ORGANISATIONALDYNAMICES

UNIT-3

LEADERSHIP:

AccordingtoGeorgeR.Terry“Leadershipistheactivityofinfluencingpeopletostrivewillinglyforgroupobjectives”.

CHARACTERISTICSOFLEADERSHIP:

An analysis ofthe above definitions ofleadership reveals thatithas the followingcharacteristics.

1.Leadershipisaprocessofinfluence: Leadershipisaprocesswhoseimportantingredientistheinfluenceexercisedbytheleaderongroupmembers.Apersonissaidtohaveaninfluenceoverotherswhentheyarewillingtocarryouthiswishesandaccepthisadvice,guidanceanddirection.

2.Leadershipisthefunctionofstimulation:Leadershipisthefunctionofmotivatingpeopletostrivewillinglytoattainorganizationalobjectives.Leadersareconsideredsuccessfulwhentheyareabletosubordinateinterestsoftheemployeestothegeneralinterestsoftheorganization.

3.Leadershipgivesanexperienceofhelpingattainthecommonobjectives:Undersuccessfulleadership,everypersonintheorganizationfeelsthathisoperation,howeverminoritmaybe,isvitaltotheattainmentoforganizationalobjectives.

4.Employeesmustbesatisfiedwiththetypeofleadershipprovided:Onlyshort-termproductivityofemployeescanbeincreasedbypressureandpunishment. Thisapproachisnotinthelong-term interestsoftheorganization. Forcegeneratescounter-forcewhichresultsinadecreasedlong-term productivity.

5.Leadershipisrelatedtoasituation:Whenwetalkofleadership,itisalwaysrelatedtoa particularsituation,ata given pointoftime and undera specific setofcircumstances. Thatmeans leadership styles willbe differentunderdifferentcircumstances.

SIGNIFICANCEOFLEADERSHIP:

Leadership is ofparamountimportance in accomplishmentoforganizationalobjectives.“Thefactthataleadercanhaveanimmenseeffectontheperformancethoseunderhim hasbeennotedforcenturiesthatwhilesomeofficersreceiveonlygrudgingobedience,otherisabletoinspiretheirmentodotheseeminglyimpossibleanddoitwillingly.

(i) Determinationofgoals.Aleadershipperformsthecreativefunctionoflayingdowngoalsandpoliciesforthefollowers.Heactsasaguideininterpretingthegoalsandpolicies.

(ii) Organization ofActivities:A good leaderdivides organization activitiesamongtheemployeesinasystematicmanner.Therelationshipsbetweenthem areclearlylaiddown.Thisreducesthechancesofconflictamongthem.

(iii) RepresentationofWorkers:Theleaderisarepresentativeofhisgroup.Hetakesinitiativeinallmatter5sofinteresttothegroupandattemptstofulfillthepsychologicalneedsofthesubordinates.

(iv) AchievingCoordination:Aleaderintegratesthegoalsoftheindividualswiththeorganizationalgoalsandcreatesacommunityofinterests. Hekeepshimselfinformedabouttheworkingofthegroupandsharesinformationwithgroupforthecoordinationofitsefforts.

(v) Providing Guidance: A leader guides the subordinates towards the

achievementoforganizationalobjectives. He is available foradvicewheneverasubordinatefacesanyproblem.

(vi) Building Employees’Morale:Good leadership is indispensable to highemployeemorale.Theleadershapesthethinkingandattitudesofthegroup.Hedevelopsgoodhumanrelationsandfacilitatesinteractionsbetweenthemembersofthegroup..

(vii) Facilitingchange:Dynamicleadershipisthecorner-stoneoforganizationalchange.Aneffectiveleaderisabletoovercomeresistancetochangeonthepartofwor5kersandthusfacilitatechange.

LEADERSHIPSTYLE:

Thewordstylereferstothewayofdoingsomething. Leadershipstylereferstoleader’sbehavioralpatternwhichisreflectedinhisroleasaleader.Leadershipstyleistheresultofhisattitude,valuesystem,personalityandphilosophy.Italsodependsuponthefollowersandtheorganizationalclimateprevailingintheorganization.Thedifferenttypesofleadershipstylesare:

AutocraticLeadership. ParticipativeLeadership FeereinsLeadership.

(i) AutocraticorAuthoritarianLeader:Theautocraticleadergivesorderswhichheinsistsshallbeobeyed. Hedeterminespoliciesforthegroupwithconsultingthem,anddoesnotgivesdetailedinformationaboutfutureplans,butsimplytellsthegroupwhatimmediatestepstheymusttake.Hegivespersonalpraiseorcriticism toeachmemberonhisowninitiativeandremainsalooffrom thegroupforthemajorpartofthetime.

(ii) ParticipateorDemocraticLeader:Ademocraticleaderisonewhogivesordersafterconsultingthegroup,seesto itthatpoliciesareworkedoutingroupdiscussionsandwiththeacceptanceofthegroup.Heneveraskspeopletodothingswithoutsketchingoutthelong-term plansonwhichtheyareworking.Hemakesitclearthatpraiseorblameisamatterforthegroupandparticipatesinthegroupasamember.

(iii) FreeReinorLaissezFaireLeader:Suchaleaderdoesnotlead,butleavesthegroupentire4lytoitself.HeisrepresentedbytheChairmanoftheboardwhodoesnotmanage,butleavesallresponsibilityformostoftheworkto hissubordinates.Thefreereinleaderdependslargelyuponthegrouptoestablishitsowngoalsandworkoutitswonproblems.Groupmembersworkthemselvesandprovidetheirownmotivation.Themanagerexistsasacontactmanwithoutsidersto bring forhisgroup theinformation and resourcesitneedstoaccomplishitsjob.

MANAGERIALGRID

Managerialgrid:Oneofthemostwidelyknownapproachesofleadershipstylesisthemanagerialgrid developed by Blake and Mouton.Managerialgrid is also known as“Leadershipgrid”.Theyemphasizedthatleadershipstyleconsistsoffactorsofbothtaskorientedandrelationorientedbehaviorinvaryingdegrees.Themanagerialgridreflectsmultidimensionalnatureofleadershipandhelpsinmeasuringrelativeconcernofmanagerforpeopleandtask.Themanagerialgrididentifiesvariousalternativecombinationsofbothstylesofconcernforpeopleandconcernforproduction.

1.Impoverishedleadershipstyle(1,1)2.Team leadership(9,9)3.Middleoftheroadleadership(5,5)4.Taskleadership(9,1)5.Countryclubleadership(1,9)

Impoverishedleadershipstyle(1,1):Thisstylereferstominimum concernonthepartofleaderforbothproductionsaswellpeople.Theeffortsoftheleadertowardsworkssituationtotakecareofitself.Thisstyleissometimescalled“Laissez-Faire”management,becausetheleaderabdicatedhisleadershiproleandleaveseverythingtothesituation.Theleaderbelievesthatuseofminimum effortsisrequiredtogetworkdoneandtosustainmoraleofthemembers.Inthisstyle,thereisnoguidance,no supportforcreativity and innovation.The leaderavoids controversy andconfrontation.

Team leadership(9,9):Itreferstohighconcernforproductionandpeople.Itisconcernedastheeffectivemanagementstyle.Becausethestyleofleadershipwillinalmostallsituationsresultsinimprovedperformance,lowabsenteeism andturnoverandhighemployee’ssatisfaction.Suchtypeofleaderaresuccessfulincreatinghighlyencouraging organizationalclimate ofcommitmentand cooperation andbuildinginterpersonalrelationbasedonmutualtrustandrespect.

