Index
A/EEC see attaching and effacing Escherichia
coli
abattoir wastes 419–20
abortions 234
abrasions 33
Acanthamoeba 256, 259
ascarid nematodes 295
acceptable risks 24
see also tolerable...
acid-fast staining 285
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
cryptosporidiosis 142, 143
cyclosporiasis 283, 286
microsporidia 258, 326, 327
acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown origin
(AGI) 125
adaptation capacities 9, 309, 310–11
adenoviruses 343, 355
aerobic digesters 414, 417
aerosols 34, 38–9, 246
AFLP see amplified fragment length
polymorphism
AFOs see animal feeding operations
Africa 93–108
age factors
animals 414
control envelope 79
Cryptosporidium 183
dose-response studies 464
Giardia 182–3
tolerable microbial risk 457–8
AGI see acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown
origin
agriculture
animal systems 409–12
biosecurity 177
486 Waterborne Zoonoses
campylobacteriosis risks 201
industrial systems 21–4, 411
mixed systems 411
New Zealand 194, 196–7
pastoral 194, 200
public health impact 200
Salmonella outbreaks 231–2
zoonosis distribution 52–3
AIDS see acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
air drying 413, 417
Alaria marcianae 300
algal toxins 35
alkaline treatment 414, 417
alveolar hydatid disease 301–2
ambient waters 442, 449, 450
amitochondriate parasites 479
amoebae 211, 256, 259–61
Amoy Gardens, Hong Kong 38–9
amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)
352, 353
anaerobic digestion 413, 415, 417
Ancylostoma 296
Andean countries 307, 308
Andes virus 105
Angiostrongylus 296–7
animal densities 382
animal faeces/wastes
Campylobacter 176
Cyclospora cayetanensis 287
cyclosporiasis 287
dead animals 419–21
disposal 22–3
Escherichia coli O157 187–8
field application 416–17
human exposure 439–40, 443–4, 448–9
manure treatment 416
pathogen control 378–9, 409–22
pathogen sources 14
policies 418
Salmonella 237
treatment processes 412–16, 417
versus human 450
animal feeding operations (AFOs) 433–4
animal husbandry
Campylobacter 176–7
control envelope 69–71
emerging diseases 21–4
environmental impact 21–4
Escherichia coli O157 178–9
global densities 22
global increase prediction 21
‘livestock revolution’ 21
management 69–71
New Zealand 191–200
Salmonella reservoirs 232–5
Scotland 167–8
stocking levels 199
zoonose distribution 52–3
see also domestic animals
animal products demand 6
animal reservoirs
control strategies 377–8, 380–401
pathogen evaluation 9–10
risk factors 381–4
Salmonella 232–5
Scotland 151, 167–8
viruses 246–50
animal viral transmission 246
anthropogenic factors 46–61
anthroponoses 29
antibiotic resistance analysis 352
antibiotics
animal agriculture 412
Campylobacter jejuni 71
control envelope 70, 71, 78
genetic exchange 477
resistance 71, 233, 238, 389–90, 477
Salmonella 233, 238
virulence genes 78
zoonosis distribution 58
antibodies 250, 251
antigens 243
Index 487
antimicrobials 389–90
Apicomplexa 265–75, 479
ARCC see average rate of correct classification
Argentina 105
Ascaris
Asia/Africa/South America 94
A. lumbricoides 122, 292, 294
A. suum 294
ascaris pneumonia 294
Asia 93–108, 295
asymptomatic infections 156, 158, 457
at-risk groups
control envelope 77
future perspective 6
microsporidia 326–8
zoonosis distribution 55–6
see also immunocompromised groups
attaching and effacing Escherichia coli (A/EEC)
214–15
Australia 104, 231
Australian bat lyssavirus 104
Austrobilharzia variglandis 122, 299
average rate of correct classification (ARCC) 351
average surface temperature 61
avian influenza 104
avian schistosomes 299
avian viruses 248, 249
Bacillus anthracis 479
Bacillus coli see Escherichia coli
backflow, distribution systems 434
backwashing, filtration 427–8
bacteria 210
Asia/Africa/South America 101–3, 106
control in animal wastes 411–12
emergence/re-emergence 478–9
expert consensus 12
genetic exchange 477
gorillas 101–2
Mexico 115
USA 123–4, 126, 132
bacterial source tracking see faecal source
identification; microbiological source
tracking
bacteriocins 392
bacteriophages 343, 354, 392, 477
Bacteroides 355–6
Bacteroidetes faecal markers 355–6, 359
Balantidium coli 121–2, 256
bank filtration 433
bats 103, 104–5
Baylisascaris procyonis 295
beaches 339, 462
behaviour, human 10, 53–4, 79–80
Belgium 177
benchmark organisms 8–9
beta-Poisson models 464–5
beverages 315–16
Bifidobacterium 357
binning procedures 467
biochips 374
biofilms 55
biosecurity 177, 388–9, 399–400
biosensors 373–4
birds 151, 167–8, 273
black rat 310–11
Blastocystis 100, 121
Blastomyces hominis 116
‘boil water’ requirements 185, 187
Bolivia 307, 308, 310
bone meal 395, 398, 481
bottled water 188
bovine reservoirs 246–7
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 41–2,
394–9, 400
bovine reservoirs 247
dead animal wastes 419–20, 421
emergence/re-emergence 481
Bradley’s classification 31–4
488 Waterborne Zoonoses
broilers 22–3
Brucella 103
BSE see bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Bunyaviridae 105
Burkholderia pseudomallei 479
Buxtonella 256
caffeine 350
calciviruses 244, 248, 249
calves and calving 171–2, 381, 390–1
Campylobacter
Asia/Africa/South America 102
farming transmission 222, 223
gastrointestinal illnesses 231
New Zealand 191–202
outbreak investigation 183–4
QRA application 461–3
risk models 158, 160
Scotland 169–70, 172, 176–7
