ORGANISATIONALDYNAMICES
UNIT-3
LEADERSHIP:
AccordingtoGeorgeR.Terry“Leadershipistheactivityofinfluencingpeopletostrivewillinglyforgroupobjectives”.
CHARACTERISTICSOFLEADERSHIP:
An analysis ofthe above definitions ofleadership reveals thatithas the followingcharacteristics.
1.Leadershipisaprocessofinfluence: Leadershipisaprocesswhoseimportantingredientistheinfluenceexercisedbytheleaderongroupmembers.Apersonissaidtohaveaninfluenceoverotherswhentheyarewillingtocarryouthiswishesandaccepthisadvice,guidanceanddirection.
2.Leadershipisthefunctionofstimulation:Leadershipisthefunctionofmotivatingpeopletostrivewillinglytoattainorganizationalobjectives.Leadersareconsideredsuccessfulwhentheyareabletosubordinateinterestsoftheemployeestothegeneralinterestsoftheorganization.
3.Leadershipgivesanexperienceofhelpingattainthecommonobjectives:Undersuccessfulleadership,everypersonintheorganizationfeelsthathisoperation,howeverminoritmaybe,isvitaltotheattainmentoforganizationalobjectives.
4.Employeesmustbesatisfiedwiththetypeofleadershipprovided:Onlyshort-termproductivityofemployeescanbeincreasedbypressureandpunishment. Thisapproachisnotinthelong-term interestsoftheorganization. Forcegeneratescounter-forcewhichresultsinadecreasedlong-term productivity.
5.Leadershipisrelatedtoasituation:Whenwetalkofleadership,itisalwaysrelatedtoa particularsituation,ata given pointoftime and undera specific setofcircumstances. Thatmeans leadership styles willbe differentunderdifferentcircumstances.
SIGNIFICANCEOFLEADERSHIP:
Leadership is ofparamountimportance in accomplishmentoforganizationalobjectives.“Thefactthataleadercanhaveanimmenseeffectontheperformancethoseunderhim hasbeennotedforcenturiesthatwhilesomeofficersreceiveonlygrudgingobedience,otherisabletoinspiretheirmentodotheseeminglyimpossibleanddoitwillingly.
(i) Determinationofgoals.Aleadershipperformsthecreativefunctionoflayingdowngoalsandpoliciesforthefollowers.Heactsasaguideininterpretingthegoalsandpolicies.
(ii) Organization ofActivities:A good leaderdivides organization activitiesamongtheemployeesinasystematicmanner.Therelationshipsbetweenthem areclearlylaiddown.Thisreducesthechancesofconflictamongthem.
(iii) RepresentationofWorkers:Theleaderisarepresentativeofhisgroup.Hetakesinitiativeinallmatter5sofinteresttothegroupandattemptstofulfillthepsychologicalneedsofthesubordinates.
(iv) AchievingCoordination:Aleaderintegratesthegoalsoftheindividualswiththeorganizationalgoalsandcreatesacommunityofinterests. Hekeepshimselfinformedabouttheworkingofthegroupandsharesinformationwithgroupforthecoordinationofitsefforts.
(v) Providing Guidance: A leader guides the subordinates towards the
achievementoforganizationalobjectives. He is available foradvicewheneverasubordinatefacesanyproblem.
(vi) Building Employees’Morale:Good leadership is indispensable to highemployeemorale.Theleadershapesthethinkingandattitudesofthegroup.Hedevelopsgoodhumanrelationsandfacilitatesinteractionsbetweenthemembersofthegroup..
(vii) Facilitingchange:Dynamicleadershipisthecorner-stoneoforganizationalchange.Aneffectiveleaderisabletoovercomeresistancetochangeonthepartofwor5kersandthusfacilitatechange.
LEADERSHIPSTYLE:
Thewordstylereferstothewayofdoingsomething. Leadershipstylereferstoleader’sbehavioralpatternwhichisreflectedinhisroleasaleader.Leadershipstyleistheresultofhisattitude,valuesystem,personalityandphilosophy.Italsodependsuponthefollowersandtheorganizationalclimateprevailingintheorganization.Thedifferenttypesofleadershipstylesare:
AutocraticLeadership. ParticipativeLeadership FeereinsLeadership.
(i) AutocraticorAuthoritarianLeader:Theautocraticleadergivesorderswhichheinsistsshallbeobeyed. Hedeterminespoliciesforthegroupwithconsultingthem,anddoesnotgivesdetailedinformationaboutfutureplans,butsimplytellsthegroupwhatimmediatestepstheymusttake.Hegivespersonalpraiseorcriticism toeachmemberonhisowninitiativeandremainsalooffrom thegroupforthemajorpartofthetime.
(ii) ParticipateorDemocraticLeader:Ademocraticleaderisonewhogivesordersafterconsultingthegroup,seesto itthatpoliciesareworkedoutingroupdiscussionsandwiththeacceptanceofthegroup.Heneveraskspeopletodothingswithoutsketchingoutthelong-term plansonwhichtheyareworking.Hemakesitclearthatpraiseorblameisamatterforthegroupandparticipatesinthegroupasamember.
(iii) FreeReinorLaissezFaireLeader:Suchaleaderdoesnotlead,butleavesthegroupentire4lytoitself.HeisrepresentedbytheChairmanoftheboardwhodoesnotmanage,butleavesallresponsibilityformostoftheworkto hissubordinates.Thefreereinleaderdependslargelyuponthegrouptoestablishitsowngoalsandworkoutitswonproblems.Groupmembersworkthemselvesandprovidetheirownmotivation.Themanagerexistsasacontactmanwithoutsidersto bring forhisgroup theinformation and resourcesitneedstoaccomplishitsjob.
MANAGERIALGRID
Managerialgrid:Oneofthemostwidelyknownapproachesofleadershipstylesisthemanagerialgrid developed by Blake and Mouton.Managerialgrid is also known as“Leadershipgrid”.Theyemphasizedthatleadershipstyleconsistsoffactorsofbothtaskorientedandrelationorientedbehaviorinvaryingdegrees.Themanagerialgridreflectsmultidimensionalnatureofleadershipandhelpsinmeasuringrelativeconcernofmanagerforpeopleandtask.Themanagerialgrididentifiesvariousalternativecombinationsofbothstylesofconcernforpeopleandconcernforproduction.
1.Impoverishedleadershipstyle(1,1)2.Team leadership(9,9)3.Middleoftheroadleadership(5,5)4.Taskleadership(9,1)5.Countryclubleadership(1,9)
Impoverishedleadershipstyle(1,1):Thisstylereferstominimum concernonthepartofleaderforbothproductionsaswellpeople.Theeffortsoftheleadertowardsworkssituationtotakecareofitself.Thisstyleissometimescalled“Laissez-Faire”management,becausetheleaderabdicatedhisleadershiproleandleaveseverythingtothesituation.Theleaderbelievesthatuseofminimum effortsisrequiredtogetworkdoneandtosustainmoraleofthemembers.Inthisstyle,thereisnoguidance,no supportforcreativity and innovation.The leaderavoids controversy andconfrontation.
Team leadership(9,9):Itreferstohighconcernforproductionandpeople.Itisconcernedastheeffectivemanagementstyle.Becausethestyleofleadershipwillinalmostallsituationsresultsinimprovedperformance,lowabsenteeism andturnoverandhighemployee’ssatisfaction.Suchtypeofleaderaresuccessfulincreatinghighlyencouraging organizationalclimate ofcommitmentand cooperation andbuildinginterpersonalrelationbasedonmutualtrustandrespect.