Middleoftheroadleadership(5,5):Itreferstoequalconcernforproductionandpeople.Suchleadersbelievethatadequateleveloforganizationalperformanceispossiblethroughbalancingthenecessarytogetworkdonebymaintainingmoraleofthe people at satisfactory level.It is sage style seeking balance betweenrequirementsofproductionandneedsofthepeople.

Taskleadership(9,1):Itrepresentshighconcernforproductionandlowconcernforpeople.Theleaderplacesmoreemphasisonproductiontargetsandproductivityandotherfactorlikepeople’sneeds,andsatisfactionbecomesecondary.Theleaderstressedonauthoritycompliance.Hearrangesconditionsofworkinsuchawaythat

High 9 Low

8PE 7OP 6LE 5

4

3

2

1Low 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9High

PRODUCTION

(1,9) (9,9)

Countryclub Team leadership

(5,5)

Impoverished Taskleadership

(1,1) (9,

humanelementsinterferetoaminimum degree.Countryclubleadership(1,9):Itreferstolow concernforproductionbuthighconcernforpeople.Thisstyleisanti-thesisoftaskleadership.Suchleaderbelievesincreatingfriendlyinter-personalrelation with people atwork.He creates enthusiasm among them andmotivates.

Attitude

Definitionof Attitude:AccordingtoGordonAllport,“Anattitudeisamentalandneuralstateofreadiness,

organizedthroughexperience,exertingadirectiveordynamicinfluenceupontheindividual’sresponsetoallobjectsandsituationswithwhichitisrelated.”

NatureofAttitude:

Attitudeareacomplexcombinationofthingswetendtocallpersonality,beliefs,values,behaviors,andmotivations.

Anattitudeexistsineveryperson’smind.Ithelpstodefineouridentity,guideouractions,andinfluencehowwejudgepeople.

Althoughthefeelingandbeliefcomponentsofattitudeareinternaltoaperson,wecanviewaperson’sattitudefrom hisorherresultingbehavior.

Attitudehelpsusdefinehowweseesituations,aswellasdefinehowwebehavetowardthesituationorobject.

Attitudeprovidesuswithinternalcognitionsorbeliefsandthoughtsaboutpeopleandobjects.

Attitudecauseustobehaveinaparticularwaytowardanobjectorperson.

DefinitionofJobSatisfaction:AccordingtoS.P.Robbins,“Jobsatisfactionreferstoanindividual’sgeneralattitude

towardhisorherjob.”

Importanceofjobsatisfaction:

LowerTurnover. HigherProductivity IncreasedCustomerSatisfaction. EmployeeAbsenteeism. HelpstoEarnHigherRevenues. SatisfiedEmployeesTendtoHandlePressure.

JobCharacteristicsModelTheJobCharacteristicsModel(JCM)explainsthatjobsatisfactionoccurswhentheworkenvironmentencouragesintrinsicallymotivatingcharacteristics.Fivekeyjobcharacteristics:skillvariety,task identity,task significance,autonomy and feedback,influence threepsychologicalstates.Subsequently,thethreepsychosocialstatesthenleadtoanumberofpotential outcomes, including: job satisfaction.

INTERPERSONALBEHAVIOR :Interpersonalbehavioristheinteractionbetweentwoormorepersons.Itisimperative

tobuildingandmaintaininganytypeofrelationshipinoursocialworld.However,whenlookingatinterpersonalbehaviorin the workplace,things become a little more complicated.Interpersonalbehavioraffectstherelationshipsbetweencoworkerandcoworker,coworkerandsupervisor,andevenworkerandcustomer.Interpersonalrelationshipsareimportantincareerandjobsuccess.Positiverelationshipscanleadtoharmoniousworkachievement,overallhappiness,and even success.Negative relationships can lead to poorworkperformanceandcanhinderproblem solvingandconflictresolution.

DefinitionsofOrganizationalConflict:AccordingtoS.R.Robbinsdefinesconflictas“aprocessinwhichaneffortis

purposefullymadebya person orunitto blockanotherthatresultin frustrating theattainmentofothersgoalsorfurtheringofhisorherinterests.”

TheTypesOfOrganizationalConflict :

Type#1.TaskConflict:Taskconflictrelatestothecontentandgoalofthework.AccordingtoGraves,task

conflictarisesamongmembersofteam andaffectsthegoalsandtaskstheyarestrivingtoachieve.Itcanbebasedondifferencesinvision,intention,andqualityexpectation.

Type# 2.RoleConflict:Conflictsurrounding rolesand responsibilitiesareespeciallycommonduring or

immediatelyfollowingorganisationalchange,particularlyrestructurings.Peoplemaybeunclearonwhoisresponsibleforwhichdecisionsandoutputs.

Type# 3.ProcessConflict:Thisisrelatedtohowtheworkgetsdone.Thisform ofconflictcentresaround,the

process,procedures,stepsormethodsusedtoreachgoal.Onepersonmightliketoplanmanysteps ahead while others mightlike to dive in headfirst.These differences inapproachesorprocessescanleadtocommunicationbreakdownsandultimatelyconflict.Healthydifferencesinapproachestoprocesswilloftenleadtoimprovedwayofdoingjob.

Type# 4.DirectionalConflict:Directionalconflictariseswhenorganisationsareforcedtorethinktheirstrategies

andfocusonshorter-term activities,asmanydidduringtheeconomicdownturn.Employeesmaynotknowhowtoprioritiselong-term versusshort-term needs,oronedepartmentmayworktacticallywhileanotherremainsstrategic.

Type# 5.ExternalConflict:Externalconflictarises when pressures from customers orotherstakeholders

impactinternaldecisions.Recenteconomicchallengescompelledorganisationstoadjustandadapt,forexample,byloweringpriceswhileprovidingenhancedcustomerservice.Salesorcustomerservicepersonneladvocatingforcustomers’needsmayhavecomeintoconflictwithoperationstryingtomeetinternalgoals.

Power:Definitionofpower:

AccordingtoWeber,“Powerastheprobabilitythatoneactor(individualorgroup)withinasocialrelationshipinapositiontocarryouthisownwilldespiteresistance,regardlessofthebasisonwhichthisprobabilityrests”.

FiveFormsofPower1.CoercivePower2.RewardPower3.LegitimatePower4.ReferentPower5.ExpertPower

1.CoercivePowerThisform ofpowerisbasedupontheideaofcoercion.Thismeansthatsomeoneis

forcedtodosomethingagainsttheirwill.AccordingtoFrenchenRaventherearealsootherformsofpowerthatcanbeusedinacoercivemannersuchaswithholdingrewardsorexpertiseorusingreferentpowertothreatensocialexclusion. 

2.RewardPowerThistypeofpowerinvolvestheabilityofindividualstodelegatematterstheydonot

wishtodotootherpeopleandtorewardthem forthis.Formanagersinanorganizationitisaperceivedpossibilitytovalueorrewardtheirsubordinates’goodresultsinapositivemanner.

3.LegitimatePowerThisform ofpowergivestheabilitytolinkcertainfeelingsofobligationornotionof

responsibilitytothemanagement.Rewardingandpunishingemployeescanbeseenasalegitimatepartoftheformalorappointedleadershiprole.Mostmanagersinorganizationsexecuteacertaindegreeofrewardandpunishment.