seasonal patterns 171, 173
surveillance systems 163
survival rates 198
USA 123, 128–9, 132
C. coli 102, 176–7, 371
C. jejuni
Asia/Africa/South America 102
automated PCR detection 371
chlorine inactivation 429
control envelope 68, 71, 78
dose-response studies 464–5, 466
New Zealand 197
prevalence in animals 381
sarafloxacin 78
Scotland 176–7
campylobacteriosis
case-study 461–3
causative agents 137
health consequences 138–9
management responses 201
New Zealand 192–3, 194, 197, 199
symptoms 137–8
treatment 138
Canada 221, 222, 268
Canary Islands 220
candidate agents 246–50
cantaloupes 231
Capillaria hepatica (syn. Calodium hepaticum) 297
carbon-source utilization (CUP) 352
Caribbean 113–18
case definitions 159
case-studies 151–207
catchment basins 9–10
cats 77, 267–9, 294
cattle
BSE 394–9, 481
Campylobacter 176
Cryptosporidium 274
Escherichia coli 51–2, 178–9, 210, 222, 223
industrialization 21–3
manure disposal 23
Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis
325
New Zealand 191–202
risk factors 381
Salmonella reservoirs 233–4, 237
Salmonella Typhimurium 172–3
Scotland 168, 171–3, 175
trade effects 51
viruses 246–7
VTEC reservoirs 217–18
CDSC see Communicable Disease Surveillance
Centre
cell receptors 243, 245
Central America 113–18
cercarial dermatitis 299, 300
cestodes see tapeworms
chemical indicators 350, 447
chickens see poultry
children
congenital toxoplasmosis 145–8
diarrhoea in Latin America 114
Index 489
Dominican Republic 116
El Salvador 117
Giardia infections 263
Guatemala 118
haemolytic uraemic syndrome 223
Honduras 117
Mexico 115
mortality/morbidity 56–7
Nicaragua 117
tolerable microbial risk 457–8
chips see microarray technology
chloramine 432
chlorine 74, 325, 384, 392–3, 429–31
chlorine dioxide 432
chronic wasting disease (CWD) 249, 252, 421,
481
cisterns 236
civets 38
CLB see cyanobacteria-like bodies
Clean Water Act (US) 442–3
climatic issues
climate change 58–61, 318
climate cycling 59
Cryptosporidium outbreak 186
emerging zoonoses 477–8
fascioliasis transmission 317–18
greenhouse gases 418
clinical parasitological studies 98–9
cloned animals 444
Clostridium perfringens 369
co-infections 29
coagulation 427, 428
coastal waters 236
cold-tolerance 239
coliforms 360, 431
coliphages 343
collaboration 164, 447
colonization power 309, 312–13
combining distributions 467
Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre
(CDSC) 163, 164
community fingerprinting methods 357
competitive exclusion 391–2
composting 413, 415
concentration distributions 467
congenital toxoplasmosis 145–8
conjugation 476
Connecticut freshwater study 195–6
consumption habits, human 53–4, 80
contact diseases 32–3
contamination
animal/human 450
beaches 339, 462
control envelope breach 75
Cryptosporidium 274–5
epidemiological concerns 155
Giardia 265
human faeces 194–5, 444
poultry 233
Stockholm framework 452–8
Toxoplasma 269
control envelope 66, 67–80
control strategies
animal reservoirs 377–8, 380–401
animal wastes 378–9, 409–22
disease transmission 420
drinking-water 379, 426–35
future perspective 7
Listeria monocytogenes 456
regulatory perspective 439–51
Corsica 310–11
Costa Rica 115–16
coxsackieviruses 246
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) see variant
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Crohn’s disease 72, 189, 325
cross-resistance, antibiotics 389–90
cross-sector collaboration 16
crossover between species 12
cryptosporidiosis 256, 271
490 Waterborne Zoonoses
Mexico 115
New Zealand 192, 194, 195
symptoms 142
treatments 142–3
Cryptosporidium 269–75
age factors 183
Asia/Africa/South America 95–9
chlorine resistance 74
contamination reduction 274–5
control envelope breach 75
Cuba 116
disease models 159
HACCP-like processes 81
HIV 67–8
oocysts detection tests 96–8
outbreak investigation 183–4
regulation 441, 442
Scotland 169–70, 171–2, 180–1, 186–7
seasonal patterns 173
surface waters 97
surveillance 92, 163–4
treated waters 98
USA 121, 128–30, 131–2
UV light treatment 432–3
C. hominis 180
C. parvum
automated PCR detection 371
coagulation 427
control envelope 68
disease risk 339, 340
dose-response studies 464, 465
immunocompromised groups 384
immunoprophylaxis 390–1
prevalence in animals 381
resistance 390
surveillance 473–4
types 180
waste treatment systems 414
Cuba 116
culling 419, 420–1
culture
bias 343–4, 354
Escherichia coli O157:H7 218
culture-dependent faecal source identification
351–5
culture-independent faecal source identification 358
CUP see carbon-source utilization
CWD see chronic wasting disease
cyanobacteria-like bodies (CLB) 283
cyclophyllid cestodes 300–2
Cyclops 297–8
Cyclospora cayetanensis 116, 122, 211, 256,
283–8
cyclosporiasis 143, 283–8
cystic hydatid disease 301, 302
cysts 260, 262, 263–4, 266
DAEC see diffuse adherent Escherichia coli
dairy cattle
management responses 201
New Zealand 191–2, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201
public health impact 200
Scotland 168, 171
DALYs see disability-adjusted life years
dams 53
DBPs see disinfection by-products
dead-end hosts 28–9
DEC see diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli
definition, zoonoses 5, 28
deforestation 54
demographic changes 55–7
density of animals 382
deposition/yield studies 199
desiccation 413, 417
design of distribution systems 434
detection methods
Cryptosporidium 96–8, 274
