The relationship betweenemotional intelligence and

work attitudes, behavior andoutcomes

An examination among senior managersAbraham Carmeli

Graduate School of Business Administration, Department of PoliticalScience, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel

Keywords Job commitment, Job satisfaction, Altruism, Family friendly organizations

Abstract The literature suggests that managerial skills in general, and emotional intelligence inparticular, play a significant role in the success of senior managers in the workplace. This argument,despite its popularity, remains elusive. This can be attributed to the fact that although a few studieshave provided evidence to support this argument, it has not received an appropriate empiricalinvestigation. This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically examining the extent to whichsenior managers with a high emotional intelligence employed in public sector organizations developpositive work attitudes, behavior and outcomes. The results indicate that emotional intelligenceaugments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior and work outcomes, and moderates the effect ofwork-family conflict on career commitment but not the effect on job satisfaction.

IntroductionWhat makes a senior manager successful has been a central research questionof organizational scientists for decades. Underlying this interest is theassumption or observation regarding the impact of upper-echelon managers onimportant issues of strategic vision, strategic positioning, strategic and tacticalmoves, among others aimed at improving overall organizational performance(Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Although overthe years we have been exposed to various approaches (e.g. management style)for studying this elusive question, it still remains unanswered.

Studying managerial skills, however, seems to be one promising stream ofresearch that has potential for providing answers or at least shedding somelight on this enigma. As Whetten and Cameron (2001, p. 6) noted “managementskills form the vehicle by which management strategy, management practice,tools and techniques, personality attributes and style work to produce effectiveoutcomes in organizations”.

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0268-3946.htm

The author wishes to thank Sidika Nihal Colakoglu for her assistance, the editor and twoanonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable comments and suggestions, and theparticipants who made this study a reality. The study was supported, in part, by a grant fromSchnitzer Foundation of the Faculty of Social Science at Bar-Ilan University.

JMP18,8

788

Journal of Managerial PsychologyVol. 18 No. 8, 2003pp. 788-813q MCB UP Limited0268-3946DOI 10.1108/02683940310511881

In the last decade or so, we have been witness to a particular growing bodyof research regarding the importance of emotional intelligence for successfulleadership. Underlying this research interest is the view that people with highemotional intelligence competencies are more likely than less emotionallyintelligent people to gain success in the workplace. Particularly, scholars havenoted that social skills are essential for executive level leaders; as individualsascend the organizational hierarchy, social intelligence becomes anincreasingly relevant determinant of who will and will not be successful(Hooijberg et al., 1997; Zaccaro, 2001). Though growing evidence indicates thatemotional intelligence competency has the potential to improve performance onboth personal and organizational levels, we are still only in the initial phase ofunderstanding the extent to which members with high emotional intelligencewould be more valued assets than less emotionally intelligent members of theirorganization. As Cherniss (2000) pointed out “it is more useful and interestingto consider how important it is for effective performance at work”.Furthermore, one of the criticisms of the influential work of Goleman (1995,1998) is that the main argument stating that managers with high emotionalintelligence competencies are likely to provide their organizations with aunique contribution has not yet received much empirical attention and support,particularly with regard to various important work-related attitudes, behaviorand outcomes that may serve as good indexes for such investigation. AsDulewicz and Higgs (2000, p. 341 and p. 351) indicate “little research has beenconducted in an organizational context” and “there is a need for rigorousresearch to underpin the assertion in an organizational setting”.

This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically testing the degree towhich emotionally intelligent senior managers, employed in public sectororganizations, develop high job satisfaction, career commitment, jobinvolvement and effective commitment, diminish continuance commitmentand work-family conflict, display altruistic behavior, withdrawal intentionsand better job performance. In addition, this study examines the moderatingrole of emotional intelligence for the relationship between work-family conflictand job satisfaction and career commitment.