4.ReferentPowerThisform ofpowerisaboutmanagementbasedontheabilitytoadministerto

someoneasenseofpersonalacceptanceorapproval. 

5.ExpertPowerThisform ofpowerisbasedonin-depthinformation,knowledgeorexpertise.These

leadersareoftenhighlyintelligentandtheytrustintheirpowertofulfilseveralorganizationalrolesandresponsibilities.

UNIT-4

Qualityofworklife(QWL):Meaning:

Qualityofworklife(QWL)referstothefavourablenessorunfavourablenessofajobenvironmentforthepeopleworkinginanorganisation.Theperiodofscientificmanagementwhichfocusedsolelyonspecialisationandefficiency,hasundergonearevolutionarychange.

Definition:“TheoverridingpurposeofQWListochangetheclimateatworksothatthehuman-

technological-organisationalinterfaceleadstoabetterqualityofworklife.”-Luthans

QualityofWorkLife(QWL)Qualityofworklifeisaconceptwhichtalksabouttheoverallfocusonemployeeasapersonratherthanjusttheworkdonebyhim/her.QualityofWorkLifeisbecominganincreasinglypopularconceptin recenttimes.Itbasically talks aboutthe methods in which anorganisationcanensuretheholisticwell-beingofanemployeeinsteadofjustfocusingonwork-relatedaspects.

Importanceof qualityofworklifeQualityofworklife (QWL)isafactthatanindividual’slifecan’tbecompartmentalisedandanydisturbanceonthepersonalfrontwillaffecthis/herprofessionallifeandvice-versa.Agood worklifebalance isalsowhatmotivatesanemployeethemosttoperform wellathisorjobandalsospendqualitytimewiththefamily.Therefore,organisationshavestartedtofocusontheoveralldevelopmentandhappinessoftheemployeefortheir motivation andreducinghis/herstresslevelswithoutjeopardisingtheeconomichealthofthecompany.Agood timemanagement schedulehelpsemployeesbalancetheirworkandpersonallife. 

GROUPDYNAMICS

Introduction:

Theindividualsandgroupsconstitutethehumanresourcefoundationsoforganizations.Groupsareeverywhereandareinevitablesocialfabricasallofusspendmostofusliveinsocialsituations.Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepersonswhointeractwitheachother,consciouslyfortheachievementofcertaincommonobjectives.Thenumberofthegroupisinterdependentandisawarethattheyarepartofagroup.Thenumbersofthegroupareinterdependentandareawarethattheyarepartofgroup.Theyareinfluencedbyeachother.

Definitionofgroup

“Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepersonswhointeractontheeachotherconsciouslyfortheachievementofcertaincommonobjectives.Themembersofthegrouparemutuallyinter-dependentandtheyareawarethattheyarepartofagroup”

__MartinE.Shaw

“Agroupisanynumberofpeoplewhointeractwithoneanother,arepsychologicallyawareofoneanotherandperceivethemselvestobeagroup”

__Edgarschein

CHARACTERISTICOFGROUPS:

Interaction:Averycommoncharacteristicofagroupismutualinteractionbetweenthemembersofthegroup.Inawiderterm,interactionisacommunication.Such

communicationbeoralorbygestureorbynoddingthehead. Activities:Almostallthegroupdooneormoreactivities.Workgroupmaybebusyin

activitiesontheworkwhileinfriendshipgroupsonemaytalkeachother Norms:therearecertainnormsofthegroupthatrepresentsitscultureorethos.

Everygrouphasitsowncultureandalevelofbehaviorbywhichitisrecognizedwithinthesociety.

InformalLeadership:Theremustbeaninformalleaderamongthemembersofthegroup.Itisnominatedbymembersofthegrouptakingintoconsiderationtheage,experience,technicalknowledge,etc.

Cohesion:Agroupdevelopsbecauseitsatisfiescertainneedsofitsmembers.Themore needs itsatisfies,the more itattracts the members.This attraction orbelongingmaybecalledcohesiveness.

Autonomy:Agroupmaybedependentorindependentofothergroupsand,thus,haveadifferentstructure. Wheneachmemberofagrouphasindependentanddifferentactivities,thecohesivenessamongmembersofthegroupwillbelessascomparedtothegroupwhosemembersaredependsuponeachother.

LeadershipStyle:Thedifferentstylesofleadershipinfluencethegroupcohesivenessdifferently.Aneffectiveleaderkeepsthemembersofthegroupclosebyhelpingthem andsatisfiestheirsocialneeds.

OutsidePressure:Groupsprovideasenseofsecurityfortheindividualmembersfrom pressuresfrom othergroups.Thegroupmembersworktogetherwhentheyarethreatenedbyacommondanger.

Managementbehavior:TheBehaviorofmanagementhasadirectinfluenceonthedegreeofcohesion thatexistswithin agroup.Bycreating competition amongemployeesandbyconstantlycomparingoneemployeewithanother,amanagermaymakecloserelationsdifficult.

GenderoftheGroup:Recentstudiesindicatethatwomenaremorecohesivethanmen. Itshouldbeassumedthatwomenarelesscompetitiveand/oronemorecooperativewithpeopletheyasfriends,colleagues,orteam members.

CommonElements:Demographicandbehavioralresemblanceamongthegroupmembersalsocontributetohigherstateofcohesiveness.

SatisfactionofMember’sNeeds:Ifbeingamemberofthegroupsatisfiesneeds,theywillhaveastrongdesiretostaywiththegroup.

GROUPDYNAMICS:

Theworddynamicscomesfrom aGreekwordmeaning‘Force’.Theterm groupdynamicsreferstotheforcesoperatingingroups.Theinvestigationofgroupdynamicsconsistsofastudyoftheseforcesandtheconditionsmodifyingthem.Thepracticalapplicationofgroupdynamicsconsistsoftheutilizationofknowledgeabouttheseforcesfortheachievementofsomepurpose.

Groupdynamicsmaybedefinedasthesocialprocessbywhichpeopleinteractfacetofaceinsmallgroups.Thus,itisconcernedwiththedynamicinter-actionofindividualsinafacetofacerelationship.

FEATURESOFGROUPDYNAMICS:

1.Perception:GroupDynamicsasdefinedbyperceptionimpliesthateverymemberofthegroupisawareofhisrespectiverelationshipwithothers.Thegroupconsistsoforganismsoragents.Themembersoragentsareengagedininteractionwithoneanother.The have face to face meetings. Theydevelop some impression orperceptionabouteachotherandgivetheirreactionstoeachother.

2.Motivation:Membersjoingroupsbecausetheyexpectthatthegroupwillsolvetheirproblems. Theywantprogressandpromotionwhichareachievedthroughgroup

performance.Thepressuresandproblemsarejointlymetbythem.Groupnormsemergetoguideindividualbehavior.

3.GroupGoals:GroupGoalsaretargetstowardswhichinput,processandoutputaredirected.Groupgoalistheessentialcomponentofgroupinformation,althoughitisnottheonlycondition forforming a group.A goalisused formotivating theemployees.Thepathgoalrelationshipproducesahigherresponsibilityforattainingthegoals.

4.GroupOrganization:Groupisanorganizationwhichiscomposedofdifferentorganstoattaintcertainobjectives. Agrouphasthestructuralelementsofaneffectiveorganization. A socio-psychologicalgroup is evolved wherein two ormoreindividualsareinterrelated.Ithasasetstandardofrelationshipamongitsmembers.