epidemiological surveillance 159
Giardia cysts 96–8
microsporidia 258
outbreaks 161
rapid 367–74
Index 491
Salmonella 237
Toxoplasma oocysts 268
diarrhoea
age/income factors 458
cases per year 4
cryptosporidiosis 271
cyclosporiasis 284–5
giardiasis 263
Latin America 114
diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) 213–24
die-offs 420–1
diffuse adherent Escherichia coli (DAEC) 214–15
digenetic trematodes 292
Diphyllobothrium 303
Diplogonoporus grandis 303
Diplostomum spathaceum 300
direct epifluorescent filter technique 370
direct life cycles 292
direct transmission 28–9
direct zoonoses 28–9
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) 11, 454,
455–6, 457, 458
discharge permits 449, 450
disease emergence 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84
disease models 157–8, 159
disease specificity 230–1
disease-based surveillance systems 159
disinfectants 429–33
disinfection by-products (DBPs) 428
distribution systems 75, 434–5
distribution of zoonoses
anthropogenic factors 46–61
calculation methods 467–8
Cryptosporidium 271
Entamoeba histolytica 260–1
environmental factors 46–61
Giardia 262–3
human fascioliasis 307
microsporidia 257
Toxoplasma 266
DNA replication 476
dogs 294
domestic animals 217–18, 259, 267–9
see also animal husbandry; pets
domestic hygiene 32, 76, 77
Dominican Republic 116–17
dormancy 31
dose-response studies
Campylobacter jejuni 466
campylobacteriosis 462
regulation and control 448
uncertainties 464–5, 467
Dracunculus medinensis 32–3, 297–8
drinking-water
Cyclospora cayetanensis 287
diseases control 379, 426–35
emerging infection patterns 474
Entamoeba histolytica 260
epidemiological concerns 155
Escherichia coli O157:H7 222
faecal contamination 340–1, 342
indicators 342
regulation and control 275, 441–2, 449
risk factors 383
Stockholm framework 452–8
toxoplasmosis 268
USA outbreaks 128–9
driving forces 5–6
drought 59
drug resistance 58, 107, 309
drying animal waste 413, 417
dynamic risk assessment 468
EAggEC see enteroaggregative Escherichia coli
Echinococcosis 301–2
education 77, 107–8
effluents
Cryptosporidium dispersal 272
health risks 200, 201
New Zealand 193, 194–5, 200, 201
492 Waterborne Zoonoses
see also animal faeces/wastes; human
effluent/faeces
EHEC see enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli
EIEC see enteroinvasive Escherichia coli
El Niño Southern Oscillation 59–60
El Salvador 117
emerging diseases 4, 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84
empowerment 108
Encephalitozoon 57, 257–9, 326
encephalomyocarditis virus 328, 329
endemic diseases 161–2
endogenous infections 213
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
(ESWTR) 275
Entamoeba coli 116
Entamoeba histolytica 260–1
enteric organisms 228–39
enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAggEC) 214–15
enterococci 342–3, 360
Enterocytozoon bieneusi 257–9, 326–8
enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) 52–
3, 210, 215, 339–40
enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) 214, 215
enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) 214, 215
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) 214, 215
enterotoxins 356
enteroviruses 243, 246–7, 343, 355
enumeration methods 367–74
environment introduction 9
environmental changes 477–8
environmental distribution factors 46–61
environmental impact of animal agriculture 21–4
environmental persistence 10, 30–1, 74
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 441–4,
449–50, 457
environmental resistance 10, 31, 74
environmental transmission 30–1
EPEC see enteropathogenic Escherichia coli
epidemics, worldwide increase 46–7
epidemiology
case-studies 151–207
concerns 155–9
Cryptosporidium 273–4
cyclosporiasis 286–7
data 151–207
dynamic risk assessment 468
emerging disease patterns 20–1
human fascioliasis 308–9
limitations 154–5
New Zealand 194–6
outbreaks 151–207
protozoa 212
QRA relationship 460–1
regulatory approaches 443–4
risk management 81–2
Salmonella 231–2
studies 154–65
surveillance 159–64, 170–1
VTEC 215–17
Escherichia coli 210
Asia/Africa/South America 102–3
Campylobacter comparison 463
chlorine inactivation 429–30
concentrations 200
control envelope 74
deposition/yield studies 199
diarrhoeagenic 213–24
dose-response studies 464
faecal contamination indicator 336, 341, 342–
3, 360
genetic diversification 57–8
health consequences 140
infectious dose 77
regulation 441–2
symptoms 139
toxin genes 356, 359
treatments 139
USA 123, 128–30, 132
Escherichia coli O6:H16 123, 128
Escherichia coli O121:H19 123, 130, 132
Escherichia coli O157
Asia/Africa/South America 102–3
Index 493
Scotland 167, 169–72, 177–9, 183–5, 187–8
seasonal patterns 173
Escherichia coli O157:H7
agricultural practices 52–3
control envelope 68, 71–2, 73, 75
distribution system failures 434, 435
PCR detection 371
pH and survival 78
Swaziland outbreak 410
transmission 218–23
USA 123, 128, 130, 132
waste treatment systems 414, 415
Escherichia coli O157:[H7] 215–18
estuarine areas 236
ESWTR see Enhanced Surface Water Treatment
Rule
ETEC see enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
European surveillance systems 159
excision 477
exotic pets 85
expert consensus 3–16
exposure
calculation methods 467
control envelope 79
environmental transmission 31
epidemiological patterns 20–1
key concentrated sources 14
QRA 460–1
