bhikkhus, theycastintothegreat[Hell].152
Thetorturesthismonk,asinnumerableothers,hastoendurearesolelydueto
hisownbadactionsinthepast.Theextremesufferingexperiencedinthishellcreatesa
strongvisceralreactioninanyreader.Thedidacticsofusingsuchvisuallystimulating
descriptionsarehopedtobestrongenoughtoinstillgoodbehaviorinthereader.In
Figure17amonkisshowninpreparationforhispunishment.Thedemonsaroundhim
showdelightintheirdeedsandarealsoinplacetoinstillgreaterfearinthehellbeing.
151bhikku–(Pali;Sanskrit:Bhikṣu)literally,‘beggar’,thetermisgenerallytranslatedas‘monk’.ItreferstoamalefolloweroftheBuddhawhohasreceivedordination,servedasanovice,andholdsalloftheapproximately250vows.Thefemalecounterpartisbhikkhuni(Sanskrit:Bhikṣuni),generallytranslatedas‘nun’(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).152Majjhimaiii.166‐67,182‐83;AnguttaraNikāya1.41,translationfromKvtr.p.346‐47
79
The Lack of Happiness
Buddhisttextsoftenworkwiththeuseofapophaticlanguagetodescribecertain
concepts.Thistechniqueofusingdictiontodescribewhatisnotratherthanwhatis
enforcestheconceptofhellbeingwithouthappiness.Itismorememorabletoknow
thathellwillbewithoutthefeelingsofhappiness,afeelingeveryonehasexperiencedat
somepoint.Knowingthathellisfulloftortureandpainisonething,butalsoknowing
thatwithinthistimetherewillbenoinstancesofhappinesscolorsthereader’s
perceptionsinthathellismadetoseemevenmorehorrible.Nothingmorethana
creatureinSaṃsāra’sShow153,thebeingsinhellarethrownaroundandusedlike
puppets,withoutfreewill,timeofrestorfeelinganythingbutsuffering.Withthe
conceptthatallexistenceissufferingwhileeternallyenduringrebirthsinsaṃsāra,hell
seemslikeitisanevenmoreextremeversionoftheordinarysaṃsāra.Figure18shows
adetailofhellanditsinhabitantssufferingandbeingpunished.
153Saṃsāra’sShow–PatrulRinpochedescribestheworkingsofsaṃsāraasSaṃsāra’sShow.Allinhabitantsare‘played’bylife,saṃsāra,ascharactersinapuppetshow,withoutagencyandfreewill.
80
154Figure18
154Figure18.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity
81
Eventhoughonecanimagineaterribleplacelikehellteemingwithtortureand
fear,theideathathappinessiscompletelyabsentratherthanjustfleetingandrare
makesrecoveryutterlyimpossibleforitsinhabitants.Theconceptofhappiness,or
unhappiness,letsmeposethequestionofhowthisrelatesdirectlytothebeingsinhell.
Ifreincarnatedbeingsarebothmentallyandphysicallyunabletofeelhappiness,does
thisincreaseordecreasetheiroriginalsuffering?Doesthelackofhappinessmaketheir
existenceinhelleasierorevenharder?Iftheyarenotawareoftheconceptof
happiness,doesthislessentheirpainsandfears,sincetheyhavenothingpositiveto
compareitto?
Byenteringhell,oneentersarealm“devoidofhappiness.”155Havingaspacein
theuniverseinwhichhappinessdoesnotexistmakespunishmentevenmoreintense
becausethebeingsinthisrealmhaveabsolutelynothingelsetoexpectforaseemingly
eternalperiodoftime.Nothavingaconceptofpositivitycanbeverylimiting,butalso
maybehelpfulforthehell‐dwellers.Iftheyareawarethathappinessonceexistedand
theyarebeingdeprivedofit,theirpunishmentscouldfeelworse.If,however,hellisset
upinsuchawaythattheyarenotawarethathappinessevenexists,theymaybespared
alotofwishfulthinkingandhopesofpositivethings.
Creatingaspaceintheuniversethatis“devoidofhappiness”shapesaplacein
whichmiseryistheonlypossibility.Sincenothingpositivecanhappen,theonlyother
optionistolivewithconstantnegativity.Whereasitcanbearguedthattheirfeelingsof
sufferingandmiseryareintensifiedbythedeeplackofhappiness,itcanalsobeargued
thatsincetheyareonlyaccustomedtohell,theyarenotactuallysufferingmore.This,
155B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.94
82
however,doesnotanswerthequestionofwhythereexiststhisabsenceofhappiness.