5.Interdependency:Themainfeatureofagroupisthemembers’interdependence.Themembersofagroupmayhaveacommongoalbuttheymaynotbeapartofthegroupbecausetheyarenotinterdependent.Individualswaitingfortheirturnatabusstophavethecommongoaloftravelbuttheydonotconstituteagroupbecausetheindividualsarenotinterdependent.

6.Interaction: Members ofa group mustinteractwith each other. Iftheyareinterdependentbutdonotinteract,thegroup’sgoalsarenotachieved.Membershaveaninterpersonalproblem-solvingmode.Ifanyproblem arises,theinteractionofallthemembersisneededtosolvetheproblem.

7.Entitativity:Agrouphasitsownidentity.Ithassimilarityandproximity.Itisfeltandrealizedbutcannotbeseen.Thecollectionofindividualexperiencesbecomestheguidelinesforthemembers.Theuniform,officeandpeoplebecomethesymbolofagroup.

GROUPCOHESIVENESS:

The cohesiveness is an importantfactorthatinfluences group effectiveness.Groupcohesivenessreferstothedegreetowhichgroupmembersform astrongcollectiveunitreflectingafeelingofoneness.Inotherwords,itreferstotheextenttowhichmembersofagroupareunitedandnottogether.Itisthespiritofcloseness.

AccordingtoRabbines,groupcohesivenessas“thedegreetowhichgroupmembersareattractedtoeachotherandsharecommongoals.Themoremembersareattractedtoeachother,themorethegroupgoalsalignwithindividualgoalsandthegreaterthegroupcohesiveness”.

FACTORSDETERMININGGROUPCOHESIVENESS:

Statusofthegroup:Otherthingsremainingsame,peoplegenerallyfeelloyaltytowardsahighstatusgroup thantowardsalow statusgroup.Theyaremoreconscioustoconform tothenormsofthegroupfrom whichtheywanttoescape.

Sizeofthegroup:Theeffectivegroupisrelativelysmall.Smallgroupsaremorecloselyknittedthanlargeones.Whenthegroupissmallitsmembershaveconstantfacetofacecontacts.

Natureofthegroup:Heterogeneousgroupsareoftenlesseffectiveinpromotingtheirownintereststhangroupswhosemembersarealikeonsuchfactorsasage,education,status,experience,background,etc.,arebetterwhenthetaskorgoalrequiresmutualcooperationandconflictfreebehavior.

Communication:Groups,whose members are located close togetherand caninteractfrequentlyandeasily,arelikelytobemorecohesiveandeffectivethanthoseatgreaterdistance.Suchgroupstendtodeveloptheirownlanguageandsymbolsandcodestocommunicatewithgroupmembers.

Locationofthegroup:Locationofthegroupplaysanimportantroletoenhancecohesiveness.Particularly,isolationform othergroupsofworkerstendstobuildhigh

cohesiveness. Autonomy:Agroupmaybedependentorindependentofothergroupsand,thus,

haveadifferentstructure.Wheneachmemberofagrouphasindependentanddifferentactivities,thecohesivenessamongmembersofthegroupwillbelessascomparedtothegroupwhosemembersaredependentuponeachother.

Leadershipstyle:Thedifferentstylesofleadershipinfluencethegroupcohesivenessdifferently.Aneffectiveleaderkeepsthemembersofthegroupclosebyhelpingthem andsatisfiestheirsocialneeds.

Outsidepressure:Groupsprovideasenseofsecurityfortheindividualmembersfrom pressuresfrom othergroups.

Managementbehavior:Thebehaviorofmanagementhasadirectinfluenceonthedegreeofcohesionthatexistswithinagroup.

Genderofthegroup:Recentstudiesindicatethatwomenaremorecohesivethanmen.Itshouldbeassumedthatwomenarelesscompetitiveandoronemorecooperativewithpeopletheyasfriends,colleague,orteam matesthanmenandthisresultsintogreatergroupbounding.

Commonelements:Demographicandbehavioralresemblanceamongthegroupmembersalsocontributetohigherstateofcohesiveness.

Satisfactionofmembersneeds:Ifbeingamemberofthegroupsatisfiesneeds,theywillhaveastrongdesiretostaywiththegroup.

DIFFERENTTYPESOFGROUPS:

Broadlygroupsareclassifiedintoformalandinformalgroups:

1.Formalgroups2.Informalgroups

1.Formalgroups:Formalgroupsaredeliberatelystructuredtosubserveorganizationalinterest.Theyareformedtoaccomplishthespecificfunctionsandorganizationsgoals.Therefunctionsandgoalsarerelatedtooverallorganizationalgoal.Theyserveasmeanstoformalends.Theyareshownontheorganizationalchart.Groupsareempoweredwiththeauthoritybytheinstitution.Authorityisalwaysdelegatedtothepositionandnottotheperson.

DIFFERENTTYPESOFFORMALGROUPS:

Permanentandtemporaryformalgroups:Permanentformalgroupsareformedbytheorganizationonthepermanentbasisandmoreorlessexisttilltheorganizationexists.Boardofdirectors,departmentalunits,staffgroups,standingcommitteesissomeoftheexamplesofformalgroups.

Commandgroups:Theauthoritystructureformsanddeterminestheboundariesofdivisions,departmentsandsectionswithintheorganizationandthesedepartmentsorsectionsordivisionsareknownascommandgroups.

Functionalgroups:Functionalgroupsarethosegroupswhoseprimarytaskistocarryontheoperations.Inmanycases,thefunctionalgroupsmaybecongruentwiththeauthoritygroups.

Functionalgroupscanbeagainclassifiedintoteam,taskandtechnologicalgroups.Thedistinctionbetweenthesegroupsinvolvesthemethodroleallocationandrolefulfillment.

Team groupisspecifiedandnofixedroletoitsindividual.Thegeneralroleofthegroupissetandthemembersofthegroupareallocatedtherolesaccordingtotheneedsofthegoal.

Taskgroupspecifiesafixedjobforeachofitsmembersandlaysdownthejob

description.Thus,rolesofthemembersarenotinterchangeableandifsuperiordoesso,itisnotwithoutmuchpersonalresistanceandfrictionbetweensuperiorandthemember.

Technologicalgroupissomethingdifferent.Heretherolesareassignedbythemanagement.Thepositionofthejobisfixedandthemethodislaiddownandthespeedofworkisfixedbysomedevice.

Status group:Status groups involve the memberofthe same status in anorganization.Theterm isambiguousinthesensethatitincludesanumberofdifferentrankingofpositionswhicharefrequentlyinconsistentwitheachother.

2.Informalgroups:Themembersoftheformalgroupsareaskedtoperform thefunctionswhicharenecessaryforhim consideringhisrolestatusintheorganization.Butasmencanbeengagedtoworkasawholeandnotinparts,therearenumberofneedswhichcannotbesatisfiedthroughformalgroups.

DIFFERENTTYPESOFINFORMALGROUPS:

Friendshipkinshipgroup:Thiskindofgroupinvolvesclosepersonalitiesasfriendsorrelativeswhoarewellknowntoeachotherbeforehand.Mostlythesegroupsarefoundinpairsandareusefulinspreadinginfluenceandinformation.