Middleoftheroadleadership(5,5):Itreferstoequalconcernforproductionandpeople.Suchleadersbelievethatadequateleveloforganizationalperformanceispossiblethroughbalancingthenecessarytogetworkdonebymaintainingmoraleofthe people at satisfactory level.It is sage style seeking balance betweenrequirementsofproductionandneedsofthepeople.
Taskleadership(9,1):Itrepresentshighconcernforproductionandlowconcernforpeople.Theleaderplacesmoreemphasisonproductiontargetsandproductivityandotherfactorlikepeople’sneeds,andsatisfactionbecomesecondary.Theleaderstressedonauthoritycompliance.Hearrangesconditionsofworkinsuchawaythat
High 9 Low
8PE 7OP 6LE 5
4
3
2
1Low 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9High
PRODUCTION
(1,9) (9,9)
Countryclub Team leadership
(5,5)
Impoverished Taskleadership
(1,1) (9,
humanelementsinterferetoaminimum degree.Countryclubleadership(1,9):Itreferstolow concernforproductionbuthighconcernforpeople.Thisstyleisanti-thesisoftaskleadership.Suchleaderbelievesincreatingfriendlyinter-personalrelation with people atwork.He creates enthusiasm among them andmotivates.
Attitude
Definitionof Attitude:AccordingtoGordonAllport,“Anattitudeisamentalandneuralstateofreadiness,
organizedthroughexperience,exertingadirectiveordynamicinfluenceupontheindividual’sresponsetoallobjectsandsituationswithwhichitisrelated.”
NatureofAttitude:
Attitudeareacomplexcombinationofthingswetendtocallpersonality,beliefs,values,behaviors,andmotivations.
Anattitudeexistsineveryperson’smind.Ithelpstodefineouridentity,guideouractions,andinfluencehowwejudgepeople.
Althoughthefeelingandbeliefcomponentsofattitudeareinternaltoaperson,wecanviewaperson’sattitudefrom hisorherresultingbehavior.
Attitudehelpsusdefinehowweseesituations,aswellasdefinehowwebehavetowardthesituationorobject.
Attitudeprovidesuswithinternalcognitionsorbeliefsandthoughtsaboutpeopleandobjects.
Attitudecauseustobehaveinaparticularwaytowardanobjectorperson.
DefinitionofJobSatisfaction:AccordingtoS.P.Robbins,“Jobsatisfactionreferstoanindividual’sgeneralattitude
towardhisorherjob.”
Importanceofjobsatisfaction:
LowerTurnover. HigherProductivity IncreasedCustomerSatisfaction. EmployeeAbsenteeism. HelpstoEarnHigherRevenues. SatisfiedEmployeesTendtoHandlePressure.
JobCharacteristicsModelTheJobCharacteristicsModel(JCM)explainsthatjobsatisfactionoccurswhentheworkenvironmentencouragesintrinsicallymotivatingcharacteristics.Fivekeyjobcharacteristics:skillvariety,task identity,task significance,autonomy and feedback,influence threepsychologicalstates.Subsequently,thethreepsychosocialstatesthenleadtoanumberofpotential outcomes, including: job satisfaction.
INTERPERSONALBEHAVIOR :Interpersonalbehavioristheinteractionbetweentwoormorepersons.Itisimperative
tobuildingandmaintaininganytypeofrelationshipinoursocialworld.However,whenlookingatinterpersonalbehaviorin the workplace,things become a little more complicated.Interpersonalbehavioraffectstherelationshipsbetweencoworkerandcoworker,coworkerandsupervisor,andevenworkerandcustomer.Interpersonalrelationshipsareimportantincareerandjobsuccess.Positiverelationshipscanleadtoharmoniousworkachievement,overallhappiness,and even success.Negative relationships can lead to poorworkperformanceandcanhinderproblem solvingandconflictresolution.
DefinitionsofOrganizationalConflict:AccordingtoS.R.Robbinsdefinesconflictas“aprocessinwhichaneffortis
purposefullymadebya person orunitto blockanotherthatresultin frustrating theattainmentofothersgoalsorfurtheringofhisorherinterests.”
TheTypesOfOrganizationalConflict :
Type#1.TaskConflict:Taskconflictrelatestothecontentandgoalofthework.AccordingtoGraves,task
conflictarisesamongmembersofteam andaffectsthegoalsandtaskstheyarestrivingtoachieve.Itcanbebasedondifferencesinvision,intention,andqualityexpectation.
Type# 2.RoleConflict:Conflictsurrounding rolesand responsibilitiesareespeciallycommonduring or
immediatelyfollowingorganisationalchange,particularlyrestructurings.Peoplemaybeunclearonwhoisresponsibleforwhichdecisionsandoutputs.
Type# 3.ProcessConflict:Thisisrelatedtohowtheworkgetsdone.Thisform ofconflictcentresaround,the
process,procedures,stepsormethodsusedtoreachgoal.Onepersonmightliketoplanmanysteps ahead while others mightlike to dive in headfirst.These differences inapproachesorprocessescanleadtocommunicationbreakdownsandultimatelyconflict.Healthydifferencesinapproachestoprocesswilloftenleadtoimprovedwayofdoingjob.
Type# 4.DirectionalConflict:Directionalconflictariseswhenorganisationsareforcedtorethinktheirstrategies
andfocusonshorter-term activities,asmanydidduringtheeconomicdownturn.Employeesmaynotknowhowtoprioritiselong-term versusshort-term needs,oronedepartmentmayworktacticallywhileanotherremainsstrategic.
Type# 5.ExternalConflict:Externalconflictarises when pressures from customers orotherstakeholders
impactinternaldecisions.Recenteconomicchallengescompelledorganisationstoadjustandadapt,forexample,byloweringpriceswhileprovidingenhancedcustomerservice.Salesorcustomerservicepersonneladvocatingforcustomers’needsmayhavecomeintoconflictwithoperationstryingtomeetinternalgoals.
Power:Definitionofpower:
AccordingtoWeber,“Powerastheprobabilitythatoneactor(individualorgroup)withinasocialrelationshipinapositiontocarryouthisownwilldespiteresistance,regardlessofthebasisonwhichthisprobabilityrests”.
FiveFormsofPower1.CoercivePower2.RewardPower3.LegitimatePower4.ReferentPower5.ExpertPower
1.CoercivePowerThisform ofpowerisbasedupontheideaofcoercion.Thismeansthatsomeoneis
forcedtodosomethingagainsttheirwill.AccordingtoFrenchenRaventherearealsootherformsofpowerthatcanbeusedinacoercivemannersuchaswithholdingrewardsorexpertiseorusingreferentpowertothreatensocialexclusion.
2.RewardPowerThistypeofpowerinvolvestheabilityofindividualstodelegatematterstheydonot
wishtodotootherpeopleandtorewardthem forthis.Formanagersinanorganizationitisaperceivedpossibilitytovalueorrewardtheirsubordinates’goodresultsinapositivemanner.
3.LegitimatePowerThisform ofpowergivestheabilitytolinkcertainfeelingsofobligationornotionof
responsibilitytothemanagement.Rewardingandpunishingemployeescanbeseenasalegitimatepartoftheformalorappointedleadershiprole.Mostmanagersinorganizationsexecuteacertaindegreeofrewardandpunishment.