eyes 295
facultative lagoons/storage 413
faecal coliforms 431
faecal contamination
Bradley’s classification 32
Escherichia coli indicator 336, 341, 342–3
regulation 448–9
faecal environmental loading 23–4
faecal indicators 442–3, 446–7
faecal source identification 349–61
see also microbiological source tracking
faecal wastes see animal faeces/wastes; human
effluent/faeces
farming see agriculture; animal husbandry
Fasciola buski 300
Fasciola gigantica 300, 305, 310, 312, 313
Fasciola hepatica 69, 299–300, 305, 310–13
fascioliasis, human see human fascioliasis
fasciolids
adaptation capacities 309, 310–11
colonization power 309
drug resistance 309
fatty stools 263
feedlots 389
feral cats 269
fields 416–17
filtration
detection/enumeration methods 367–8
drinking-water 427–9
groundwater 433
parasites 479
fingerprinting techniques 352–3, 357
Finland 220
fish kills 39, 40
fish transmission 35
flagellates 261–5
flocculation 427
flooding 59, 60, 324
flukes 212
flying fox 103
Fonterra 201
food
consumption habits 53–4, 80
epidemiological concerns 155
on-farm safety programmes 386–7
food poisoning notification 170–1
food processing effluent 237
food sources
cyclosporiasis 286–8
hepatitis E 249
Listeria 456
494 Waterborne Zoonoses
Salmonella 228–9, 231–2, 234–5
Food Standards Agency 177
forecasts 317–18
Fossaria 311, 312
fowl plague 104
fragrances 350
France 327, 328
Francisella tularensis 124, 479
freshwater plants 314–15
freshwater quality criteria 442
freshwater snail vectors 311–13
freshwater studies
campylobacteriosis 462
Connecticut 195–6
Giardia survival 264
New Zealand 196–8
fungi 13
Fung’s Double Tube Method 369
future trends 5–7, 471–84
Galba truncatula 311, 312–13
gastrointestinal illnesses
Campylobacter 195, 196, 197
child morbidity/mortality 56–7
Cryptosporidium 273
Escherichia coli 214
Giardia 262
Salmonella 231
surveillance systems 159–60
tolerable microbial risk 457–8
genetic characterization 99
genetic exchange 476–7
genetic mutations 9, 57–8, 211, 475–6
genetic variations 245
genotypic methods 352–3
genotyping 313, 326–7
Giardia 261–5
Asia/Africa/South America 95–9
chlorine resistance 74, 430–1
cyst detection tests 96–8
drinking-water regulations 275
filtration 428
regulation 441
Scotland 169–70, 171–2, 181–3
seasonal patterns 173
surface waters 97
treated waters 98
USA 121, 128–30, 131–2
UV treatment 432–3
G. duodenalis 95, 99, 381
G. intestinalis 457
G. lamblia 116, 144, 339, 340, 464
giardiasis 144, 192, 193, 263
Gigantobilharzia sturniae 299
global temperature rise 61
globalization 51
Gnathostoma spinigerum, USA 123
Gorilla gorilla 101–2
governments 440
grazing systems 194, 196–200, 410–11
‘great plate count anomaly’ 343–4
greenhouse gases 418
groundwater 133, 236, 383, 433
group benchmark pathogens 8–9
Guangdong 37, 38
Guatemala 118
guidelines 452–8
Guillian-Barré syndrome 138
guinea worm 32–3, 297–8
habitat creation 54
HACCP see hazard analysis and critical control
points
haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) 177, 178,
215–16, 223
haemorrhagic fevers 105
Haiti 286, 287
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) 105
hantaviruses 105
HAV see hepatitis A virus
Hawaii 369
hazard analysis and critical control points
Index 495
(HACCP) 80–1, 455
hazard assessment, QRA 460–1
health criteria, USA 448–50
health education 107–8
health policy, USA 444
health targets 452–8
heavy rainfall 60, 73, 382
helminths 212, 291–303
cestodes 300–3
control in animal wastes 411–12, 415
expert consensus 13
life cycles 292
nematodes 293–8
transmission routes 292–3
trematodes 298–300
see also parasites
Hendra virus 103–4
hepatitis A virus (HAV) 79, 124, 328, 329
hepatitis E virus (HEV) 248, 249–50
control envelope 69
emergence/re-emergence 480
pigs 328–9
USA 124
high-risk groups see at-risk groups;
immunocompromised groups
highly pathogenic avian influenza 104
HIV see human immunodeficiency virus
Honduras 117–18
Hong Kong 38–9, 196, 339
hookworms 292
horizon-scanning perspectives 15
host origin databases 351–3
host specificity
control envelope 70
Salmonella 230–1
viruses 243–4
host susceptibility 10–11, 155, 156–7, 478
host-agent-environment relationship 157–8
host-specific polymerase chain reaction 359
household factors, control envelope 76–7
HPS see hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
human activities impact 47, 48–9
human behaviour 10, 53–4, 79–80
human effluent/faeces
contamination 193, 194–5, 444
Cyclospora cayetanensis 286
versus animal 201, 443, 450
human fascioliasis 212, 305–18
adaptation/colonization power 309
environment colonization 317–18
epidemiology 308–9
geographical distribution 307
human infection sources 314–17
reservoir hosts 310–11
snail vectors 311–13
transmission 306–7
transmission foci 314
human host changes 478
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 257
Cryptosporidium 67–8
cryptosporidiosis 142
Giardia infections 263
toxoplasmosis 77
human migration 10, 47–8, 54
human population growth 6, 21, 49–50, 157
human susceptibility 10–11
human viral reservoirs 246
human-to-human transmission see person-to-
person transmission
humans, see also pathogen–human factors
Hurricane Mitch 117–18
HUS see haemolytic uraemic syndrome
hydatid disease 301–2
hygiene 32, 76, 77
ID see infectious dose
IID see infectious intestinal disease
immunity 11, 54, 76, 79
immunocompromised groups 384