Cliques:Thesegroupsconsistofcolleaguesandcompanionswhonormallyobservecertainnormsandstandards.Theyarecloselyintimatetoeachother.Thenumberofmemberstendstobesmallersayfiveorsix.

Verticalclique:Suchcliquesconsistofpeopleworkinginthesamedepartmentirrespective oftheirrank difference.Such groups develop because ofearlieracquaintanceofpeopleorthedependenceofsuperioruponhissubordinatesforsomeformalpurpose.

Horizontalclique:Thisgroupconsistsofpeopleofmoreorlesssamerankandworkingmoreorlessinthesamearea.Suchgroupsareformedcomingacrossorganizationboundaries.

Sub-clique:Thegroupconsistsofsomemembersofacliqueinsidetheorganizationalongwithsomeotherpersonoutsidetheclique.

Isolates:Actuallythisisnotagroup.Anindividualwhoisnotthememberofanygroup iscalled isolates.Such isolatesdo notparticipatein anysocialactivityorganizedbythegroup.

DECISIONMAKINGINGROUP:

Groupdecisionmakingistheuseofgroupofpersonsintheprocessofdecisionmaking.Ingroupdecisionmakingproblem isdiscussedinadetailedmannerandvariousalternativesolutionsaredeveloped.Thisenablestoarriveatadesirablesolutionbyconsensusmethod.

Robbinshasdefinedgroupmakingdecisionas“thinking,understandingandjudgingthoughcoordinatedactiontoarriveatthebestpossible,outcomeforproblem solving”.

AccordingtoHaynesandMassie“decisionmakingisaprocessofselectionfrom asetofalternativecoursesofactionwhichisthoughttofulfilltheobjectiveofthedecisionproblemmoresatisfactorilythanother”.

GROUPDECISIONMAKINGPROCESS:

1.Identificationofproblem2.Diagnosingtheproblem3.Discoveringthealternatives4.Evaluatingalternatives5.Selectionofthebestalternativescourseofaction

6.Implementationandfollowup

Identificationofproblem:Thedecisionmakingprocessbeginswiththerecognitionoridentificationofaproblem thatrequiresadecision.Theproblem mayariseduetogapbetweenpresentanddesiredstateofaffairs.Thethreatsandopportunitiescreatedbyenvironmentalchangesmayalsocreatedecisionproblems.Atthisstage,amanagershouldidentifyanddefinetherealproblem.Aproblem welldefinedishalfsolved.

Diagnosingtheproblem:Diagnosingtherealproblem impliesanalyzingitintermsofitselements,itsmagnitude,itsurgency,itscoursesand itsrelationwithotherproblems.Inordertodiagnosetheproblem correctly,amanagermustobtainallpertinentfactsandanalyzethem carefully.

Discovering alternatives:The nextstep is the search forthe various possiblealternatives.Anexecutiveshouldnotjumponthefirstfeasiblealternativetosolvetheproblem quickly.Thecoursesofactionopentodecisionmakerarenotalwaysevident.Adecisionmakerhastousehisingenuityandcreativitytospotandinter-relatethem.

Evaluationofalternatives:Oncethealternativesarediscovered,thenextstageistoevaluateorscreeneachfeasiblealternative.Evaluationisprovesofmeasuringthepositiveandnegativeconsequencesofeachalternative.Managementmustbalancethecostsagainstpossiblebenefits.

Selectionofbestalternatives:Afterevaluation,theoptimum alternativeisselected.Optimum alternativeisthealternativethatwillmaximizetheresultsundergivenconditions.Choiceofthebestalternativeisthemostcriticalpointindecisionmaking.

Implementationandfollowup:onceadecisionismade,itneedstobeimplemented.Implementationinvolvesseveralsteps:thedecisionshouldbecommunicatedtothoseresponsibleforitsimplementation.Acceptanceofthedecisionshouldbeobtained.Proceduresandtimesequenceshouldbeestablishedforimplementation.

TECHNIQUESOFGROUPDECISIONMAKING:

1.Brainstorming2.Nominalgrouptechnique3.Delphitechnique4.Fishbowling5.Consensusmaking

Brainstorming:Brainstormingtechniqueinvolvesagroupofpeople,usuallybetweenfiveandten,sittingaroundatable,generatingideasintheform offreeassociation.Theprimaryfocusofthebrainstormingtechniqueismoreongenerationofideas,ratherthanonevaluationofideas,theideabeingthatifalargenumberofideascanbegenerated,thenitislikelythattherewillbeauniqueandcreativesolutionamongthem.

Nominalgroup technique:Is used when high degree ofinnovation and ideagenerationisrequires.Themembershavenodiscussionbeforeadecision.Itissimilarto brainstorming.The members develop solutions independently,oftenwritingthem oncards.Theideasaresharedwithothersinastructuredformat.

Delphitechnique:ItwasoriginallydevelopedbyRandCorporationasamethodtosystematicallygatherjudgmentsofexpertsforuseindevelopingforecasts.Itisdesignedforgroupsthatdonotmeetfacetoface.Generallythetypeofproblemshandledbythistechniqueisnotspecificinnatureorrelatedtoaparticularsituationatagivetime.

Fishbowling:Thetechniqueoffishbowlingisanothervariationofbrainstorming,butismorestructuredandfocusedtechnique.Inthistechnique,thedecisionmaking

groupofexpertsisseatedaroundacirclewithasinglechairinthecenterofthecircle.Onememberofthegrouporthegroupleaderisinvitedtositinthecenterandgivehisopinionorviewsabouttheproblem andhispropositionofasolution.Theothergroupmemberscanaskhim questionsbutthereisnoirrelevantdiscussionorcrosstalk.

Consensusmappingtechnique:Itisusedforconsolidatingtheresultsfrom severaltaskforceorprojectedgroupsandisusedforproblemsthataremultidimensionalhave interconnected elements.This technique begins aftera task group hasdevelopedandevaluatedalistofideas.Theconsensusmappingtriestopooltheideasgeneratedbyseveraltaskgrouptoarriveatadecision.Thefacilitatorsincourageparticipantstosearchclustersandcategoriesofideas.

TEAM BUILDING

Definition:Team buildingisamanagementtechniqueusedforimprovingtheefficiencyand

performanceoftheworkgroupsthroughvariousactivities.Itinvolvesalotofskills,analysisandobservationforformingastrongandcapableteam.Thewholesolemotivehereistoachievetheorganizationvisionandobjectives.

Team BuildingProcess:Team buildingisnotaone-timeact.Itisastepbystepprocesswhichaimsat

bringingadesirablechangeintheorganization.Teamsareusuallyformedforaparticulartaskorprojectandaremostlyfortheshortterm.Thevariousstepsinvolvedinteam buildingareasfollows:

IdentifytheNeedforTeam BuildingThemanagerhasfirstto analyzetherequirementofateam forcompleting a

particulartask.Itshouldfindoutthepurposeoftheworktobeperformed,requiredskillsforthejobanditscomplexitybeforeformingateam.

DefineObjectivesandRequiredSetofSkillsNextcomesthechalkingdownoftheorganizationalobjectivesandtheskillsneeded

tofulfilit.

ConsiderTeam RolesThe managerconsiders the various aspects,i.e.the interactions among the

individuals,theirrolesandresponsibilities,strengthsandweaknesses,compositionandsuitabilityofthepossibleteam members.