4.ReferentPowerThisform ofpowerisaboutmanagementbasedontheabilitytoadministerto
someoneasenseofpersonalacceptanceorapproval.
5.ExpertPowerThisform ofpowerisbasedonin-depthinformation,knowledgeorexpertise.These
leadersareoftenhighlyintelligentandtheytrustintheirpowertofulfilseveralorganizationalrolesandresponsibilities.
UNIT-4
Qualityofworklife(QWL):Meaning:
Qualityofworklife(QWL)referstothefavourablenessorunfavourablenessofajobenvironmentforthepeopleworkinginanorganisation.Theperiodofscientificmanagementwhichfocusedsolelyonspecialisationandefficiency,hasundergonearevolutionarychange.
Definition:“TheoverridingpurposeofQWListochangetheclimateatworksothatthehuman-
technological-organisationalinterfaceleadstoabetterqualityofworklife.”-Luthans
QualityofWorkLife(QWL)Qualityofworklifeisaconceptwhichtalksabouttheoverallfocusonemployeeasapersonratherthanjusttheworkdonebyhim/her.QualityofWorkLifeisbecominganincreasinglypopularconceptin recenttimes.Itbasically talks aboutthe methods in which anorganisationcanensuretheholisticwell-beingofanemployeeinsteadofjustfocusingonwork-relatedaspects.
Importanceof qualityofworklifeQualityofworklife (QWL)isafactthatanindividual’slifecan’tbecompartmentalisedandanydisturbanceonthepersonalfrontwillaffecthis/herprofessionallifeandvice-versa.Agood worklifebalance isalsowhatmotivatesanemployeethemosttoperform wellathisorjobandalsospendqualitytimewiththefamily.Therefore,organisationshavestartedtofocusontheoveralldevelopmentandhappinessoftheemployeefortheir motivation andreducinghis/herstresslevelswithoutjeopardisingtheeconomichealthofthecompany.Agood timemanagement schedulehelpsemployeesbalancetheirworkandpersonallife.
GROUPDYNAMICS
Introduction:
Theindividualsandgroupsconstitutethehumanresourcefoundationsoforganizations.Groupsareeverywhereandareinevitablesocialfabricasallofusspendmostofusliveinsocialsituations.Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepersonswhointeractwitheachother,consciouslyfortheachievementofcertaincommonobjectives.Thenumberofthegroupisinterdependentandisawarethattheyarepartofagroup.Thenumbersofthegroupareinterdependentandareawarethattheyarepartofgroup.Theyareinfluencedbyeachother.
Definitionofgroup
“Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepersonswhointeractontheeachotherconsciouslyfortheachievementofcertaincommonobjectives.Themembersofthegrouparemutuallyinter-dependentandtheyareawarethattheyarepartofagroup”
__MartinE.Shaw
“Agroupisanynumberofpeoplewhointeractwithoneanother,arepsychologicallyawareofoneanotherandperceivethemselvestobeagroup”
__Edgarschein
CHARACTERISTICOFGROUPS:
Interaction:Averycommoncharacteristicofagroupismutualinteractionbetweenthemembersofthegroup.Inawiderterm,interactionisacommunication.Such
communicationbeoralorbygestureorbynoddingthehead. Activities:Almostallthegroupdooneormoreactivities.Workgroupmaybebusyin
activitiesontheworkwhileinfriendshipgroupsonemaytalkeachother Norms:therearecertainnormsofthegroupthatrepresentsitscultureorethos.
Everygrouphasitsowncultureandalevelofbehaviorbywhichitisrecognizedwithinthesociety.
InformalLeadership:Theremustbeaninformalleaderamongthemembersofthegroup.Itisnominatedbymembersofthegrouptakingintoconsiderationtheage,experience,technicalknowledge,etc.
Cohesion:Agroupdevelopsbecauseitsatisfiescertainneedsofitsmembers.Themore needs itsatisfies,the more itattracts the members.This attraction orbelongingmaybecalledcohesiveness.
Autonomy:Agroupmaybedependentorindependentofothergroupsand,thus,haveadifferentstructure. Wheneachmemberofagrouphasindependentanddifferentactivities,thecohesivenessamongmembersofthegroupwillbelessascomparedtothegroupwhosemembersaredependsuponeachother.
LeadershipStyle:Thedifferentstylesofleadershipinfluencethegroupcohesivenessdifferently.Aneffectiveleaderkeepsthemembersofthegroupclosebyhelpingthem andsatisfiestheirsocialneeds.
OutsidePressure:Groupsprovideasenseofsecurityfortheindividualmembersfrom pressuresfrom othergroups.Thegroupmembersworktogetherwhentheyarethreatenedbyacommondanger.
Managementbehavior:TheBehaviorofmanagementhasadirectinfluenceonthedegreeofcohesion thatexistswithin agroup.Bycreating competition amongemployeesandbyconstantlycomparingoneemployeewithanother,amanagermaymakecloserelationsdifficult.
GenderoftheGroup:Recentstudiesindicatethatwomenaremorecohesivethanmen. Itshouldbeassumedthatwomenarelesscompetitiveand/oronemorecooperativewithpeopletheyasfriends,colleagues,orteam members.
CommonElements:Demographicandbehavioralresemblanceamongthegroupmembersalsocontributetohigherstateofcohesiveness.
SatisfactionofMember’sNeeds:Ifbeingamemberofthegroupsatisfiesneeds,theywillhaveastrongdesiretostaywiththegroup.
GROUPDYNAMICS:
Theworddynamicscomesfrom aGreekwordmeaning‘Force’.Theterm groupdynamicsreferstotheforcesoperatingingroups.Theinvestigationofgroupdynamicsconsistsofastudyoftheseforcesandtheconditionsmodifyingthem.Thepracticalapplicationofgroupdynamicsconsistsoftheutilizationofknowledgeabouttheseforcesfortheachievementofsomepurpose.
Groupdynamicsmaybedefinedasthesocialprocessbywhichpeopleinteractfacetofaceinsmallgroups.Thus,itisconcernedwiththedynamicinter-actionofindividualsinafacetofacerelationship.
FEATURESOFGROUPDYNAMICS:
1.Perception:GroupDynamicsasdefinedbyperceptionimpliesthateverymemberofthegroupisawareofhisrespectiverelationshipwithothers.Thegroupconsistsoforganismsoragents.Themembersoragentsareengagedininteractionwithoneanother.The have face to face meetings. Theydevelop some impression orperceptionabouteachotherandgivetheirreactionstoeachother.
2.Motivation:Membersjoingroupsbecausetheyexpectthatthegroupwillsolvetheirproblems. Theywantprogressandpromotionwhichareachievedthroughgroup
performance.Thepressuresandproblemsarejointlymetbythem.Groupnormsemergetoguideindividualbehavior.
3.GroupGoals:GroupGoalsaretargetstowardswhichinput,processandoutputaredirected.Groupgoalistheessentialcomponentofgroupinformation,althoughitisnottheonlycondition forforming a group.A goalisused formotivating theemployees.Thepathgoalrelationshipproducesahigherresponsibilityforattainingthegoals.
4.GroupOrganization:Groupisanorganizationwhichiscomposedofdifferentorganstoattaintcertainobjectives. Agrouphasthestructuralelementsofaneffectiveorganization. A socio-psychologicalgroup is evolved wherein two ormoreindividualsareinterrelated.Ithasasetstandardofrelationshipamongitsmembers.