This article is organized as follows: the next section presents the importanceof managerial skills and stresses the concept of emotional intelligence and itskey components followed by the development of the research hypotheses. Theresearch method is presented in the following section and the results of thisstudy follow. Finally, the study’s results and limitations are summarized.

Theory and hypothesesEmotional intelligenceScholars tend to view emotional intelligence as a factor which has a potential tocontribute to more positive attitudes, behaviors and outcomes. At the sametime, as Schutte et al. (2002) note, “evidence exists that emotional intelligence

Emotionalintelligence

789

can be conceptualized as either ability (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Mayer et al., 1999)or a personality trait (Schutte and Malouff, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998)”. The mostcomprehensive discussion about this issue is provided by a recent study ofMayer et al. (2000). As indicated, however, this issue has not yet resolved. Inthis study, I rather view emotional intelligence as a competency that isexpected to augment positive attitudes toward work, and drive positivebehaviors and better outcomes.

The concept of emotional Intelligence goes back to early studies in the 1920s(for a review, see Bar-On and Parker, 2000). In the early 1980s, scholars beganto systematically conceptualize the idea of emotional intelligence. Notably,Gardner’s (1983) conceptualization of intrapersonal intelligence andinterpersonal intelligence and Steiner (1984) work on emotional literacy werethe building blocks of what Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) first termed asemotional intelligence. Based on Bar-On’s previous work, Bar-On et al. (2000,p. 1108) view emotional intelligence as a noncognitive intelligence which isdefined as an array of emotional, personal, and social abilities and skills thatinfluence an individual’s ability to cope effectively with environmentaldemands and pressures”. This study focuses on the conceptualizationsuggested by Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) and formulated in 1997 (Mayerand Salovey, 1997).

Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990, p. 189) defined emotional intelligence as “thesubset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own andothers’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use thisinformation to guide one’s thinking and actions”. Later on, they refined anddefined emotional intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotions, to accessand generate emotions so as to assist thoughts, to understand emotions andemotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promoteemotional and intellectual growth” (Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p. 5). A keyconstruct in their definition that we need to explain is “emotions”. According toVan Maanen and Kunda (1989, p. 53), emotions are “ineffable feelings of theself-referential sort”, and are comprehensively defined as “self-referentialfeelings an actor (employee) experiences or, at least, claims to experience inregard to the performances he or she brings off in the social world”. States offeeling refer to basic emotions (e.g. joy, love, anger) and social emotions (e.g.shame, guilt, jealousy, envy), as well as to related constructs as affect,sentiments and moods (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995).

Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) argued that there is a set of threeconceptually related mental processes – appraising and expressing emotionsin the self and others, regulating emotion in the self and others, and usingemotions in adaptive ways – involving emotional information. The followingsare brief descriptions of the content and importance of these mental processes:

(1) Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others. Individualsdiffer in the degree to which they are aware of their emotions (appraisal)and the degree to which the latter are verbally and non-verbally being

JMP18,8

790

expressed (George, 2000). Individuals who accurately appraise andexpress (perceive and respond to) their emotions are likely to be betterunderstood by the people they work with, and they also have thepotential to better lead and manage people when they are able toperceive the emotions of the people around them and to developempathy – the ability to comprehend another’s feelings and tore-experience them oneself (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990).

(2) Regulating emotion in the self and others. People differ in their ability tomanage (monitor, evaluate, and adjust to changing moods) theiremotions as well as in their ability to regulate and alter the affectivereactions of others (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). Regulation of one’sown emotions and moods results in positive and negative affectivestates. Emotionally, intelligent individuals are adept at placingthemselves in positive affective states, and are able to experiencenegative affective states that have insignificant destructiveconsequences. Emotionally astute people can induce a positive affectin others that results in a powerful social influence (charisma), animportant component of leadership (Wasielewski, 1985).