DetermineaTeam BuildingStrategyThe managerhas to understand the operationalframework wellto ensure an

effectiveteam building.Hemusthimselfbeassuredoftheobjectives,roles,responsibilities,duration,availabilityofresources,training,theflow ofinformation,feedbackandbuildingtrustintheteam.

DevelopaTeam ofIndividualsAtthisstage,theindividualsarecollectedtoform ateam together.Eachmemberis

madefamiliarwithhisrolesandresponsibilitieswithintheteam.

EstablishandCommunicatetheRulesTherulesregardingthereportingofteam members,meetingschedules,anddecision

makingwithintheteam arediscussed.Theindividualsareencouragedtoaskquestionsandgivetheirviewstodevelopopenandhealthycommunicationintheteam.

IdentifyIndividual’sStrengthsVariousteam-buildingexercisesareconductedtobringoutthestrengthsofthe

individuals.Italsohelpsinfamiliarizingtheteam memberswitheachother’sstrengthsandweakness.

BeaPartoftheTeamAtthispoint,themanagerneedstogetinvolvedwiththeteam asamemberandnot

asaboss.Makingtheindividualsrealizetheirimportanceintheteam andtreatingeachmemberequallyisnecessary.Theteam membersshouldseetheirmanagerastheirteamleader,mentorandrolemodel.

MonitorPerformanceNextstepischeckingtheproductivityandperformanceoftheteam asawhole.It

involvesfindingoutloopholesandthereasonsforit.Thisstepisnecessarytoimprovetheteam’sperformanceandproductivityinthelongrun.

ScheduleMeetingsOneofthemostcrucialstepsistoholdpurposefulmeetingsfrom timetotimeto

discussteam performance,task-relatedproblemsanddiscussthefuturecourseofaction.

DissolvetheTeamLastly,themanagerneedstoevaluatetheresultsandrewardtheindividualsontheir

contribution and achievement.Finally,the team is dispersed on the fulfilmentoftheobjectiveforwhichitwasformed.

ADVANTAGESOFTEAM BUILDING

DISADVANTAGESOFTEAM BUILDING:

UNIT-5ORGANIZATIONALCHANGE

Anorganizationisanopensystem,whichmeansthatitisinaconstantinteractionandinterdependentrelationshipwithitsenvironment.Anychangeinitsexternalenvironment,suchaschangesinconsumertastesandpreferences,competition,economicpoliciesofthegovernment,etc,makeitimperativeforanorganizationtomakechangesinitsinternalsystem.

The term change refers to any alteration which occurs in the overallworkenvironmentofanorganization.Itistobeemphasizedthatchangeisthelaw ofnature.

Nothingispermanentexceptchange.

Meaning:Changereferstoanyalternationthatoccursintotalworkenvironment.Generallypeopleareaccustomedtoawellestablishedwayoflifeandanyvariationinordeviationfrom thatlifemaybecalledachange.Changemaybeverysimplejustliketoshiftthelocationofanofficeoritmaybeamorecomplextechnologicalchangewhichmayeventhreatentheveryexistenceofsomepeopleintheorganization.

LEVELSOFCHANGE:

1.Individuallevelchange2.Grouplevelchanges3.Organizationallevel

Individuallevelchange:Theindividuallevelchangeisnoticedinsuchdevelopmentsaschangesinajob assignment,physicalmobilityto differentlocation,orthechangeinmaturityofapersonwhichoccursovertime.Itistodenotethatchangesattheindividuallevelwillseldom havesignificantimplicationsforthetotalorganization.Grouplevelchanges:Manyorganizationalchangeshavetheirimpactatthegrouplevel.Thisisduetothefactthatmustactivitiesinorganizationsareorganizedonagroupbasis.Thegroupscouldbeformalgrouplikedepartments,orinformalworkgroups.Organizationallevel:Thechangeatorganizationlevelinvolvesmajorprogrammesthataffectbothindividualsandgroups.Decisionsregardingthesechangesaregenerallymadebycorporatemanagementandareseldom implementedbyonlyasingleexecutive.

TYPESOFCHANGES:

1.Changesinknowledge,informationandtechniques2.Changeinthescopeofmanagement3.Changeinenvironment4.Changesintheissuesandproblemsbeforemanagers5.Changesinmanagementpractices

Changesinknowledge,informationandtechniques:Theprofessionofmanagementhasitsdeeprootsintheengineeringproblemsofproduction.Thetechniqueaspectofthemanagementfieldisadvancinggreatly.Nowagreatdealofresearchisalsobeingconductedinvariousinstitutionsoftheworldonbehavioralscience.

Changeinthescopeofmanagement:Thewritingofearlymanagementthinkerswasprimarily concerned with technicalproblems and theirsolutions.Butwith thepassage oftime itwasfound thatthe processofmanagementhasuniversalapplication.

Change in environment:The world is changing fast.Population changes havebecomeextremelyimportantforthemanagers.Otherchangescanbeviewedaschangesinconsumers,factorsofproduction,socialconditions,politicalconditionsandeconomictrends.

Changesintheissuesandproblemsbeforemanagers:Therehasbeenagreatchangebothinmagnitudeandnumberintheproblemsbeforepresentdaymanagers.Thesechangesarecausedbytheemergenceoflargescaleorganizationsandtheseparationofmanagementfrom ownership.

Changesinmanagementpractices:Thisincludesnew conceptsandpracticeliketotalquality managementsystem concepts like bench marking,reengineering,empowerment.

THEPROCESSANDMODELOFORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:

Changeinorganizationisbroughtaboutbypeople.Thechangeinanorganizationcanbeinitiatedattheindividuallevel,ororganizationallevel.Organizationalchangetakesplacethroughaslow unfoldingprocessorthroughcataclysmiceventsoverturningstatusquoarrangements.

1.Individualchangeandorganizationalchange2.Evolutionarychangeandrevolutionarychange3.Reactiveandproactivechanges

Individualchangeandorganizationalchange:Theindividualchangeisbehavioral,determinedbyindividualcharacteristicsofmemberssuchasknowledge,attitudes,beliefs,needs,expectations,etc.Atotalchangeinanorganizationcanbecarriedoutbychangingbehaviorofindividualmembersthroughparticipativeeducativestrategy.

Evolutionarychangeandrevolutionarychange:Anorganizationcanbecomparedwithanyotheropensystem organism;itcanbedescribedintermsofitsbirth,growth,maturity,senility,decline,entropyordeath.Anyorganization,likeotherorganism,passesthroughthesestagesandintheprocesschangesitselffrom oneform toanotherform.Ineachstagetherearesomecriticalconcernsandkeyissueswhichconsequencestheconcernsarenotmetwithsatisfaction.

Reactiveandproactivechanges:Thedifferencesbetweenreactiveandproactivechangecorresponds,bywayofanalogy,tothatbetweenreflexivebehaviorandpurposivebehavior.Anindividualrespondsreflexivelytoasuddenintenselightbyeye-blinking orpapillarycontraction.Thisisan immediate,automaticresponsewithoutanythought.A purposiveresponseto thesamestimuluswould meandevisingaplantoshieldtheeyesorremovingthelight.

CAUSESFORORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:

1.Externalfactors:Inmodernhigh-techindustrialsocietyorganizationisconsideredasanopenadoptivesystem whichinteractswithexternalenvironmentonaregularbasis.Thefollowingaresomeexternalfactors:

Socio-culturalfactors:Itincludes changing culturalvalues and norms,socialobjectives,patternofeducation,populationdynamics,socialtraditionsandcustoms,etc.