control envelope 79
496 Waterborne Zoonoses
disease surveillance 84
microsporidia 326, 327
pathogen evaluation 11
zoonose distribution 56
see also at-risk groups
immunoprophylaxis 390–1
imported infections 182
in vitro infectivity 243–4
income factors 6, 458
index pathogens 454
indicator methods
criteria requirements 446–7
EPA 450
limitations 444–5
viral indicators 343
water quality criteria 442–3
indirect life cycles 292
indirect transmission 21, 28, 29
industrial farming systems 21–4, 411
infants see children
infection patterns, emerging 472–82
infections with water-related insect vectors 34
infectious agents environmental transmission 30–1
infectious dose (ID) 31, 77
infectious intestinal disease (IID) 183–4
influenza viruses 248–9, 329
infrastructure changes 54–5
ingestion diseases 32–3
inhalation 14, 34
insect vectors 34
Institute of Medicine of the National Academies
(USA) 472–3
interdisciplinary collaboration 16
international issues
conflicts 50
control programmes 385–6
networks 85–6
surveillance 160–1, 164, 165
trade 85
travel 50–1
invasive infections 213–14
irrigation systems 53, 315
Japan 219, 221, 295
Johne’s disease 72, 189, 324–5
Juquitiba virus 105
kidneys 243
lagoons 413, 415
lambing 172
larva migrans 295
latency 30
laundry brighteners 350
LEE see locus of enterocyte effacement
Legionella 34
Legionnaires’ disease 34, 54, 91
length heterogeneity polymerase chain reaction
(LH-PCR) 356, 357
Leptospira 124, 129–30, 132
L. canicola 141
L. hebdomadis 141
L. icterohaemorrhagiae 141
L. interrogans, USA 124
leptospirosis 324
causative agents 141
climatic factors 478
Costa Rica 115
Honduras 117–18
Mexico 115
Scotland 169–70, 171
symptoms 141
transmission 33–4
treatments 142
vaccination 391
LH-PCR see length heterogeneity polymerase
chain reaction
library-based faecal source identification 351–3
life cycles
cestodes 292
Cryptosporidium 270
Cyclospora cayetanensis 284
Entamoeba histolytica 260
Index 497
fasciolids 306–7
Giardia 262
helminth parasites 292
microsporidia 257
nematodes 292
Toxoplasma 265–6
trematodes 292
zoonose criteria 35–6
lime stabilization 414, 417
Listeria 371, 372, 456
liver, raw 316
liver fluke disease see human fascioliasis
livestock see agriculture; animal husbandry
lobose amoebae 259
local communities empowerment 108
local surveillance 160–1, 164
locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) 216
Lyme disease 171
lymnaeids 299, 311–13
MAC see Mycobacterium avium complex
‘mad cow disease’ see bovine spongiform
encephalopathy
Malaysia 104–5
malnutrition 11
management
campylobacteriosis risks 201
distribution systems 435
future perspective 7
health risks 456
manure treatment 416
Stockholm framework 452–8
management interventions, control envelope
human characteristics 79–80
livestock/animal management 70, 71
point of use/household 76, 77
source water protection 72–3
water supply 74–5
MAP see Mycobacterium avium ssp.
paratuberculosis
MAR see multiple antibiotic resistance method
marine studies 196, 264, 268–9
marine water quality criteria 442
mass culling 419, 420–1
Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs)
441–2
MBM see meat and bone meal
meat
consumption trends 21
demand 6
preparation 54
processing 85, 419–20
meat and bone meal (MBM) 395, 398, 481
membrane processes 428–9
Menangle virus 103
meningitis 297
metacercariae 298
Mexico 113–14, 115, 118
microarray technology 342, 374
microbial flora 235
microbiological source tracking (MST) 447, 450, 451
see also faecal source identification
microfiltration membranes 429
microsporidia 13, 95–9, 211, 256–9, 326–8
microsporidiosis 257–8
migrants, human 10, 47–8, 54
military conflicts 50
Miller Fisher syndrome 138
Milwaukee, USA 440–1
Ministry of Health (New Zealand) 202, 206–7
mixed farming systems 411
mobile genetic elements 477
molecular beacon technology 372
molecular techniques, protozoa 212
molecular tracers 350
monkeys 243
Monte Carlo simulations 462, 467
mortality
children 56–7
DALYs 455, 456
498 Waterborne Zoonoses
foodborne listeriosis 456
helminth infections 291–2
most probable number (MPN) methods 370
mountain gorillas 101–2
mouse studies 272
movement
hosts 157, 164, 437, 478
pathogen reservoirs 47–51
pathogens 412
MPN see most probable number methods
MST see microbiological source tracking
multibarrier protection 426–7
multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) method 352
multiple array probe technologies 446
multiple host susceptibility 292
multiresistant strains 234, 238
municipal water supplies 49
mutation 9, 57–8, 211, 475–6
mycobacterial aerosol transmission 34
Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) 74, 479
Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis
(MAP) 68, 71, 72
Myocastor coypus 311
Naegleria 132, 256, 259
nanofiltration membranes 428
NASBA see nucleic acid sequence-based
amplification technique
national conflicts 50
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) 443, 450
national surveillance 160–1, 164, 165
Necator americanus 296
nematodes 212, 292, 293–8
neonatal sepsis 146
Nepal 286, 287
Netherlands 23, 220
New Zealand
beaches 339
campylobacteriosis 461–3
Ministry of Health pamphlet 206–7
risk models 158, 160
surveillance 152
zoonotic infections 191–202
Nicaragua 117
niche widening 312–13
Nipah virus 104–5, 328, 329
nitrate leaching 22
non-O157 VTEC 216–17, 218