Withinnumerableyearsofpunishmentandtortureahead,beingsrebornintherealmof
hellmayloseallhopeofhappinessandmerelyexist.Explainingthelackofhappiness
throughalossofhappinessisdifferentthantheutterabsenceofit.Withtheexistenceof
anentirerealmwiththecompleteabsenceofhappinessmeansthatotherrealms,such
asthehumanrealm,dohaveoccurrencesofhappinessevenifverybriefand
impermanent.
TheFourNobleTruthsteachthatalllifeissuffering.Ifthehumanexperienceis
purelysuffering,howcanhappinesseverbeexperienced?Bymakingtheclear
distinctionbetweenbeingabletoexperiencehappinessinthehumanrealmandthe
absencethereofinhellarguesfortheimpermanenceofevenduḥkha.Thissimileputs
thenegativityofsaṃsāraintoperspective:
Whilesufferingcertainlyexistsinhumanlife,itisnotunremittinglypainful.Therearemanypleasantexperiencestoo,suchthatonbalancethehumanrealmisthoughttoofferanappropriate‘middleway’betweenthelessattractivealternatives.Sufferingisthuslikethegritintheoyster,whichintimeproducingthepricelesspearlofnirvāṇa.156Eventhoughalllifeissuffering,itissprinkledwithinstancesofhappiness,which
makesthethoughtofnothavingthishappiness,hell.However,sincehellisequallypart
ofsaṃsāraasthehumanbirth,itisdifficulttodrawthelinebetweenthem.Onecan
arguethateventhoughinsomebirthsthesufferingismoreintensethaninothers,in
general,onesuffersatsomelevelatalltimes.Humansstillhavethecapabilityto
experiencehappinessinsomeform.Beingsreborninhell,however,aplacepurely
withouthappiness,havenootherchoicethanfeelterrorandfear.Thisraisesthe
156Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.249
83
questionwhethertheoppositeofhappinessisterrorandfear,orifthelackofhappiness
immediatelyimpliesthatthehellbeingsexperienceopposingfeelingsandemotions.
Withnowheretoescapetoortogetamoment’srestfromtheirpunishments,
therewouldnotbeanytimeoroccasiontofeelhappiness,evenifitexistedinthehell
realmsatall.Neverisatimecreatedinwhichtheyarenotpunishedoremotionally
tortured,hencethemomentofreliefneveroccurs,notallowingaplaceforhappiness.
Asanotherpartofarebirthinhellandpartofthepunishment,thebeingsaredenied
thefeelingsofhappinessinanysituation,whichaddsanotherlayerofsufferingtothe
physicalandemotionalpains.Therefore,ifthehellbeingsareunawareofthepossibility
ofhappinesstheirexperiencesofpainmayactuallybelessseverethaniftheyknew
whathappinesswas.Bydenyingthemhappinesscompletelytheyare,inaway,being
protectedfromanotherlevelofsufferingwhichiscreatedthroughmentallycomparing
whattheyhavetowhattheycouldhave.
Ashumans,onceknowingthepossibilityofhavingsomethingbetter,whatone
doeshaveoftendoesnotseemgoodenough.Similarly,ifthehellbeingswereawareof
feelingssuchashappinesstheirtormentsinhellwouldbeperceivedevenworse
becausetheyknewtheywerenothappy.InFigure19twohellbeingssufferthe
punishmentsbydemons.Thehellbeingslicedapartisdefinitelynothappy,andequally
sotheobserver.Thesecondhellbeingdoesnothavethechancetofeelhappyaboutnot
beingslicedapart,sincetheyareawarethattheyarenext.
84
157Figure19
157Figure19.Detail.http://bit.ly/ZQF7oe.December2012
85
However,ifhelllackshappiness,howcanthedemonsbeexperiencingit?Isit
onlysupposedtobewithouthappinessforthehelldwellers,orasageneralrule?The
demonscouldbesmilingandlaughingbecausetheyknowtheyareactuallyhelpingthe
hellbeings.158Sincethedemonsareawarethattheyarehelpingthehellbeingsqualify
forabetterrebirthinthefuturebymakingthemburnofftheirbadkarma,theyare
happy.Eventhoughtheyknowtheyarehurtingthem,theyalsoknowthattheyare
actuallyhelpingthem.Therefore,withouthell,theywouldbedestinedtosuffer
increasinglyworseningbirthsfortherestofeternity.Throughtheexistenceofhell,
demonsandpunishment,theyhavetheopportunitytoburnoffallevilkarmaandhave
apositivefuture.