(3) Using emotions in adaptive ways. Individuals also differ in the ways(functional vs. dysfunctional) in which they utilize their emotions.Emotions can:. help in generating multiple future plans (flexible planning);. improve the decision-making process due to a better understanding of

one’s emotional reaction (creative thinking);. facilitate cognitive processes such as creativity on the one hand and

punctuality on the other hand (mood redirected attention); and. enhance persistence regarding challenging tasks (motivating

emotions) (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990).

Emotionally astute managersUntil the early 1990s, the concept of emotional intelligence received very littleresearch attention. The major focus of researchers at that time was on theimportance of cognitive intelligence (e.g. problem solving capabilities).Nowadays, researchers and practitioners recognize the importance of bothcognitive and emotional intelligences for gaining success. It seems thatresearchers, however, attribute to emotional intelligence a significant power ofexplanation of variance in performance. As Cary Cherniss puts it: “If you’re ascientist, you probably needed an IQ of 120 or so simply to get a doctorate and ajob. But then it is more important to be able to persist in the face of difficultyand to get along well with colleagues and subordinates than it is to have anextra 10 or 15 points of IQ. The same is true in many other occupations”.(Emphases are not in the original text).

Emotionalintelligence

791

Scholars have also focused on relating emotional intelligence to leadership(George, 2000) or showing how components of emotional intelligence such asempathy are important traits that contribute to leadership (Kellett et al., 2002;Wolff et al., 2002). In addition, a growing body of research has been concernedwith the degree to which emotional intelligence can make the differencebetween good and poor leaders. This stream of research is also of great interestto many organizations that seek to better understand the variance inemployees’ performance. Inspired by Daniel Goleman’s article “What Makes aLeader?” published in The Harvard Business Review in 1998, the topmanagement team of Johnson and Johnson decided to fund a study that “wouldassess the importance of Emotional Intelligence in leadership success acrossthe JandJ Consumer Companies”. The study, which was conducted by KathleenCavallo and Dottie Brienza on a randomly selected 358 managers, found “astrong relationship between superior performing leaders and emotionalcompetence. . . Leaders who received performance ratings of 4.1 or greater on a5-point scale were rated significantly higher than other participants in all fourof the emotional intelligence dimensions of self-awareness, self-management,social awareness, and social skills by supervisors and subordinates”.

The growing body of empirical work in the leadership domain has beenmainly devoted to examining the effects of emotional intelligence on theperformance of senior executives. The problem with this work is that it hardlyexamines important behavioral attitudes, behavior and outcomes that areessential for evaluating whether one can be viewed as an effective manager andleader. In this study, emotional intelligence was examined with respect to a setof work attitudes, work behavior and work outcomes.

Emotional intelligence and work attitudesEmotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Locke (1969, p. 314) defined jobsatisfaction and dissatisfaction as “complex emotional reactions to the job”.Conceptualizing job satisfaction as “feeling or affective responses to facets ofthe situation” (Smith et al., 1969, p. 6), suggests that job satisfaction ispositively associated with the construct of emotional intelligence. In addition,job satisfaction is often considered as a proxy for an employee’s well being atwork (Grandey, 2000). Intelligent individuals with high emotional intelligence,through the above described set of three conceptually related mental processes,experience continuous positive moods and feelings that generate higher levelsof satisfaction and well-being compared to individuals who experience suchfeelings and moods as disappointment, depression and anger, because they canreach a higher level of general satisfaction and fulfillment. We suggest thefollowing hypothesis:

H1. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and jobsatisfaction of senior managers.

JMP18,8

792

Emotional intelligence and work commitment. Work commitment is amultidimensional construct that comprises various forms. Themultidimensionality of work commitment has been established byresearchers who argued that employees develop more than one type of workcommitment (Becker, 1960), and that types are in accordance with theemployees’ own benefits (Ritzer and Trice, 1969). This approach has beensignificantly advanced by Morrow (1983, 1993), who was the first to attemptmapping theoretically universal forms of work commitment that are relevant toas many employees as possible (Morrow, 1993, p. 160). Morrow advocatedconcentrating a research effort on five universal forms of work commitment asfollows: work ethic endorsement, career commitment, affective organizationalcommitment, continuance organizational commitment and job involvement. Ina series of studies, it has been shown that in addition to most commoncomponents of organizational commitment – affective and continuance – athird component, normative commitment, should be investigated as well(Meyer and Allen, 1997).