5.Interdependency:Themainfeatureofagroupisthemembers’interdependence.Themembersofagroupmayhaveacommongoalbuttheymaynotbeapartofthegroupbecausetheyarenotinterdependent.Individualswaitingfortheirturnatabusstophavethecommongoaloftravelbuttheydonotconstituteagroupbecausetheindividualsarenotinterdependent.
6.Interaction: Members ofa group mustinteractwith each other. Iftheyareinterdependentbutdonotinteract,thegroup’sgoalsarenotachieved.Membershaveaninterpersonalproblem-solvingmode.Ifanyproblem arises,theinteractionofallthemembersisneededtosolvetheproblem.
7.Entitativity:Agrouphasitsownidentity.Ithassimilarityandproximity.Itisfeltandrealizedbutcannotbeseen.Thecollectionofindividualexperiencesbecomestheguidelinesforthemembers.Theuniform,officeandpeoplebecomethesymbolofagroup.
GROUPCOHESIVENESS:
The cohesiveness is an importantfactorthatinfluences group effectiveness.Groupcohesivenessreferstothedegreetowhichgroupmembersform astrongcollectiveunitreflectingafeelingofoneness.Inotherwords,itreferstotheextenttowhichmembersofagroupareunitedandnottogether.Itisthespiritofcloseness.
AccordingtoRabbines,groupcohesivenessas“thedegreetowhichgroupmembersareattractedtoeachotherandsharecommongoals.Themoremembersareattractedtoeachother,themorethegroupgoalsalignwithindividualgoalsandthegreaterthegroupcohesiveness”.
FACTORSDETERMININGGROUPCOHESIVENESS:
Statusofthegroup:Otherthingsremainingsame,peoplegenerallyfeelloyaltytowardsahighstatusgroup thantowardsalow statusgroup.Theyaremoreconscioustoconform tothenormsofthegroupfrom whichtheywanttoescape.
Sizeofthegroup:Theeffectivegroupisrelativelysmall.Smallgroupsaremorecloselyknittedthanlargeones.Whenthegroupissmallitsmembershaveconstantfacetofacecontacts.
Natureofthegroup:Heterogeneousgroupsareoftenlesseffectiveinpromotingtheirownintereststhangroupswhosemembersarealikeonsuchfactorsasage,education,status,experience,background,etc.,arebetterwhenthetaskorgoalrequiresmutualcooperationandconflictfreebehavior.
Communication:Groups,whose members are located close togetherand caninteractfrequentlyandeasily,arelikelytobemorecohesiveandeffectivethanthoseatgreaterdistance.Suchgroupstendtodeveloptheirownlanguageandsymbolsandcodestocommunicatewithgroupmembers.
Locationofthegroup:Locationofthegroupplaysanimportantroletoenhancecohesiveness.Particularly,isolationform othergroupsofworkerstendstobuildhigh
cohesiveness. Autonomy:Agroupmaybedependentorindependentofothergroupsand,thus,
haveadifferentstructure.Wheneachmemberofagrouphasindependentanddifferentactivities,thecohesivenessamongmembersofthegroupwillbelessascomparedtothegroupwhosemembersaredependentuponeachother.
Leadershipstyle:Thedifferentstylesofleadershipinfluencethegroupcohesivenessdifferently.Aneffectiveleaderkeepsthemembersofthegroupclosebyhelpingthem andsatisfiestheirsocialneeds.
Outsidepressure:Groupsprovideasenseofsecurityfortheindividualmembersfrom pressuresfrom othergroups.
Managementbehavior:Thebehaviorofmanagementhasadirectinfluenceonthedegreeofcohesionthatexistswithinagroup.
Genderofthegroup:Recentstudiesindicatethatwomenaremorecohesivethanmen.Itshouldbeassumedthatwomenarelesscompetitiveandoronemorecooperativewithpeopletheyasfriends,colleague,orteam matesthanmenandthisresultsintogreatergroupbounding.
Commonelements:Demographicandbehavioralresemblanceamongthegroupmembersalsocontributetohigherstateofcohesiveness.
Satisfactionofmembersneeds:Ifbeingamemberofthegroupsatisfiesneeds,theywillhaveastrongdesiretostaywiththegroup.
DIFFERENTTYPESOFGROUPS:
Broadlygroupsareclassifiedintoformalandinformalgroups:
1.Formalgroups2.Informalgroups
1.Formalgroups:Formalgroupsaredeliberatelystructuredtosubserveorganizationalinterest.Theyareformedtoaccomplishthespecificfunctionsandorganizationsgoals.Therefunctionsandgoalsarerelatedtooverallorganizationalgoal.Theyserveasmeanstoformalends.Theyareshownontheorganizationalchart.Groupsareempoweredwiththeauthoritybytheinstitution.Authorityisalwaysdelegatedtothepositionandnottotheperson.
DIFFERENTTYPESOFFORMALGROUPS:
Permanentandtemporaryformalgroups:Permanentformalgroupsareformedbytheorganizationonthepermanentbasisandmoreorlessexisttilltheorganizationexists.Boardofdirectors,departmentalunits,staffgroups,standingcommitteesissomeoftheexamplesofformalgroups.
Commandgroups:Theauthoritystructureformsanddeterminestheboundariesofdivisions,departmentsandsectionswithintheorganizationandthesedepartmentsorsectionsordivisionsareknownascommandgroups.
Functionalgroups:Functionalgroupsarethosegroupswhoseprimarytaskistocarryontheoperations.Inmanycases,thefunctionalgroupsmaybecongruentwiththeauthoritygroups.
Functionalgroupscanbeagainclassifiedintoteam,taskandtechnologicalgroups.Thedistinctionbetweenthesegroupsinvolvesthemethodroleallocationandrolefulfillment.
Team groupisspecifiedandnofixedroletoitsindividual.Thegeneralroleofthegroupissetandthemembersofthegroupareallocatedtherolesaccordingtotheneedsofthegoal.
Taskgroupspecifiesafixedjobforeachofitsmembersandlaysdownthejob
description.Thus,rolesofthemembersarenotinterchangeableandifsuperiordoesso,itisnotwithoutmuchpersonalresistanceandfrictionbetweensuperiorandthemember.
Technologicalgroupissomethingdifferent.Heretherolesareassignedbythemanagement.Thepositionofthejobisfixedandthemethodislaiddownandthespeedofworkisfixedbysomedevice.
Status group:Status groups involve the memberofthe same status in anorganization.Theterm isambiguousinthesensethatitincludesanumberofdifferentrankingofpositionswhicharefrequentlyinconsistentwitheachother.
2.Informalgroups:Themembersoftheformalgroupsareaskedtoperform thefunctionswhicharenecessaryforhim consideringhisrolestatusintheorganization.Butasmencanbeengagedtoworkasawholeandnotinparts,therearenumberofneedswhichcannotbesatisfiedthroughformalgroups.
DIFFERENTTYPESOFINFORMALGROUPS:
Friendshipkinshipgroup:Thiskindofgroupinvolvesclosepersonalitiesasfriendsorrelativeswhoarewellknowntoeachotherbeforehand.Mostlythesegroupsarefoundinpairsandareusefulinspreadinginfluenceandinformation.