non-VTEC DEC 224
non-zoonotic agents 195
noroviruses 184, 243, 480
notifications 170–1
NPDES see National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System
nucleic acid segments 476
nucleic acid sequence-based amplification
technique (NASBA) 373
nutria see Myocastor coypus
nutrient pollution 418
O157 VTEC 215–16
occupational exposure 33, 170, 474
ocular toxoplasmosis 145
Office International des Epizooties (OIE) 385–7
on-farm control 386–93
Ontario 221, 222
oocysts
Cryptosporidium 181, 270, 272–3, 274
Cryptosporidium parvum 473
Cyclospora cayetanensis 284, 285
Toxoplasma 265–8
oral doses 233
otters 268–9
outbreaks
Campylobacter 176
epidemiology 151–207
Scotland 183–7
surveillance systems 160, 162–3
outcome factors 10–11
oxidants 429–33
ozonation 433
Index 499
pamphlets 202, 206–7
pandemic influenza 328
pandemic Salmonella 238
paragonimiasis 35
Paramyxoviridae 103, 104
parasites
Asia/Africa/South America 94–100, 106
Cyclospora cayetanensis 284, 287
emergence/re-emergence 479
see also helminths
passive infected carriers 461–2
pastoral farming 194, 196–200
see also animal husbandry
pathogen-free animals 387
pathogenicity islands 477
pathogens
changes in 475–6
characteristics 57–8
control envelope 67, 68, 77–8
detection 341–2
emerging 4, 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84
main groups 12–13
reservoir mobility 47–51
pathogen–human factors, control envelope
livestock/animal management 70–1
point of use/household 76
source water protection 71–2, 73
water supply 74
patterns of infection 472–82
PCR see polymerase chain reaction
PEAS see possible estuary-associated syndrome
pectin gel tubes 369
persistence in environment 10, 30–1, 74
person-to-person transmission
Escherichia coli 210
Giardia 183, 262
infectious intestinal disease 184
VTEC 223
personal hygiene 32, 76, 77
Peru 286, 287
pets 76, 85, 235
PFGE see pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
Pfiesteria 39–41
pH 78
phenotypes, new 475–6
phenotypic methods 352
picornaviruses 244, 245
pigeons 235
pigs
Campylobacter 176
Fasciola hepatica 311
manure disposal 22
production effects 52
Salmonella reservoirs 234–5
Scotland 168
vesicular disease 246, 247
viruses 247–8, 328–9
waste lagoons 415
Yersinia enterocolitica 210, 238–9
pinniped caliciviruses 249
plant ingestion 314–16
plasmids 476–7
Pocomoke River, Maryland 40
point source exposure 20
point of use 76–7
policies
animal wastes 418
Listeria control 456
risk profile usage 468
US public health 444
polio 85–6, 430
‘pollution trading’ 449, 451
polycystic echinococcosis 302
polycystic hydatid disease 301
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 371–2
cyclosporiasis diagnosis 285
enteric virus quantification 355
methods 450
water quality surveillance 342, 344
Pontiac fever 34
500 Waterborne Zoonoses
population growth 6, 21, 49–50, 157
possible estuary-associated syndrome (PEAS) 41
potable water
acceptable risks 24
Asia/Africa/South America 106
Nicaragua 117
poultry
biosecurity 388
Campylobacter 71, 177
competitive exclusion 391–2
control programmes 386–7
industrialization 22
manure disposal 22–3
risk factors 381
Salmonella 232–3
Scotland 168
undercooking 195, 196, 461
viruses 249
precipitation
control envelope breach 73
global change 58–9
heavy rainfall 60, 73, 382
pregnancy 77, 145–6, 266
presence/absence data 468
pressure, water systems 434, 435
prevalence
Cryptosporidium 271
Entamoeba histolytica 260–1
geographical factors 157
Giardia 262–3
microsporidia 257
socioeconomic factors 157
Toxoplasma 266, 267
preventative quality assurance framework 83
primers 356, 358
prions 12, 394–9, 421, 481
private water supplies 168–9, 185, 474
probability of illness 465
probiotics 392
processing methods 85
protein coating 242–3, 244, 245
protozoa 211–12, 255–76
expert consensus 13
transmission routes 95
USA 121–3, 126, 131–2
pseudophyllid cestodes 300, 303
Pteropus 103, 104
public health
agriculture impact 200
driving forces 5–6
pathogen evaluation 11–12
Stockholm framework 452–8
pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) 352, 353
QRA see quantitative risk assessment
quality assurance 83
quality criteria
ambient waters 449, 450
Clean Water Act US EPA 442–3
water distribution systems 435
quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) 81–2
quantitative risk assessment (QRA) 460–8
quarantine procedures 70, 71
racehorses 103
racoons 295
Radix 312
rainfall see precipitation
rapid detection/enumeration methods 367–74
rats 250, 310–11
raw liver 316
re-emergence 4, 478–81
reassortant virus strains 29
recombination of genetic elements 477
recontamination 55
recreational waters 33
campylobacteriosis 461–2
Cryptosporidium 181
emerging patterns 474
epidemiological concerns 155
Escherichia coli O157:H7 218, 222
faecal contamination 340–1
Index 501
faecal indicators 342
New Zealand 193–6, 197–9
quality criteria 442, 443
regulatory approaches 441
risk factors 383
swimming-associated illness 339, 341
USA 127, 129–30, 133
regional effects 59
regulations
Cryptosporidium contamination 275
Toxoplasma contamination 269
regulatory perspective 437–51
Reiter’s syndrome 138
remote sensing 318
repetitive extragenic palindromic polymerase
chain reaction (REP-PCR) 352, 353
replication 31, 244, 476
reservoirs
animal 377–8, 380–401
human fascioliasis 310–11
Salmonella 232–5, 237
Scotland 167