This study investigates all of these forms, except for work ethicendorsement. Work ethic endorsement is the extent to which one believesthat hard work is important and that leisure and excess money are detrimental(Blood, 1969; Furnham, 1990; Mirels and Garrett, 1971; Morrow, 1993). It is a“relatively fixed attribute over the life course” (Morrow, 1983, p. 495).

The research on emotional intelligence and work commitment hasconcentrated thus far on organizational commitment. The latter wasinvestigated (Abraham, 1999) in the context with which it has traditionallybeen defined as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification andinvolvement in a particular organization” (Mowday et al., 1982, p. 27). However,this is still a somewhat narrow approach that limits our understanding not onlyof the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizationalcommitment (a concept that comprises three distinct constructs), but alsoregarding how the former is related to work commitment forms such as careercommitment and job involvement.

Emotional intelligence and organizational commitment. The concept oforganizational commitment incorporates three distinct constructs: affective,continuance, and normative commitment. Continuance commitment is definedas “the extent to which employees feel committed to their organizations byvirtue of the costs that they feel are associated with leaving” (Meyer and Allen,1984, p. 375). Affective commitment is “positive feelings of identification with,attachment to, and involvement in the work organization” (Meyer and Allen,1984, p. 375). Normative commitment refers to “commitment based on a senseof obligation to the organization” (Allen and Meyer, 1996, p. 253). Employeeswith strong affective commitment remain because they want to; employeeswith strong continuance commitment remain because they need to; employeeswith strong normative commitment remain because they feel ought to do so

Emotionalintelligence

793

(Allen and Meyer, 1990). In this study, we examined the relationship betweenemotional intelligence and two forms of organizational commitment – affectiveand continuance.

Emotionally intelligent individuals are “optimistic”, a trait that enables themto focus on the resolution, rather than the reasoning (who is at fault). The workin any given organization imposes difficulties that may result in feelings offrustration. Emotionally intelligent individuals would know not to hold theorganization responsible for every feeling of frustration (Abraham, 1999), asthey are adept at placing themselves in positive affective states, and able toexperience negative affective states that have insignificant destructiveconsequences (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). This is especially true forsenior managers who have to reconcile the feelings of frustration of conflictinginterest groups within and outside the organization. This can be doneeffectively only when they are able to place themselves in a positive state ofmind. In addition, emotionally intelligent individuals would know how to avoiddysfunctional emotions and use them in adaptive ways to alleviate feelings offrustration. Furthermore, on the fundamental level, people are motivated notonly by the rational exchange approach (Vroom, 1964), but also by the extent towhich they are connected emotionally to their work and by the extent to whichits contents provide them with such experiences as joy, excitement, surpriseand frustration (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Thus, emotional intelligence isexpected to augment a higher level of affective commitment to the organization,and diminish the level of continuance commitment. The following hypothesesare suggested:

H2a. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence andaffective organizational commitment of senior managers.

H2b. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence andcontinuance organizational commitment of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence and career commitment. Career commitment is definedas “one’s attitude toward one’s profession or vocation” (Blau, 1985, p. 20).Employees may encounter difficulties of many kinds in pursuing a career thatmay result in dysfunctional emotions. Emotionally intelligent individuals areexpected to recognize, manage and use their emotions to eliminate theseobstacles and advance their career horizon better than people with lowemotional intelligence. This is especially true when the profession incorporateshigh levels of complexity. Highly complex managerial work can be verydemanding and lead to high levels of stress. Emotional intelligence enablespeople to control this stress effectively and prevent its negative effects on one’sattitude towards her profession. The following hypothesis is suggested:

H3. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence andcareer commitment of senior managers.