Economicfactors:Itincludeseconomicconditionsofthecountryto whichtheorganization belongs.Economic factors include marketdynamics like demand,competition,and price mechanism,buying capacity,distribution ofincome andavailabilityofvariousresources.

Politicalandlegalfactors:Itincludespoliticalsystem,ideologyoftherulingparty,politicalstability,moralityandvalues.

Technologicalfactors:Itincludesnew technologyofproduction,innovationofnewprocessandproduct,growingemphasisonresearchanddevelopmentwork.

Workenvironmentfactors:Itincludescustomers,suppliers,communityandthesociety.

2.Internalfactors: Topmanagementanditspolicyandcorporatepolicy. Retirement,promotion,resignationandtransferofkeyexecutivesoftheorganization. Changes in the perception,attitudes,feelings,beliefs and expectations ofthe

employeeswithintheorganization. Changesintheworkschedule,allocationofduties,job-contents,dutyhoursand

compositionofworkgroup.

PROCESSOFPLANNEDCHANGE:

Changeinthemissionorobjective:Theorganizationmaybeforcedtochangeitsobjectiveseitherbydroppingsomeofthem oraddingsomenewone,duetorapidlychangingenvironment.

Structuralchange:Thestructuralchangeimpliesredistribution ofauthorityandresponsibilityamongthemembers.Italsoincludesrearrangingofitsinternalsystem.

Technologicalchange:Thesechangesarerelatedtoproductsbeingproducedandprocessbeingusedintheorganization.

Peopleorientedchange:Organizationisamanmadesystem,andisoperatedbypeople.Togetbetterresultsandhigherperformance,somedesirablechangesaremadeintheirworkingbehaviorandmorale.

RESISTANCETOCHANGE:

Resistancetochangeinvolvesemployeesbehaviordesignedtodiscredit,delayorpreventthechangesintroducedforthedevelopmentofanorganization.Theyresistbecausetheyareafraidoftheirjobsecurity,workingconditions,status,regressionandotherfactors.Theperceivedthreatmayberealorimaginary.

Fearofeconomicloss:Peopleresistchangewhentheyperceivethattheywilllosesomeeconomicbenefits.Fearoftechnologicalunemployment.Fearofreducedworkinghoursandconsequentlyreducedmonetarybenefits.Fearofdemotionandconsequentlylesspay.Fearofspeedupandreducedincentivewages.

Obsolescence ofskills:Change mayrenderthe existing knowledge and skillsobsolete.Oldskillsandtechniquesmaybecomeuseless.

Statusquo:Perhapsthebiggestandmostsoundreasonforresistancetochangeisthestatusquo.Peopleattachgreatimportancetothestatusquoorexistingposition.

Egodefensiveness:Sometimeschangemaybeego-deflatingsometimespeopleresistchangebecauseithurtstheirego.

Socialdisplacement;Introductionofchangeoftencausedsocialdisplacementofpeoplebybreakinginformalgroupsandrelationships.

Fearofunknown:Changepresentsunknownwhichcausesanxiety.Changecausesuncertaintyandriskduringthetransitionperiod.

Grouppressure:Attimesthemembersofagroupopposethechangebecausethegrouptowhichtheybelongisnotinfavorofchange.

Rigidorganizationalstructure:someorganizationstructurehasinbuiltmechanismforresistancetochange.Lackofadequatefacilityinthestructureoforganizationmayalsobecomeasourceofresistance.

Threatofpowerandcontrol:Whenpeopleatthetopconsiderchangeasapotentialthreattotheirpositionandinfluence,theyresistit.

ORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:

Organizationaldevelopmentisasystematicandpracticalapproachtolaunchinganddiffusingchangeinorganizations.Simplystated,ODisanattempttoimprovetheoverallorganizationalefficiencyandeffectiveness.Itisbasicallyalongrangeprogramme,notaoneshotdeal,attempting to change the behavioralattitudes and performance of theorganization.

Burkehasdefinedorganizationaldevelopmentasaplannedprocessofchangeinan

organizationsculturethroughtheutilizationofbehavioralsciencetechnologyresearchandtheory.

FEATURESOFORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:

Longrangeeffort:Organizationaldevelopmentisnotdesignedtosolveshorttermtemporaryisolatedproblems.ODisbasicallyalongterm approachmeantoevaluatetheorganizationtoahigherleveloffunctioningbyimprovingtheperformanceandsatisfactionofitsmember.

Broadbased:ODisacomprehensivestrategyfororganizationalimprovement.Itisaplannedattempttobringaboutorganizationwidechange.

Systemsview:Itisbasedonopen,adoptionssystemsconcepts.Itutilizestheopenadaptivesystem concept.Itrecognizesthatorganizationsstructureandhumanbeingsworkinginitaremutuallyinterdependence.

Dynamicprocess:Itrecognizesthatorganizationalobjectivechangeand,therefore,themethodsofalteringthem shouldalsochange.

Research based:OD involves surveys,data collection,evaluation and decisionmaking.

PROCESSOFORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT:

Problem identification:Theproblem maybeidentifiedintermsofthereasonsduetowhichtheorganizationisnotabletoachieveitsobjectives.Low productivity,lowemployeeturnover,decliningmarketshareetc.

Initialdiagnosis:Collection and analysis ofdata are necessary.Observation,questionnaireandinterviewsmaybeusedtocollectthenecessarydata.Experienceandjudgmentareequallyimportant.

Planningchangestrategy:Atthisstageanactionplanisprepared.Theplaninvolvesthe overallgoals fororganization development,determining the approach forimplementingthechange.

Intervention:InterventionconstitutestheactionphaseinOD processbecauseitmakesthingshappen.

Evaluationoffeedback:Continuousmonitoringisnecessarytoevaluatetheresultsoftheorganizationdevelopmentprogramme.

STRESSMANAGEMENT:

Stressisthepressurepeoplefeelwhileatworkandinprivatelife.Stressatworkisinevitablebecauseofthethoughtprocessrequiredinthejobperformance.Privatelifeisfullofanxietiesandpersonalpressure.Butstressbecomesveryharmfulwhenitisseriouslyrealizedbythemindandheart.Then,itbecomespainfulandcreatesmanyphysicalandpsychologicalproblems which are reflected in the day to day life oforganizationalperformances.

Meaning:Stresshasbeendefinedbydifferentauthorsdifferently.Stressisadynamicconditioninwhichapersonisfacedwithconstraintandstrains.Stressisthediscomfortofanindividual.Emotionaldisequilibrium isstress.

STAGESOFSTRESS:

Alarm:Thefirststageofstressisalarm whereinthestressmobilizestheinternalstresssystem.Manyphysiologicalandchemicalreactionsareobservedduringthealarm stage.

Resistance:Ifthealarm stageisnotprevented,resistancedevelops.Thebodyorgans become resistantbutitpaves the ways forthe developmentofother

stressors. Exhaustion:Resistanceorresistantstresscreatesexhaustion.Theimmunityofthe

body is reduced.Individuals feelfatigue and inability.Exhaustion developsmoodiness,negativeemotionsandhelplessness.