viruses 246–50
VTEC 217–18
resistance
antibiotics 58, 389–90
chlorination 384
drugs 58, 107, 309, 389–90
environmental 10, 31, 74
environmental stressors 9
respiratory illnesses 196
reverse osmosis membranes 428
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 57, 244, 480
ribotyping 352, 353
risk assessment 437–69
emerging zoonotic diseases 24–5
modelling 153, 156, 161
quantitative 460–8
Stockholm framework 452–8
uses 437–8
water usage 441
risk communication 77
risk factors
animal reservoirs 381–4
diseases occurrence/spread 47
risk management 66, 80–6
disease surveillance 84–5
epidemiological studies 81–2
HACCP system 80–1
international networks 85–6
QMRA 81–2
quality surveillance 338–44
targeted studies 84–5
water safety plans 82–4
risk profiles 461, 462–3, 467–8
rivers see streams and rivers
RNA see ribonucleic acid
rodent reservoirs 250
rotaviruses 247, 480
ruminants
biosecurity 388–9
Cryptosporidium infections 270
risk factors 381
see also cattle; sheep
runoff 22, 73
rural health regions 194–5, 197, 200
Safe Drinking Water Act (US) 441–2
SALINPORK programme 387
Salmonella 210, 228–39
Asia/Africa/South America 101–2
competitive exclusion 391, 392
definition 229
dose-response studies 464, 465
emerging problems 238
Mexico 115
outbreak investigation 183, 184
pathogen-free animals 387
PCR detection 371, 372
Scotland 169–70, 172–5
502 Waterborne Zoonoses
seasonal patterns 171, 173
USA 123, 128–9, 132
S. Abortusovis 234
S. bongori 230
S. Choleraesuis 234–5
S. enterica 229, 230, 238, 381
S. Enteritidis 172, 174, 232–3, 238
S. Kottbus 231
S. Poona 231
S. Typhimurium 172–4, 232, 233–4, 238
salmonellosis 140–1, 192
sanitary surveys 435
sanitation, control envelope 76, 77
sapoviruses 243
sarafloxacin-susceptible/resistant strains 78
SARS see severe acute respiratory syndrome
SCCWRP see Southern California Coastal Water
Research Project
Schistosoma 33, 298–9
Schistosomatidae 129–30
schistosome cercarial dermatitis, USA 122
Scotland 151, 167–89, 219–21
scrapie 395, 397, 398–9, 481
sea level rise 59
sea lions 249
sea mammals 264, 268–9
seafood see shellfish
seals 264
seasonality 59–60
Campylobacter 197, 198–9
Cryptosporidium 164
human fascioliasis 317
Scotland 171–2, 173
seawater
Cryptosporidium 272
Entamoeba histolytica 260, 261
Giardia 264
microsporidia 259
secondary transmission 155, 156
sedimentation, drinking-water 427
sediments 60, 199
self-contained film system 369
sensitivity, surveillance systems 159, 161, 162
Seoul virus 105
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) 37–9,
105–6, 246
control envelope 77
emergence/re-emergence 480
host change capacity 57
sewage see animal faeces/wastes; effluents;
human effluent/faeces
shedding 246, 262
sheep
Campylobacter 176
Cryptosporidium 186–7, 274
MAP-infected 72
New Zealand 191
Salmonella 234
Scotland 168, 172
scrapie 395, 398–9, 481
shellfish
Campylobacter 198, 462
growing and harvesting 443
transmission 35
transportation 51, 54
water quality criteria 443
shellfish waters
animal/human faeces 340–1
faecal indicators 342
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
192, 194, 210, 214, 219–21
Shigella 101–2, 215
skin injuries 33
snails
cercarial dermatitis 299
Fasciola hepatica 299
Galba truncatula 311, 312–13
human fascioliasis 311–13
lymnaeids 299, 311–13
Schistosoma 298
socioeconomic factors 157
sodium chlorate 393
Index 503
soils, animal wastes application 416
sorbitol 216
source tracking 349–61, 447, 450, 451
source water protection 71–3
South Africa 219
South America 93–108
Southern California Coastal Water Research
Project (SCCWRP) 358–60
specific pathogen-free animals 387
spill over exposure 21
spiral plating method 368
Spirochetes emergence/re-emergence 479
Spirometra 122–3, 303
sporadic diseases 161–2
spores 257, 258–9
sporulation 265–6, 267–8, 270
sprouts 231–2
square bacteriological filter 368–9
stability, viruses 246
standards, US 448–50
statutory reporting 170–1
steatorrhoea (fatty stools) 263
STEC see Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli
Stockholm framework 452–8
stocking levels 199
stomach acidity 210
stool samples 163, 175
storage, animal wastes treatment 413
storm events 73, 74
strains
differentiation 15
dose-response uncertainties 465
infectious dose variation 77
streams and rivers
Campylobacter 198–9
Escherichia coli 200
management 201
sampling 197
sediments 199
streptococci 360
Strongyloides 100, 296
surface temperature 61
surface waters
Entamoeba histolytica 260
grazing systems 410
microsporidia 258–9
Salmonella transmission 236
surveillance
diseases outbreaks 162–3
Dominican Republic 116–17
emerging pathogens 473–4
epidemiological 159–64
importance 91–2, 152–3
limitations 153, 154–5
primary purposes 160–1
QRA relationship 460–1
risk management 84–5, 338–44
Scotland 170–88
studies 154–65
US 120–1
veterinary 163–4
water quality 338–44
survival rates 31
Campylobacter 198
Cryptosporidium 272
Giardia cysts 263–4
microsporidia 258–9
Toxoplasma 267–8
susceptibility
changes 155, 156–7, 158, 478
pathogen evaluation 10–11
Swaziland 410
Sweden 163
swimmer’s itch see schistosome cercarial
dermatitis
swimming pools see recreational waters
swine see pigs
symptom-based surveillance systems 159–60
system failures 82
systematic errors 156
504 Waterborne Zoonoses
T-RFLP see terminal restriction fragment length
polymorphisms
Taenia 122, 301