JMP18,8

794

Emotional intelligence and job involvement. Job involvement is “a beliefdescriptive of the present job and tends to be a function of how much the jobcan satisfy one’s present needs” (Kanungo, 1982, p. 342). As indicated above,employees do not get involved in the job only for self-rational interestfulfillment; they also get involved in the job because they let their emotionsplay a role. Becoming highly involved in the job is oftentimes a response toemotional rather than rational needs. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) cited inFine’s (1998) work the quotes of a cook discussing the centrality of beingemotionally involved in the job: “I just love the activity . . .I concentrate totally,so I don’t know how I feel . . . it’s like another sense takes over”. People aresocial creatures who, through job involvement, fill the need for emotionalexperience. Managerial work is often complex and challenging and seniormanagers with a high emotional intelligence often get extremely involved inchallenging experiences and complex situations that may not occur elsewhere.Senior managers, for example, often remain beyond the required workinghours. They do this not for economic reward; but because it allows them to copewith those complexities that yield an intense emotional experience. Thefollowing hypothesis is suggested:

H4. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and jobinvolvement of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is definedas “a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from work andfamily domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is,participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue ofparticipation in the family (work) role” (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985, p. 77).Because this study attempted to explore the role of emotional intelligence in theworkplace, we concentrated on family interference with work exploring acombination of three forms of work-family conflict (time, strain, and behavior)suggested by Carlson et al. (2000). The form of time-based family interferencemay occur when time devoted to one role makes it difficult to get involved inanother role. The form of strain-based family interference proposes that strainin one role intrudes into and interferes with participation in another role.Behavior family interference with work occurs when specific behaviorsrequired in one role are incompatible with behavioral expectations in anotherrole (Carlson et al., 2000).

Eliminating work-family conflict is the responsibility of both theorganization and its employees. Keith H. Hammonds (1996) quoted EllenGalinsky saying that “Companies are seeing they have all these programs (i.e.work-family policies), but people are still really stressed out. . .Certainly,employees bear some responsibility for determining their own family balance.But they need help. Companies that recognize the need and adapt work topeoples’ lives will win workers’ loyalty – and, with that, a competitive edge.

Emotionalintelligence

795

With respect to the role of the individuals, one may expect that a highemotional intelligence would help them balance family interference with work.In fact, they may be more capable of preventing work-family conflict from thebeginning due to their emotional astuteness incorporates the recognition of thedegree to which the family plays an emotional role for them and thoseconnected to them, the insight as to how these emotions should be managed,and the ability to improve the decision-making process. The followinghypothesis is suggested:

H5. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence andwork-family conflict (family interference with work) of seniormanagers.

Emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior. Organizationalcitizenship behavior (OCB) is an extra-role behavior that goes beyond formalrole requirements (Smith et al., 1983). Emotional intelligence may enhancealtruistic behavior as it enables employees to comprehend their co-workers’feelings and to respond better than employees with low emotional intelligencebecause of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods(Abraham, 1999). Staw et al. (1994) suggested three explanations for theengagement of an emotionally intelligent individual in altruistic behavior.First, being in a good mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is rewardingin the sense that it enables employees to also maintain this state of mind.Second, people in good moods may be more socially interactive. Third, whenemployees are more satisfied (having positive emotional reactions to the job)they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behavior. The followinghypothesis is suggested:

H6. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence andorganizational citizenship behavior – altruism of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence and work outcomesEmotional intelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization.Withdrawal of employees is a process (Mobley, 1977; 1982a, b; Mobley et al.,1978) which comprises constructs of withdrawal intentions (thinking ofquitting, intention to search and intention to quit) as well as constructs ofwithdrawal behaviors (actually quitting, absence) (Miller et al., 1979; Mobleyet al., 1978). A recent meta-analysis used the constructs of intention to quit,thinking of quitting, withdrawal cognitions and expected utility of withdrawalas the components of withdrawal intentions (Griffeth et al., 2000). In this study,we assess the withdrawal intentions process of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence may significantly diminish employees’ withdrawalintentions because of the ability to better regulate emotions. Emotionallyintelligent individuals are adept at putting themselves in positive affective