Ifthedemonsarenotactuallytorturingthehellbeings,buthelpingthemtoburn
offbadkarma,thiscouldbeconsideredaccumulatinggoodkarmaforthemselves,and
theirfuturereincarnations.Thisforesightbythedemonscouldallowthemtothinkinto
thefutureandbehappyforthehellbeings,themselvesandtheirfuture.Theparadoxof
creaturesdoingevilthingsinhellisconfusingsinceeventhoughtheyarealreadyin
hell,theyareaccumulatingbadkarmaforthemselvesbypunishingothers.Therefore
eventhoughtheyareaccumulatingbadkarmaforthemselves,theyarestillhappy
becausetheyknowtheyarehelpingothers.Thisactionofputtingoneselfintoabad
positioninordertohelpotherscouldinturnbeconsideredpositive,thereforefinally
accountingforgoodkarmaforthedemons.
Inotherinterpretations,however,thedemonsarenotconsideredhappyforthe
hellbeingsatall.Eventhoughtheyaresmilingandseeminglyenjoyingthemselves,they
158InterviewwithEvanGoodman,RubinMuseumofArt,NewYork,NewYork,January11th,2013
86
areenjoyingthemselvesforotherreasons.Thedemonsarerepresentedasevilandfull
ofhatred,ratherthanjoyforthehellbeings.Insteadofbeinghappy,itisdescribedthat
“thedemonsfurtherventtheirhatredbypoundingandpulverizingthesinnersand
chasethemwithhotpokersandbowsandarrows.”159Thisviewonthedemons
happinessistotallyopposite,sinceinthisscenariotheyarefullofhatredandnotjoy.
Takingpleasureinthehelldwellers’miseryembodiestheconceptofSchadenfreude.160
Thedemons,watchingthehorribletorturesandpainsthesufferersareexperiencing,
arehappybecausetheyareenjoyingthemselvesseeingothersinpain.
InFigure20twodemonsaredepictedforcefullyfeedingahellbeingboiling
waterandburningtheirlimbs.Thedarkerdemon,totheright,isparticularlyenjoying
thescene,whichisexpressedbyhisphysicalforcefulnessandsmile.Theconceptof
anityaiscompletelypermeable,andthereforealsoexistsforthedemons.Sincenothing
ispermanent,noteventhedemon’sexistencewillbepermanentasguardsand
torturersinhell,andtheytoo,mayeventuallybereincarnated.Thepurposeofthese
demons,bothforburningoffevilkarmaandtheprospectofattainingabetterrebirth,is
onlyusefulthroughtheextremethoroughnessofthesepunishmentsandtheirnever‐
endingrepetitions.
159DaiganandAliciaMatsunaga,TheBuddhistConceptofHell,PhilosophicalLibraryNY,p.86160Schadenfreude–(German):findingpleasureandhappinessinsomeoneelse’smiseryandpain
87
161Figure20
161Figure20.http://bit.ly/11oCVpq.February2013
88
Conclusion
A Place of Retribution
Theideathatthecosmosandallexistenceisameretransitorystateallowsallof
existencetobeputintoperspective.Birthonearthisjustastransitoryandtemporary
asbirthinhell.162Eventhoughthebirthinhellmaylastinnumerableyearslongerthan
thebirthonearth,itisstilltemporary.Abirthinhellisaninevitableoccurrenceand
partofthecycleofrebirththatcannotbeevaded.Thekarmicpotentialaccumulated
overmillionsofbirthswilleventuallyleadtoabirthinhell,sinceevenbymerely
existing,eatinganddrinking,onecontinuouslycultivatesbadkarma.Itisnot
guaranteedthatoneevildeedwillleadintoanunfortunaterebirth,however,butrather
theaccumulationofbadkarmaoveranincalculableamountoftime.Thisaccumulation
canbevisualizedwithasimile:“Kammaisaccumulatedgradually,andeventually,like
whentheloadofashipistooheavy,itsinks,justasonegraduallyaccumulatingbad
kammaintheendwillsinkintohell.”163
Thelessonlearnedfromthesetorturesisthatbadactionsinanylifetimewill
resultinhelleventually,andshouldthereforealwaysbeavoided.Furthermore,instead
ofmerelyavoidingbadactions,goodactionshouldbepracticed.Anotherbadaspectof
Buddhisthellisthatthehugeamountsoftimespentthereonlypostponesthetimeuntil
nirvāṇacanbereachedthroughbetterbirths.Onlytheworstpainonmanylevelsof
physicalandmentalpainispowerfulenoughtoalleviateevilkarma.Thetorturesofhell162AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.91163Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.278
89
canbecomparedtothedelightswiththegods.Inthegodrealms,thepleasuresareas
indescribableasthesufferingofhell.164
ConsideringmultipleaspectsofBuddhistthoughtabouthellwithlocationsboth
physicalandmental,itisnotpossibletodrawonestrictlineaboutatrueorfalseclaim.