tapeworms 122, 212, 292, 300–3
targeted studies 84–5
technological interventions, control envelope
human characteristics 79–80
livestock/animal management 70, 71
point of use/household 76, 77
source water protection 72–3
water supply 74–5
temperature rise 61
terminal restriction fragment length
polymorphisms (T-RFLP) 356, 357
thermophilic Campylobacter 198
thermotolerance 229
tiered monitoring 447, 449
Tioman virus 103
TMDLs see total maximum daily loads
tolerable disease burden 83–4
tolerable risks 454, 456–8
total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) 449, 450,
451
total viable cell count method 368–9
tourism 50–1
toxin genes 356, 359
Toxocara 294–5
Toxoplasma 99–100, 265–9
Toxoplasma gondii 68, 77, 122, 144–5
toxoplasmosis 266, 268
congenital 145–8
health consequences 148
ocular 145
Scotland 171
symptoms 144–5
treatments 146–8
trade issues 51, 85
traditional livestock systems 21
training 107–8
transboundary movements 437
transformation process 476
transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE)
394–9, 421, 481
transmission
Bradley’s classification 31–4
control 420
criteria 36
Cryptosporidium 270
cyclosporiasis 286–7
emerging diseases 21
emerging patterns 474
Entamoeba histolytica 260
environmental 30–1
fish 35
foci 314
Giardia 262
helminths 292–3
human fascioliasis 306–7, 314
microsporidia 257
modes 5, 155–6, 158
multiple modes 5
principle vehicles 14
protozoan parasites 95
shellfish 35
Toxoplasma 266–7
TSE 481
water aerosols 34
transport
animal wastes 412, 416, 420
shellfish 51, 54
travel issues 50–1, 85
treatment
amoebiasis 261
animal wastes 412–16, 417
cryptosporidiosis 271
cyclosporiasis 285
drinking-water 426–34
Giardia 263
microsporidiosis 257–8
trematodes 292, 298–30
Trichobilharzia 299
Trichuris 122, 123, 292, 295
Index 505
triclabendazole 309
tropical forest invasion 54
tropical organisms 93–108
tropism 243
TSE see transmissible spongiform
encephalopathy
tularaemia 124
typhoid 192
typing schemes 176, 177, 180
UDG see uracil-D-glycosylase
Uganda 101–2
ultrafiltration membranes 429
ultraviolet (UV) light treatment 432–3
United Kingdom
Escherichia coli O157 isolates 178, 179
Salmonella 233
Scotland 151, 167–89, 219–21
surveillance systems 163
VTEC 218, 219–21, 222
United States of America 120–34
beaches 339
control programmes 152
cryptosporidiosis 440–1
Cryptosporidium 273
Cyclospora cayetanensis 286, 287
distribution systems 434
drinking-water regulations 275
Giardia 262–3
health criteria 448–50
hepatitis E virus 329
Institute of Medicine of the National
Academies 472–3
Listeria control 456
microsporidia 327–8
principal pathogens 121–5
regulatory approaches 441–5
reported outbreaks 125–30
Salmonella 231
standards 448–50
surveillance systems 163
tolerable microbial risks 457
Toxoplasma 267, 268
VTEC outbreaks 219–21, 222
uracil-D-glycosylase (UDG) 372
urban agriculture 6
urban wildlife 6
urbanization 6, 49–50
urine 23
uropathogenic Escherichia coli 213, 214
UV light see ultraviolet light
vaccination
control envelope 76
immunoprophylaxis 390–1
wildlife 393–4
worm infection effects 94
variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) 42, 247
emergence/re-emergence 481
potential waterborne pathogens 396, 397,
398, 400
vegetables 286, 287–8
verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli
(VTEC) 192, 194, 210, 213–24
vertical transmission 232–3
vesicular diseases 246, 247, 249
veterinary surveillance 163–4
viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state 31, 198,
237
Vibrionaceae 479
Vietnam 286, 287
virulence
control envelope 77–8
Escherichia coli 215
Salmonella 230–1
viruses 211, 242–52
Asia/Africa/South America 103–6
control in animal wastes 411–12
drinking-water regulations 275
emergence/re-emergence 480
506 Waterborne Zoonoses
expert consensus 12
faecal source identification 354, 355
faecal virus indication 343
host specificity 243–4
Mexico 115
pigs 328–9
replication 244
USA 124–5, 126
vital dyes 370
VTEC see verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia
coli
Walkerton, Ontario 222
washing 316
Washington County Fair 222
wastes see animal faeces/wastes; effluents; human
effluent/faeces
water distribution, control envelope 73–5
water quality
assurance framework 81
criteria 435, 442–3, 449, 450
management 82–3
targets 83
water safety plans (WSP) 82–4
water shortages 93, 106
water storage, control envelope 73–5
water systems infrastructure changes 54–5
water treatment
control envelope 73–5
emerging patterns of infection 474
parasites 479
viruses 480
water-based infection classification 32–3
water-borne infection classification 32
water-related disease
classification 36, 37
criteria 30–5
water-washed infections 32
waterborne outbreaks definition 120
watercress 314–15
weather patterns 59–60
whipworms see Trichuris
WHO see World Health Organization
wildlife
microsporidia 259
reservoirs 389, 393–4, 400
SARS virus 38
Toxoplasma prevalence 267
viruses 249–50
VTEC reservoirs 217–18
Wisconsin, USA 440–1
World Health Organization (WHO) 452–8
worm infections 32–3, 94
wounds 33
WSP see water safety plans
years of life lost to premature death (YLL) 455
years lived with a disability (YLD) 455
Yersinia 123–4, 128–9
Yersinia enterocolitica 123–4, 210, 238–9, 339
yield studies see deposition/yield studies
young animals 381
zoonoses
definition 5, 28
determining criteria 28–9