JMP18,8

796

states, and although they may experience negative affective states at times,these do not have significant destructive consequences. Being in positiveaffective states is of importance in the sense of not becoming despondent in theface of daily and even more profound obstacles occurring in organizational life.Rather, the individuals are likely to see the positive side of things and use theiremotions, for example, to enhance persistence at challenging times andfacilitate creativity for resolving difficulties. To a certain degree, emotionallyintelligent individuals perceive themselves as part of the solution. As such,they feel a high level of identification and are less likely to develop withdrawalintentions. This is especially true for senior managers who must deal with theirown difficulties as well as those of others. Those with high emotionalintelligence will be inclined to stay and deal with difficulties in adaptive ways.This, however, is not to say that emotionally intelligent individuals do not facedifficulties when encountering job stress and changes in their job and career;rather they have more and better capabilities than low emotionally individualsto cope with it, and thus are likely develop lower withdrawal intentions. Thefollowing hypothesis is suggested:

H7. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence andwithdrawal intentions of senior managers from the organization.

Emotional intelligence and job performance. Evidence supports a positive effectof emotional intelligence on the success of the individual at work (for a review,see Goleman, 2001). This is of particularly importance if we believe that“management skills lie at the heart of leadership” (Whetten and Cameron, 2001,p. 15), and specifically recognize the need to develop and acquire skills formanaging people and that emotional intelligence may have a critical role in thecreation of effective leadership. A notable study conducted by George (2000)showed how the aspects of emotional intelligence – appraisal and expressionof emotions, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processing and decisionmaking, knowledge about emotions and management of emotions – contributeto effective leadership. For the purpose of this study, it is important to note thatalthough it is theoretically significant to show how each aspect affectsperformance, it is more accurate to recognize that skills come in groups andclusters, and that they support one another (Goleman, 2001). The concept ofemotional intelligence seems to encompass this “critical mass” of skills(Boyatzis et al., 2000; Goleman, 2001). The following hypothesis is suggested:

H8. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and jobperformance of senior managers.

The moderator role of emotional intelligenceThe literature suggests that the negative effect of work-family conflict on workattitudes may be moderated by several variables (see, for example, Martins

Emotionalintelligence

797

et al., 2002). In this study, emotional intelligence is expected to moderate therelationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, and therelationship between work-family conflict and career commitment.

Family interference with work may have some negative consequences on theextent which an employee will be satisfied with her work and committed to hercareer. However, emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to have the abilityto control for such interferences or at least moderate them to an acceptable level.On the basis of this logic, the following hypotheses are suggested:

H9. Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship betweenwork-family conflict and job satisfaction of senior managers.Specifically, there will be more negative relationship betweenwork-family conflict and job satisfaction for senior managers whoare low on emotional intelligence than for those who are high onemotional intelligence.

H10. Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship betweenwork-family conflict and career commitment of senior managers.Specifically, for low emotionally intelligent senior managers there willbe a strong positive relationship between work-conflict family andcareer commitment, and for highly emotional intelligent seniormanagers there will be a moderate negative relationship betweenwork-conflict family and career commitment.