Cliques:Thesegroupsconsistofcolleaguesandcompanionswhonormallyobservecertainnormsandstandards.Theyarecloselyintimatetoeachother.Thenumberofmemberstendstobesmallersayfiveorsix.
Verticalclique:Suchcliquesconsistofpeopleworkinginthesamedepartmentirrespective oftheirrank difference.Such groups develop because ofearlieracquaintanceofpeopleorthedependenceofsuperioruponhissubordinatesforsomeformalpurpose.
Horizontalclique:Thisgroupconsistsofpeopleofmoreorlesssamerankandworkingmoreorlessinthesamearea.Suchgroupsareformedcomingacrossorganizationboundaries.
Sub-clique:Thegroupconsistsofsomemembersofacliqueinsidetheorganizationalongwithsomeotherpersonoutsidetheclique.
Isolates:Actuallythisisnotagroup.Anindividualwhoisnotthememberofanygroup iscalled isolates.Such isolatesdo notparticipatein anysocialactivityorganizedbythegroup.
DECISIONMAKINGINGROUP:
Groupdecisionmakingistheuseofgroupofpersonsintheprocessofdecisionmaking.Ingroupdecisionmakingproblem isdiscussedinadetailedmannerandvariousalternativesolutionsaredeveloped.Thisenablestoarriveatadesirablesolutionbyconsensusmethod.
Robbinshasdefinedgroupmakingdecisionas“thinking,understandingandjudgingthoughcoordinatedactiontoarriveatthebestpossible,outcomeforproblem solving”.
AccordingtoHaynesandMassie“decisionmakingisaprocessofselectionfrom asetofalternativecoursesofactionwhichisthoughttofulfilltheobjectiveofthedecisionproblemmoresatisfactorilythanother”.
GROUPDECISIONMAKINGPROCESS:
1.Identificationofproblem2.Diagnosingtheproblem3.Discoveringthealternatives4.Evaluatingalternatives5.Selectionofthebestalternativescourseofaction
6.Implementationandfollowup
Identificationofproblem:Thedecisionmakingprocessbeginswiththerecognitionoridentificationofaproblem thatrequiresadecision.Theproblem mayariseduetogapbetweenpresentanddesiredstateofaffairs.Thethreatsandopportunitiescreatedbyenvironmentalchangesmayalsocreatedecisionproblems.Atthisstage,amanagershouldidentifyanddefinetherealproblem.Aproblem welldefinedishalfsolved.
Diagnosingtheproblem:Diagnosingtherealproblem impliesanalyzingitintermsofitselements,itsmagnitude,itsurgency,itscoursesand itsrelationwithotherproblems.Inordertodiagnosetheproblem correctly,amanagermustobtainallpertinentfactsandanalyzethem carefully.
Discovering alternatives:The nextstep is the search forthe various possiblealternatives.Anexecutiveshouldnotjumponthefirstfeasiblealternativetosolvetheproblem quickly.Thecoursesofactionopentodecisionmakerarenotalwaysevident.Adecisionmakerhastousehisingenuityandcreativitytospotandinter-relatethem.
Evaluationofalternatives:Oncethealternativesarediscovered,thenextstageistoevaluateorscreeneachfeasiblealternative.Evaluationisprovesofmeasuringthepositiveandnegativeconsequencesofeachalternative.Managementmustbalancethecostsagainstpossiblebenefits.
Selectionofbestalternatives:Afterevaluation,theoptimum alternativeisselected.Optimum alternativeisthealternativethatwillmaximizetheresultsundergivenconditions.Choiceofthebestalternativeisthemostcriticalpointindecisionmaking.
Implementationandfollowup:onceadecisionismade,itneedstobeimplemented.Implementationinvolvesseveralsteps:thedecisionshouldbecommunicatedtothoseresponsibleforitsimplementation.Acceptanceofthedecisionshouldbeobtained.Proceduresandtimesequenceshouldbeestablishedforimplementation.
TECHNIQUESOFGROUPDECISIONMAKING:
1.Brainstorming2.Nominalgrouptechnique3.Delphitechnique4.Fishbowling5.Consensusmaking
Brainstorming:Brainstormingtechniqueinvolvesagroupofpeople,usuallybetweenfiveandten,sittingaroundatable,generatingideasintheform offreeassociation.Theprimaryfocusofthebrainstormingtechniqueismoreongenerationofideas,ratherthanonevaluationofideas,theideabeingthatifalargenumberofideascanbegenerated,thenitislikelythattherewillbeauniqueandcreativesolutionamongthem.
Nominalgroup technique:Is used when high degree ofinnovation and ideagenerationisrequires.Themembershavenodiscussionbeforeadecision.Itissimilarto brainstorming.The members develop solutions independently,oftenwritingthem oncards.Theideasaresharedwithothersinastructuredformat.
Delphitechnique:ItwasoriginallydevelopedbyRandCorporationasamethodtosystematicallygatherjudgmentsofexpertsforuseindevelopingforecasts.Itisdesignedforgroupsthatdonotmeetfacetoface.Generallythetypeofproblemshandledbythistechniqueisnotspecificinnatureorrelatedtoaparticularsituationatagivetime.
Fishbowling:Thetechniqueoffishbowlingisanothervariationofbrainstorming,butismorestructuredandfocusedtechnique.Inthistechnique,thedecisionmaking
groupofexpertsisseatedaroundacirclewithasinglechairinthecenterofthecircle.Onememberofthegrouporthegroupleaderisinvitedtositinthecenterandgivehisopinionorviewsabouttheproblem andhispropositionofasolution.Theothergroupmemberscanaskhim questionsbutthereisnoirrelevantdiscussionorcrosstalk.
Consensusmappingtechnique:Itisusedforconsolidatingtheresultsfrom severaltaskforceorprojectedgroupsandisusedforproblemsthataremultidimensionalhave interconnected elements.This technique begins aftera task group hasdevelopedandevaluatedalistofideas.Theconsensusmappingtriestopooltheideasgeneratedbyseveraltaskgrouptoarriveatadecision.Thefacilitatorsincourageparticipantstosearchclustersandcategoriesofideas.
TEAM BUILDING
Definition:Team buildingisamanagementtechniqueusedforimprovingtheefficiencyand
performanceoftheworkgroupsthroughvariousactivities.Itinvolvesalotofskills,analysisandobservationforformingastrongandcapableteam.Thewholesolemotivehereistoachievetheorganizationvisionandobjectives.
Team BuildingProcess:Team buildingisnotaone-timeact.Itisastepbystepprocesswhichaimsat
bringingadesirablechangeintheorganization.Teamsareusuallyformedforaparticulartaskorprojectandaremostlyfortheshortterm.Thevariousstepsinvolvedinteam buildingareasfollows:
IdentifytheNeedforTeam BuildingThemanagerhasfirstto analyzetherequirementofateam forcompleting a
particulartask.Itshouldfindoutthepurposeoftheworktobeperformed,requiredskillsforthejobanditscomplexitybeforeformingateam.
DefineObjectivesandRequiredSetofSkillsNextcomesthechalkingdownoftheorganizationalobjectivesandtheskillsneeded
tofulfilit.
ConsiderTeam RolesThe managerconsiders the various aspects,i.e.the interactions among the
individuals,theirrolesandresponsibilities,strengthsandweaknesses,compositionandsuitabilityofthepossibleteam members.