CAUSESOFSTRESS:

Environmentalfactors:Environmentalfactors are as much contributoryas theorganizationalfactorstostress.Lawandorderproblemscreatetensioninthemindsofemployees.Technologicaluncertaintieshaveadiverseimpactonthepeople.Socialpressures on the employees are commonly observed in the form ofdissatisfaction.Theoutsideforceshaveatremendousimpactontheemployees.

Organizationalfactors:Organizationalfactorssuchasmanagementlaborrelations,working conditions,resource allocations,role oftrade unions,behaviorofco-workers,etc.are importantfactors which cause stress to the physiologyandpsychologyofemployees.Organizationalpoliciesandworkingproceduresarenottheleastinfluentialfactorsofanorganization.

Groupfactors:Anorganizationincludesgroupandindividualswhoinfluenceeachotherandareinfluencedbytheother.Theycausestressandreduceitaswell.Lackofgroupcohesiveness,lackofsocialsupportandgroupconflictsarepotentialcausesofstress.Lackoftogethernessisstressproducing.

Individualfactors:Individualfactorssuchaspersonalcharacteristics,lifechangesandroleperceptionscreatestressindifferentformsatdifferentlevels.

EFFECTSOFSTRESS:

Physiologicaleffects:Theimpactofstressismostlyvisibleonone’sbody.Stressaffectsmetabolism,increasesheartbeatsandbreathingrates,causesheadacheandhigh blood pressure.These symptoms do notdirectlyinfluence an individual’sperformanceonhisjob.

Psychologicaleffects:Stressaffectsthebodyaswellasthemindofaperson.Physicalandmentalhealthisadverselyaffectedbystress.Ithasbeenobservedthatphysicalproblemsduetostressarepossibleonlythroughmentaltension.

Behavioralimpact:Theimpactsofstresshaveanultimateimpactonthebehaviorofpeople,althoughishasadirectimpactonthemindandbody.Adistressedmindanddiseasepronebodycannothaveproperbehavior.Asoundmindandhealthybodybehavesproperly.

ORGANIZATIONALEFFECTIVENESS:

Organizationaleffectiveness has been defined by various authorities such as,accordingtoGeorgopolousandTannenbaum itistheextent,towhichanorganization,givencertainresourcesandmeans,achievesitsobjectiveswithoutplacingunduestressonitsmembers.AccordingtoMottitistheabilityofanorganizationtomobilizeitscenterstopowerforaction-productionandadaptation.

AccordingtoBarnarditistheconditionofanorganization,inwhichspecificdesiredendsareattained.

Organizationaleffectivenessmeanstheabilityofanorganizationtoobtainresources,usethem efficientlytoattainspecificgoals,satisfyingatthesametime,interestsofallstakeholders.

AccordingtoDr.V.V.S.Sarma,organizationaleffectivenesscanbedefinedastheabilityofanorganizationtomobilizeitscenterofpowerforaction,productionandadoption.

APPROACHESOFORGANIZATIONALEFFECTIVENESS:

Goalattainmentapproach:Thegoalattainmentapproachisthemostcommonlyusedbasisforapprovaloforganizationaleffectiveness.AccordingtoEtzioni,agoalisanimageofafuturestateofaffairs,inotherwords,agoalrepresentsthefuturestateofaffairswhichanorganizationwantstoachieve.Coalattainmentisprobablythemostwidelyusedcriterionoforganizationaleffectiveness.In the words ofChesterJ.Bornard effectiveness is the accomplishmentofrecognized objectives of co-operative effort.The degree of accomplishmentindicatesthedegreeofeffectiveness.

Systemsresourceapproach:Thesystem approachisbasedontheopensystem asappliedtosocialorganizations.Anorganizationisasystem andisapartoftheenvironmentalsuprasystem.Thesystemsview considersthenatureofinteractionbetween the organization and the environmentto determine effectiveness.Asystemsapproachtoorganizationaleffectivenessimpliesthatorganizationsaremadeupofinterrelatedandinteractingelements.Theeffectivenessoftotalsystemisdependentontheperformanceofallitsubparts.

Strategic constituencyapproach;The strategic constituencyapproach is muchsimilartothesystemsapproachwithanimportantdifferencethatinsteadoftakingintoconsiderationtheentireenvironmentitconcernsitselfwithonlythosesystemsorsubsystemsoftheenvironmentwhicharestrategicinnature,whichvitallyaffectthesurvivaloftheorganization.

Behavioralapproach:Thebehavioroforganizationalmembersdeterminesthenatureoforganizationsresponsetotheenvironmentaldemands.Accordingtobehavioralapproach,theextenttowhichindividualandorganizationalgoalsareintegratedaffectsthedegreeoforganizationaleffectiveness.

EMPLOYEECOUNSELLING:Robinsonsaidthat,“theterm counsellingcoversalltypesoftwopersonsituationsin

which one person,the clientis helped to adjustmore effectivelyto himselfand hisenvironment”.

MainCharacteristicsofEmployeeCounsellingare:

(a)Serviceofferedtoemployees.(b)Serviceisconductedinorganisation.(c)Focusisonproblemsfacedbyemployees.(d)Objectiveofcounsellingisproblem solution.(e)Employeecounsellingservesallconcerned.(f)Employeecounsellingisacontinuousprocess.(g)Roleofcounsellorisimportantincounselling.ImportanceofEmployeesCounselling:

1.Itprovidesemployeeswithanatmospherewheretheycanshareanddiscusstheirtensions,conflicts,concerns,andproblemswiththeirsupervisors.2.Itisaprocessofhelpingemployeesto realisetheirfullpotentialbymakingthemunderstandtheirstrengthsandweaknesses.3.Counsellingprovidesemployeeswiththereassuranceandcour¬agetofacetheproblemsconfidently.4.Releasingemotionaltensionisanimportantfunctionofcounselling.Releaseoftensionmaynotsolvetheentireproblem butitremovesmentalblockstothesolution.

5.Counselling sessionsalso help employeesto getanopportunityto understand thebusinessenvironmentandsetrealisticgoalsforfurtherimprovements.

TypesOfEmployeeCounselling:

Type# 1.PerformanceCounselling:Iftheperformanceofanemployeestartsdecliningattheworkplace,theneedfor

performancecounsellingarises.Thecounsellorshouldtrytoidentifytheunderlyingcausesbehindtheemployee’spoorperformance.Thereasonscouldbeofficestress,unachievabledeadlines,problemsininterpersonalrelationswithotheremployees,etc.Afterrecognizingtheproblem,thecounsellorcanadviseabouthowtodealwithit.

Type# 2.DisciplinaryCounselling:Thistypeofcounsellingtakesplacewhenanemployee’sbehaviourfallsshortofthe

standardsexpected.Anemployeemaysuddenlystartpickingupfights,becomeirritable,beabsentfrom workforlong,etc.Thecounsellorshouldinterviewtheemployeeandconfronthim abouthisbehaviouralproblems.

Type# 3.PersonalCounselling:Workplaceproblemsarenottheonlyproblemsthatemployeesface;personaland

familyproblemsalsoaffecttheirperformance.Familiesandfriendsareintegralpartsofanyhuman being’s life;tension in a worker’s personallife affects his work performanceadversely.

Type# 4.StressManagementinWorkplace:Workinginthemodernjobenvironmentisverystressfulwithsomanydeadlinesto

meetandtargetstoachieve.Employeesmaybecomeanxiousandtenseduetotheirhighpressureworkload.Thisnotonlyaffectstheirproductivityonthejob,butalsotheirmentalhealth.