Using Grounded Theory To
Generate Process Models
Dr Susan GassonCollege of Information Science & TechnologyDrexel UniversityEmail: [email protected]
Agenda Factor models vs. process models
Example: study of boundary-spanning design processes Drowning in data – how to organize Defining process episodes and transitions Defining and re-defining the core category
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Factor Models Vs. Process ModelsFactor model:
Process model:
Source: Royce, 1970
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Factor Models Vs. Process Models
Derived from: Newman, M. & Robey, D. (1992) ‘A Social Process Model of User-Analyst Relationships,’ MIS Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 249-266.
Factor model:
Inferred processes
Process model:
Antecedent conditions
Outcomes
Sequence of episodes and transitions comprising the process
Dependent variables
Independent variables
© Susan Gasson, 2009
DefinitionsEpisode “A set of events that stand apart from
others, signifying the end of one sequence of activities and the beginning of another” (Newman and Robey, 1992).
Punctuated equilibrium model Change = "an alternation between long
periods when stable infrastructures permit only incremental adaptations, and brief periods of revolutionary upheaval" (Gersick, 1991, p. 10).
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Research Question
How does design proceed, when design participants
are distributed across organizational boundaries?
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Co-Design of Business Process & IT Systems
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Managing Director
Operations Director
Finance Director
Technical Director
Marketing Director
Quality Director
External Ops. Manager
Business Devt.
Manager (BDM)
Access Networks Proj. Engineering
Manager
Assistant Project Engineering
Mgr.(PEM)
Project Mgt.
Accountant(PMA)
Customer Solutions Manager
(CSM)
Process Improvement
& Change Control(PIM)
Commercial Director
Bid-Response Process Manager
(BM)
IS Manager(ISM)
Development Engineers
Boundary-spanning design team (IT & business managers) 3 hr, bi-weekly meetings over 18 months Design group presentations to senior management Ad hoc interviews (pre- & post meeting) Formal interviews w/participants (start, middle, end)
Grounded Theory Process Open Coding (1)
A morass of codes, related to all aspects of process, context, and people/behaviors
Open Coding (2) Technological frames related to individual and shared
design understanding Selective Coding
Core category = design frames(leading to process model of collaborative design framing)
Category 1: Individual vs. shared design frames Category 2: Espoused frame (process focus) Category 3: Process space (behaviors relating to group
design framing, e.g. patterns of interaction; group conflict). Theoretical coding
Core category ???© Susan Gasson, 2009
Selective Coding SchemeTentative core variable = design “frame” as relationship between subjective and intersubjective frames
Second-Order (Observed) Categories Analytic Categories
Overarching Dimensions
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DESIGN-
FRAMING: COGNITIVE SPACE
ELEMENTS
BEHAVIORS RELATING TO DESIGN PROCESS (GROUP STRUCTURE AND PATTERNS OF
INTERACTION)
SHARED FRAME: FOCUS OF SPECIFIC DESIGN EPISODE
Design-process framing
Problem-definition framing
Solution-definition framing
Negotiation of consensus
How information supports bid process How work is coordinated How the bid process interacts with the strategic planning and product lifecycle
Flowchart modeling, to merge diverse views Modeling what-happens-now vs. what- should-happen Capturing issues at mult. levels of decomposition “Aunt Sally” method of paper prototyping Producing process specs. for ext. stakeholders
Response to external constraints
Agreement of form of words for document Group presentation to management Adoption of shared metaphor to describe issue
Disagreement and conflict behaviors
Presents alternative to group perspective Explicit disagreement or verbal challenge Refusal to accept group document or model
Discussion of senior management perspective Design of mechanism to ensure global adoption Reframing of design element to fit constraints
Library resource, to provide info. resources Work-tracking resource, to manage commitment Intelligence-gathering resource Knowledge-base to support autonomous work Org. memory system to record decision-basis
Focus on Designing An Electronic Document Library
Providing an information repository Estimating resources Supporting autonomy and expertise Coordinating dispersed work-groups Overt organization vs. covert org. Obtaining advance warning of bids
Analytic Categories
Second-Order (Observed) Categories
Resolution of conflict
Presents alternative accepted by group New model or document wins agreement Group mgmt: declaration that issue is off-topic
Supporting mgmt. & control functions Defining what info. is recorded where Desirability/feasibility of radical change Agreed vs. required change boundary Pilot study (as exploratory process prototype) Formalization of IT system
Focus on Process Closure
(“Train The Troops”)
Focus on The Virtual Team
Concept
…
Focus on Aligning The Bid Process
With Product Lifecycle
…
Focus on Providing Business
Intelligence
…
Focus on Business As Usual Thro’
Process Prototyping
…
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Design Process Model – Episode Transitions
Individual design frames
Shared design
frame(s)
Degree of conflict
Inferred processes Individual
design frames
Shared design
frame(s)
Degree of conflict
Inferred processes Individual
design frames
Shared design
frame(s)
Degree of conflict
Inferred processes Individual
design frames
Shared design
frame(s)
Degree of conflict
Core category is “design frame” Relationship between individual and group frames
Process model focuses on changes between frames
Episode IdentificationChanges in relationships between categories & concepts indicate episode transitions One dominant set of design frames gives way to
another set of design frames – what has changed? A: Problem structure
Shared design frame leads to new representations, and new goal-definitions - what has changed? A: One mobilizing vision has replaced the previous
one Escalating levels of conflict in a series of meetings
are followed by almost no conflict in the next meeting – what has changed? A: Extent of individual cognitive dissonance has
been resolved!© Susan Gasson, 2009
© Susan Gasson, 2009
Final Categories of Core Category becomes the Mobilizing Vision
Design proceeds through a series of episodes in which problem, goal and solution definitions are aligned around a temporary, “mobilizing vision”, punctuated by rapid, disruptive breakdowns in collective understanding.
Collective breakdown
Problem reframing
Increasing dissonance between individual solutions/goals and
group problem-structure
Mobilizing Vision
Aligned problem, goal, and solution definitions
Mobilizing Vision
Collective breakdown
Problem reframing
Increasing dissonance between individual solutions/goals and
group problem-structure
Mobilizing Vision
Aligned problem, goal, and solution definitions
Primary Generator Vision – Structures Problem In Terms of Solution-Form
Take-Aways A process model can be represented as a
series of factor models Episodes are a useful way to understand
complex and changing data The changing relationship between factors
indicates episode transitions No short cuts – need to compare data
backwards as well as forwards, to see changes in categories and concepts Changes in categories and concepts sensitize
you to episode transitions Core category elements and relationships are
redefined until the process model fits the data.© Susan Gasson, 2009