DetermineaTeam BuildingStrategyThe managerhas to understand the operationalframework wellto ensure an
effectiveteam building.Hemusthimselfbeassuredoftheobjectives,roles,responsibilities,duration,availabilityofresources,training,theflow ofinformation,feedbackandbuildingtrustintheteam.
DevelopaTeam ofIndividualsAtthisstage,theindividualsarecollectedtoform ateam together.Eachmemberis
madefamiliarwithhisrolesandresponsibilitieswithintheteam.
EstablishandCommunicatetheRulesTherulesregardingthereportingofteam members,meetingschedules,anddecision
makingwithintheteam arediscussed.Theindividualsareencouragedtoaskquestionsandgivetheirviewstodevelopopenandhealthycommunicationintheteam.
IdentifyIndividual’sStrengthsVariousteam-buildingexercisesareconductedtobringoutthestrengthsofthe
individuals.Italsohelpsinfamiliarizingtheteam memberswitheachother’sstrengthsandweakness.
BeaPartoftheTeamAtthispoint,themanagerneedstogetinvolvedwiththeteam asamemberandnot
asaboss.Makingtheindividualsrealizetheirimportanceintheteam andtreatingeachmemberequallyisnecessary.Theteam membersshouldseetheirmanagerastheirteamleader,mentorandrolemodel.
MonitorPerformanceNextstepischeckingtheproductivityandperformanceoftheteam asawhole.It
involvesfindingoutloopholesandthereasonsforit.Thisstepisnecessarytoimprovetheteam’sperformanceandproductivityinthelongrun.
ScheduleMeetingsOneofthemostcrucialstepsistoholdpurposefulmeetingsfrom timetotimeto
discussteam performance,task-relatedproblemsanddiscussthefuturecourseofaction.
DissolvetheTeamLastly,themanagerneedstoevaluatetheresultsandrewardtheindividualsontheir
contribution and achievement.Finally,the team is dispersed on the fulfilmentoftheobjectiveforwhichitwasformed.
ADVANTAGESOFTEAM BUILDING
DISADVANTAGESOFTEAM BUILDING:
UNIT-5ORGANIZATIONALCHANGE
Anorganizationisanopensystem,whichmeansthatitisinaconstantinteractionandinterdependentrelationshipwithitsenvironment.Anychangeinitsexternalenvironment,suchaschangesinconsumertastesandpreferences,competition,economicpoliciesofthegovernment,etc,makeitimperativeforanorganizationtomakechangesinitsinternalsystem.
The term change refers to any alteration which occurs in the overallworkenvironmentofanorganization.Itistobeemphasizedthatchangeisthelaw ofnature.
Nothingispermanentexceptchange.
Meaning:Changereferstoanyalternationthatoccursintotalworkenvironment.Generallypeopleareaccustomedtoawellestablishedwayoflifeandanyvariationinordeviationfrom thatlifemaybecalledachange.Changemaybeverysimplejustliketoshiftthelocationofanofficeoritmaybeamorecomplextechnologicalchangewhichmayeventhreatentheveryexistenceofsomepeopleintheorganization.
LEVELSOFCHANGE:
1.Individuallevelchange2.Grouplevelchanges3.Organizationallevel
Individuallevelchange:Theindividuallevelchangeisnoticedinsuchdevelopmentsaschangesinajob assignment,physicalmobilityto differentlocation,orthechangeinmaturityofapersonwhichoccursovertime.Itistodenotethatchangesattheindividuallevelwillseldom havesignificantimplicationsforthetotalorganization.Grouplevelchanges:Manyorganizationalchangeshavetheirimpactatthegrouplevel.Thisisduetothefactthatmustactivitiesinorganizationsareorganizedonagroupbasis.Thegroupscouldbeformalgrouplikedepartments,orinformalworkgroups.Organizationallevel:Thechangeatorganizationlevelinvolvesmajorprogrammesthataffectbothindividualsandgroups.Decisionsregardingthesechangesaregenerallymadebycorporatemanagementandareseldom implementedbyonlyasingleexecutive.
TYPESOFCHANGES:
1.Changesinknowledge,informationandtechniques2.Changeinthescopeofmanagement3.Changeinenvironment4.Changesintheissuesandproblemsbeforemanagers5.Changesinmanagementpractices
Changesinknowledge,informationandtechniques:Theprofessionofmanagementhasitsdeeprootsintheengineeringproblemsofproduction.Thetechniqueaspectofthemanagementfieldisadvancinggreatly.Nowagreatdealofresearchisalsobeingconductedinvariousinstitutionsoftheworldonbehavioralscience.
Changeinthescopeofmanagement:Thewritingofearlymanagementthinkerswasprimarily concerned with technicalproblems and theirsolutions.Butwith thepassage oftime itwasfound thatthe processofmanagementhasuniversalapplication.
Change in environment:The world is changing fast.Population changes havebecomeextremelyimportantforthemanagers.Otherchangescanbeviewedaschangesinconsumers,factorsofproduction,socialconditions,politicalconditionsandeconomictrends.
Changesintheissuesandproblemsbeforemanagers:Therehasbeenagreatchangebothinmagnitudeandnumberintheproblemsbeforepresentdaymanagers.Thesechangesarecausedbytheemergenceoflargescaleorganizationsandtheseparationofmanagementfrom ownership.
Changesinmanagementpractices:Thisincludesnew conceptsandpracticeliketotalquality managementsystem concepts like bench marking,reengineering,empowerment.
THEPROCESSANDMODELOFORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:
Changeinorganizationisbroughtaboutbypeople.Thechangeinanorganizationcanbeinitiatedattheindividuallevel,ororganizationallevel.Organizationalchangetakesplacethroughaslow unfoldingprocessorthroughcataclysmiceventsoverturningstatusquoarrangements.
1.Individualchangeandorganizationalchange2.Evolutionarychangeandrevolutionarychange3.Reactiveandproactivechanges
Individualchangeandorganizationalchange:Theindividualchangeisbehavioral,determinedbyindividualcharacteristicsofmemberssuchasknowledge,attitudes,beliefs,needs,expectations,etc.Atotalchangeinanorganizationcanbecarriedoutbychangingbehaviorofindividualmembersthroughparticipativeeducativestrategy.
Evolutionarychangeandrevolutionarychange:Anorganizationcanbecomparedwithanyotheropensystem organism;itcanbedescribedintermsofitsbirth,growth,maturity,senility,decline,entropyordeath.Anyorganization,likeotherorganism,passesthroughthesestagesandintheprocesschangesitselffrom oneform toanotherform.Ineachstagetherearesomecriticalconcernsandkeyissueswhichconsequencestheconcernsarenotmetwithsatisfaction.
Reactiveandproactivechanges:Thedifferencesbetweenreactiveandproactivechangecorresponds,bywayofanalogy,tothatbetweenreflexivebehaviorandpurposivebehavior.Anindividualrespondsreflexivelytoasuddenintenselightbyeye-blinking orpapillarycontraction.Thisisan immediate,automaticresponsewithoutanythought.A purposiveresponseto thesamestimuluswould meandevisingaplantoshieldtheeyesorremovingthelight.
CAUSESFORORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:
1.Externalfactors:Inmodernhigh-techindustrialsocietyorganizationisconsideredasanopenadoptivesystem whichinteractswithexternalenvironmentonaregularbasis.Thefollowingaresomeexternalfactors:
Socio-culturalfactors:Itincludes changing culturalvalues and norms,socialobjectives,patternofeducation,populationdynamics,socialtraditionsandcustoms,etc.