“LaterBuddhistphilosophicaltraditions[…]tendtoseetheworldasaprojectionofthe
collectivementalstatesoflivingbeings”165whereasothersaremoretraditional,suchas
the“orthodox[Buddhist]viewisthathellisreal”166andaphysicalplace.Herethe
questionofthepurposeofhellarises.IsthepurposeofBuddhisthellreallytoscare
awayevildoersthroughfearofpunishment?Onecanarguethatthepunishmentsthe
hellbeingsexperienceinhellareactuallynotinordertoteachthemalesson,butrather
toburnofftheevilkarmatheyhaveaccumulated.Ifthepurposeofhellisnottoscare
evildoersbutrathercleansetheminordertoqualifythemtohaveabetterrebirthinthe
future,shouldhellthenactuallybeconsideredafortunaterebirth?
ThetheoriesthatexistaboutBuddhisthellareallrealteachings,eachtruetoits
individualschoolofBuddhism.Fromanoutsiderperspectiveitisfascinatingtolookat
thevariouswayssocietyinventsthingsinordertomotivate,driveandsupportpeople.
TheBuddhisthellisnotonlyavehicletodeterfrombadbehaviorandencouragethe
harvestingofgoodkarma,itismuchmorethanthat.Hell,especiallythementalhellthe
individualcreatesforhimselforherself,isaplacethateverylivingbeinghasbeento.
Andeventhougheveryonehasexperiencedit,thebestwaytodealwithit,andgetout
ofit,hasnotyetbeendiscovered.TheconceptsofBuddhisthellpartiallyaddressthe
164Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.270165KathavatthuVII.10.4166Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.263
90
questionabouthowtodealwiththesetraumaticissues,andhowtoutilizetheBuddhist
religioninorderavoidheartbreaksandoverallsuffering.Therefore,abadmentalstate
isitsownresultandagoodmentalstateisequallyitsownresult.Thiscanleadtothe
argument“thattheconsciousnesswithwhichwetakelifeistheveryconsciousness
withwhichweburnin[hell].”167Onenegativethoughtisquicklyfollowedbymany
more,andsoitseemsasifbadthingsattractbadthings,andviceversa.Followingalong
withtheconceptofkarma,goodactionsalsohelptofurthergoodthings.Thedemonsin
hellthatcausesuchagonyandterrorcanbeinterpretedasphysicalandmental
manifestationsofeveryindividual’sbadkarma.Allbadexperiencesoriginatefrom
within.Therefore,demonsfromhellarenotexternalbeingsbutfragmentsoftheself.
Theargumentofthepersonal,mentalhellisdebatedandcanalsoapplytonon‐
Buddhists,likemyself.“Essentiallytheworldweliveinisourowncreation:wehave
createditbyourownkarma,byourdeeds,words,andthoughtsmotivatedeitherby
greed,hatred,anddelusionorbynonattachment,friendliness,andwisdom.Thecosmos
isthusareflectionofouractions,whichareinturntheproductsofourheartsand
minds.”168Buddhismisnotbasedontheimportanceofanall‐knowingindividual,but
basedontryingtomakeourhumanlivesonearthlesspainful.Thedrivebehindthe
Buddhistteachingsofhellistoconveytheimportanceofnon‐attachmentinorderto
avoidsufferinginthefuture.Buddhisthellcanbeagruesomeplace,“realmsinwhicha
torturedconsciousnessexperiencesabominablenightmares,whereeveryobjectofthe
sensesappearsrepulsiveandugly.”169Thesenightmaresarelikemoviesinthemind
167Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.261168SamyuttaNikāyaI,62169S.IV.126citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.34
91
thatnoonebuttheselfcansee,andnoonebuttheindividualcanfeelthepain.Most
writingsandimagesofBuddhisthellshowa“persistentfascinationwithgruesome
scenesoftorture”170thatreadersunfamiliarwiththeBuddhistthoughtandpractice
abouthellwillfindappallingandrepulsive.However,eveniftheyareshocking,these
imagesareproductsofthehumanmindasaresultoftryingtofindawaytoexplainthe
sufferingseveryoneexperiencesinlife,insaṃsāra.
ThehelleveryindividuallivesthroughmustnotalwaysbeasterrifyingasAvīci.
Hellcanbeashorribleashavingtoexperiencethedeathofalovedone,orasharmless
ashavingtogotoworkafterbeingupallnighttakingcareofone’ssickchildren.The
intensityofeveryindividual’shellvariesonadailybasis.Throughoutthedayhellcan
fluctuate;forexample,goodnewscanbecomeirrelevantaftertrippingandbreaking
one’sfoot.Whetherhellsarephysicalplaces,whethertheyexistsolelyinevery
individual’smind,orwhethertheyonlycometousinnightmares,theydoexist
somewhereforeveryone.
170CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111
92
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