Economicfactors:Itincludeseconomicconditionsofthecountryto whichtheorganization belongs.Economic factors include marketdynamics like demand,competition,and price mechanism,buying capacity,distribution ofincome andavailabilityofvariousresources.
Politicalandlegalfactors:Itincludespoliticalsystem,ideologyoftherulingparty,politicalstability,moralityandvalues.
Technologicalfactors:Itincludesnew technologyofproduction,innovationofnewprocessandproduct,growingemphasisonresearchanddevelopmentwork.
Workenvironmentfactors:Itincludescustomers,suppliers,communityandthesociety.
2.Internalfactors: Topmanagementanditspolicyandcorporatepolicy. Retirement,promotion,resignationandtransferofkeyexecutivesoftheorganization. Changes in the perception,attitudes,feelings,beliefs and expectations ofthe
employeeswithintheorganization. Changesintheworkschedule,allocationofduties,job-contents,dutyhoursand
compositionofworkgroup.
PROCESSOFPLANNEDCHANGE:
Changeinthemissionorobjective:Theorganizationmaybeforcedtochangeitsobjectiveseitherbydroppingsomeofthem oraddingsomenewone,duetorapidlychangingenvironment.
Structuralchange:Thestructuralchangeimpliesredistribution ofauthorityandresponsibilityamongthemembers.Italsoincludesrearrangingofitsinternalsystem.
Technologicalchange:Thesechangesarerelatedtoproductsbeingproducedandprocessbeingusedintheorganization.
Peopleorientedchange:Organizationisamanmadesystem,andisoperatedbypeople.Togetbetterresultsandhigherperformance,somedesirablechangesaremadeintheirworkingbehaviorandmorale.
RESISTANCETOCHANGE:
Resistancetochangeinvolvesemployeesbehaviordesignedtodiscredit,delayorpreventthechangesintroducedforthedevelopmentofanorganization.Theyresistbecausetheyareafraidoftheirjobsecurity,workingconditions,status,regressionandotherfactors.Theperceivedthreatmayberealorimaginary.
Fearofeconomicloss:Peopleresistchangewhentheyperceivethattheywilllosesomeeconomicbenefits.Fearoftechnologicalunemployment.Fearofreducedworkinghoursandconsequentlyreducedmonetarybenefits.Fearofdemotionandconsequentlylesspay.Fearofspeedupandreducedincentivewages.
Obsolescence ofskills:Change mayrenderthe existing knowledge and skillsobsolete.Oldskillsandtechniquesmaybecomeuseless.
Statusquo:Perhapsthebiggestandmostsoundreasonforresistancetochangeisthestatusquo.Peopleattachgreatimportancetothestatusquoorexistingposition.
Egodefensiveness:Sometimeschangemaybeego-deflatingsometimespeopleresistchangebecauseithurtstheirego.
Socialdisplacement;Introductionofchangeoftencausedsocialdisplacementofpeoplebybreakinginformalgroupsandrelationships.
Fearofunknown:Changepresentsunknownwhichcausesanxiety.Changecausesuncertaintyandriskduringthetransitionperiod.
Grouppressure:Attimesthemembersofagroupopposethechangebecausethegrouptowhichtheybelongisnotinfavorofchange.
Rigidorganizationalstructure:someorganizationstructurehasinbuiltmechanismforresistancetochange.Lackofadequatefacilityinthestructureoforganizationmayalsobecomeasourceofresistance.
Threatofpowerandcontrol:Whenpeopleatthetopconsiderchangeasapotentialthreattotheirpositionandinfluence,theyresistit.
ORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:
Organizationaldevelopmentisasystematicandpracticalapproachtolaunchinganddiffusingchangeinorganizations.Simplystated,ODisanattempttoimprovetheoverallorganizationalefficiencyandeffectiveness.Itisbasicallyalongrangeprogramme,notaoneshotdeal,attempting to change the behavioralattitudes and performance of theorganization.
Burkehasdefinedorganizationaldevelopmentasaplannedprocessofchangeinan
organizationsculturethroughtheutilizationofbehavioralsciencetechnologyresearchandtheory.
FEATURESOFORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:
Longrangeeffort:Organizationaldevelopmentisnotdesignedtosolveshorttermtemporaryisolatedproblems.ODisbasicallyalongterm approachmeantoevaluatetheorganizationtoahigherleveloffunctioningbyimprovingtheperformanceandsatisfactionofitsmember.
Broadbased:ODisacomprehensivestrategyfororganizationalimprovement.Itisaplannedattempttobringaboutorganizationwidechange.
Systemsview:Itisbasedonopen,adoptionssystemsconcepts.Itutilizestheopenadaptivesystem concept.Itrecognizesthatorganizationsstructureandhumanbeingsworkinginitaremutuallyinterdependence.
Dynamicprocess:Itrecognizesthatorganizationalobjectivechangeand,therefore,themethodsofalteringthem shouldalsochange.
Research based:OD involves surveys,data collection,evaluation and decisionmaking.
PROCESSOFORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:
Problem identification:Theproblem maybeidentifiedintermsofthereasonsduetowhichtheorganizationisnotabletoachieveitsobjectives.Low productivity,lowemployeeturnover,decliningmarketshareetc.
Initialdiagnosis:Collection and analysis ofdata are necessary.Observation,questionnaireandinterviewsmaybeusedtocollectthenecessarydata.Experienceandjudgmentareequallyimportant.
Planningchangestrategy:Atthisstageanactionplanisprepared.Theplaninvolvesthe overallgoals fororganization development,determining the approach forimplementingthechange.
Intervention:InterventionconstitutestheactionphaseinOD processbecauseitmakesthingshappen.
Evaluationoffeedback:Continuousmonitoringisnecessarytoevaluatetheresultsoftheorganizationdevelopmentprogramme.
STRESSMANAGEMENT:
Stressisthepressurepeoplefeelwhileatworkandinprivatelife.Stressatworkisinevitablebecauseofthethoughtprocessrequiredinthejobperformance.Privatelifeisfullofanxietiesandpersonalpressure.Butstressbecomesveryharmfulwhenitisseriouslyrealizedbythemindandheart.Then,itbecomespainfulandcreatesmanyphysicalandpsychologicalproblems which are reflected in the day to day life oforganizationalperformances.
Meaning:Stresshasbeendefinedbydifferentauthorsdifferently.Stressisadynamicconditioninwhichapersonisfacedwithconstraintandstrains.Stressisthediscomfortofanindividual.Emotionaldisequilibrium isstress.
STAGESOFSTRESS:
Alarm:Thefirststageofstressisalarm whereinthestressmobilizestheinternalstresssystem.Manyphysiologicalandchemicalreactionsareobservedduringthealarm stage.
Resistance:Ifthealarm stageisnotprevented,resistancedevelops.Thebodyorgans become resistantbutitpaves the ways forthe developmentofother
stressors. Exhaustion:Resistanceorresistantstresscreatesexhaustion.Theimmunityofthe
body is reduced.Individuals feelfatigue and inability.Exhaustion developsmoodiness,negativeemotionsandhelplessness.
CAUSESOFSTRESS:
Environmentalfactors:Environmentalfactors are as much contributoryas theorganizationalfactorstostress.Lawandorderproblemscreatetensioninthemindsofemployees.Technologicaluncertaintieshaveadiverseimpactonthepeople.Socialpressures on the employees are commonly observed in the form ofdissatisfaction.Theoutsideforceshaveatremendousimpactontheemployees.
Organizationalfactors:Organizationalfactorssuchasmanagementlaborrelations,working conditions,resource allocations,role oftrade unions,behaviorofco-workers,etc.are importantfactors which cause stress to the physiologyandpsychologyofemployees.Organizationalpoliciesandworkingproceduresarenottheleastinfluentialfactorsofanorganization.
Groupfactors:Anorganizationincludesgroupandindividualswhoinfluenceeachotherandareinfluencedbytheother.Theycausestressandreduceitaswell.Lackofgroupcohesiveness,lackofsocialsupportandgroupconflictsarepotentialcausesofstress.Lackoftogethernessisstressproducing.
Individualfactors:Individualfactorssuchaspersonalcharacteristics,lifechangesandroleperceptionscreatestressindifferentformsatdifferentlevels.
EFFECTSOFSTRESS:
Physiologicaleffects:Theimpactofstressismostlyvisibleonone’sbody.Stressaffectsmetabolism,increasesheartbeatsandbreathingrates,causesheadacheandhigh blood pressure.These symptoms do notdirectlyinfluence an individual’sperformanceonhisjob.
Psychologicaleffects:Stressaffectsthebodyaswellasthemindofaperson.Physicalandmentalhealthisadverselyaffectedbystress.Ithasbeenobservedthatphysicalproblemsduetostressarepossibleonlythroughmentaltension.
Behavioralimpact:Theimpactsofstresshaveanultimateimpactonthebehaviorofpeople,althoughishasadirectimpactonthemindandbody.Adistressedmindanddiseasepronebodycannothaveproperbehavior.Asoundmindandhealthybodybehavesproperly.
ORGANIZATIONALEFFECTIVENESS:
Organizationaleffectiveness has been defined by various authorities such as,accordingtoGeorgopolousandTannenbaum itistheextent,towhichanorganization,givencertainresourcesandmeans,achievesitsobjectiveswithoutplacingunduestressonitsmembers.AccordingtoMottitistheabilityofanorganizationtomobilizeitscenterstopowerforaction-productionandadaptation.
AccordingtoBarnarditistheconditionofanorganization,inwhichspecificdesiredendsareattained.
Organizationaleffectivenessmeanstheabilityofanorganizationtoobtainresources,usethem efficientlytoattainspecificgoals,satisfyingatthesametime,interestsofallstakeholders.
AccordingtoDr.V.V.S.Sarma,organizationaleffectivenesscanbedefinedastheabilityofanorganizationtomobilizeitscenterofpowerforaction,productionandadoption.
APPROACHESOFORGANIZATIONALEFFECTIVENESS:
Goalattainmentapproach:Thegoalattainmentapproachisthemostcommonlyusedbasisforapprovaloforganizationaleffectiveness.AccordingtoEtzioni,agoalisanimageofafuturestateofaffairs,inotherwords,agoalrepresentsthefuturestateofaffairswhichanorganizationwantstoachieve.Coalattainmentisprobablythemostwidelyusedcriterionoforganizationaleffectiveness.In the words ofChesterJ.Bornard effectiveness is the accomplishmentofrecognized objectives of co-operative effort.The degree of accomplishmentindicatesthedegreeofeffectiveness.
Systemsresourceapproach:Thesystem approachisbasedontheopensystem asappliedtosocialorganizations.Anorganizationisasystem andisapartoftheenvironmentalsuprasystem.Thesystemsview considersthenatureofinteractionbetween the organization and the environmentto determine effectiveness.Asystemsapproachtoorganizationaleffectivenessimpliesthatorganizationsaremadeupofinterrelatedandinteractingelements.Theeffectivenessoftotalsystemisdependentontheperformanceofallitsubparts.
Strategic constituencyapproach;The strategic constituencyapproach is muchsimilartothesystemsapproachwithanimportantdifferencethatinsteadoftakingintoconsiderationtheentireenvironmentitconcernsitselfwithonlythosesystemsorsubsystemsoftheenvironmentwhicharestrategicinnature,whichvitallyaffectthesurvivaloftheorganization.
Behavioralapproach:Thebehavioroforganizationalmembersdeterminesthenatureoforganizationsresponsetotheenvironmentaldemands.Accordingtobehavioralapproach,theextenttowhichindividualandorganizationalgoalsareintegratedaffectsthedegreeoforganizationaleffectiveness.
EMPLOYEECOUNSELLING:Robinsonsaidthat,“theterm counsellingcoversalltypesoftwopersonsituationsin
which one person,the clientis helped to adjustmore effectivelyto himselfand hisenvironment”.
MainCharacteristicsofEmployeeCounsellingare:
(a)Serviceofferedtoemployees.(b)Serviceisconductedinorganisation.(c)Focusisonproblemsfacedbyemployees.(d)Objectiveofcounsellingisproblem solution.(e)Employeecounsellingservesallconcerned.(f)Employeecounsellingisacontinuousprocess.(g)Roleofcounsellorisimportantincounselling.ImportanceofEmployeesCounselling:
1.Itprovidesemployeeswithanatmospherewheretheycanshareanddiscusstheirtensions,conflicts,concerns,andproblemswiththeirsupervisors.2.Itisaprocessofhelpingemployeesto realisetheirfullpotentialbymakingthemunderstandtheirstrengthsandweaknesses.3.Counsellingprovidesemployeeswiththereassuranceandcour¬agetofacetheproblemsconfidently.4.Releasingemotionaltensionisanimportantfunctionofcounselling.Releaseoftensionmaynotsolvetheentireproblem butitremovesmentalblockstothesolution.
5.Counselling sessionsalso help employeesto getanopportunityto understand thebusinessenvironmentandsetrealisticgoalsforfurtherimprovements.
TypesOfEmployeeCounselling:
Type# 1.PerformanceCounselling:Iftheperformanceofanemployeestartsdecliningattheworkplace,theneedfor
performancecounsellingarises.Thecounsellorshouldtrytoidentifytheunderlyingcausesbehindtheemployee’spoorperformance.Thereasonscouldbeofficestress,unachievabledeadlines,problemsininterpersonalrelationswithotheremployees,etc.Afterrecognizingtheproblem,thecounsellorcanadviseabouthowtodealwithit.
Type# 2.DisciplinaryCounselling:Thistypeofcounsellingtakesplacewhenanemployee’sbehaviourfallsshortofthe
standardsexpected.Anemployeemaysuddenlystartpickingupfights,becomeirritable,beabsentfrom workforlong,etc.Thecounsellorshouldinterviewtheemployeeandconfronthim abouthisbehaviouralproblems.
Type# 3.PersonalCounselling:Workplaceproblemsarenottheonlyproblemsthatemployeesface;personaland
familyproblemsalsoaffecttheirperformance.Familiesandfriendsareintegralpartsofanyhuman being’s life;tension in a worker’s personallife affects his work performanceadversely.
Type# 4.StressManagementinWorkplace:Workinginthemodernjobenvironmentisverystressfulwithsomanydeadlinesto
meetandtargetstoachieve.Employeesmaybecomeanxiousandtenseduetotheirhighpressureworkload.Thisnotonlyaffectstheirproductivityonthejob,butalsotheirmentalhealth.