MethodologyRespondents and data collectionThe population of this study was senior managers employed as chief financialofficers in the local government authorities in Israel. A direct-mailquestionnaire was sent to 262 senior managers. The questionnaire wasmailed from and returned to a university address, using a self-addressed replyenvelope. Ninety-eight usable questionnaires were returned. The respondents’average age was 46.6 years (S.D. 9.24); 11 were women, and 79.4 percent held atleast bachelor’s degree. Their average tenure in their present organization was11.47 (S.D. 9.13). The average income of the respondents was 2.56 (S.D. 0.54)(1 ¼ up to 10,000 New Israeli Shekel (NIS), 2 ¼ 10,001 to 20,000, and 3 ¼ 20,001and above). Note that annual average value of US$ 1 and 1 Euro in 2001 was4.205 NIS and 3.7644 NIS, respectively. The average size of the organizations(measured by the number of permanent residents for which the organization isresponsible to provide services, see Carmeli, 2002) was 24,729 (S.D. 54,259.37).

Dependent variablesWork outcomes. Job performance and withdrawal intentions from theorganization were used to assess employee’s work outcomes:

JMP18,8

798

(1) Job performance. This measure was evaluated by a scale developed byPearce and Porter (1986), and used by Black and Porter (1991), andHochwarter et al. (1999). This measure contains five items (overallperformance, ability to get along with others, completing tasks on time,quality of performance, and achievement of work goals) that wereassessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree, to7 ¼ strongly agree). Although such difficulties as self-enhancement andobjectivity and reliability may be encountered, Mabe and West (1982)showed that self-evaluation measures were more valid than pointed outin prior research (Hochwarter et al. (1999). The Cronbach’s alpha for thisscale was 0.87.

(2) Withdrawal intentions from the organization. This measure was drawnfrom the measure examined by Mobley et al. (1978) and widely used inthe literature (Michaels and Spector, 1982; Miller et al., 1979). It assesseswithdrawal intentions of an employee from his/her organization andconsists of three items:. I think a lot about leaving the organization;. I am actively searching for an alternative to the organization; and. As soon as it is possible, I will leave the organization.

This measure was assessed on a 5-point scale from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to5 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.90.

Work behavior:

(1) Altruistic behavior. This variable was drawn from the multi-dimensionalscale of organizational citizenship behavior developed by Podsakoff andMacKenzie (1989) and modified and validated by Podsakoff et al. (1990).Altruistic behavior was measured using three items that were assessedon a five-point scale, ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ stronglyagree. Sample items are “I help others who have heavy workloads” “Ihelp others who have been absent”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scalewas 0.82.

Work attitudes.Four work commitment forms (career commitment, jobinvolvement, affective commitment and continuance commitment) and jobsatisfaction were used to assess employee’s work attitudes. In addition,work-family conflict was examined, as follows:

(1) Career commitment. This measure was assessed by a scale developed byBlau (1985). Sample items are: “I like this profession too much to give itup”, and “I am disappointed with being a CEO” (reverse scored). Themeasure was assessed on a five-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ stronglydisagree, to 5 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scalewas 0.74.

Emotionalintelligence

799

(2) Job involvement. This measure is based on a 10-item scale developed byKanungo (1982). Sample items are: “The most important things thathappen to me involve my present job”, and “Most of my personal lifegoals are job-oriented”. The measure was assessed on a seven-pointscale, ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree. TheCronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.82.

(3) Affective organizational commitment.This measure is based on the scaledeveloped and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items are: “Ireally feel as if this organization’s problems are my own”, and “I do not feellike “part of the family” at my organization” (reversed item). The measurewas assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree,to 7 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.73.

(4) Continuance organizational commitment.This measure is based on thescale developed and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample itemsare: “Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity asmuch as desire”, and “Too much in my life would be disrupted if Idecided I wanted to leave my organization now”. The measure wasassessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree, to7 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.82.

(5) Job satisfaction. This measure was estimated by a 6-items scaleemployed by Tsui et al. (1992). Sample items are: “How satisfied are youwith the nature of the work you perform?” and “Considering everything,how satisfied are you with your current job situation?” The measure wasassessed on a five-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ very dissatisfied, to5 ¼ very satisfied). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.68.

(6) Work-family conflict. This measure was based on a measure developedand validated by Carlson et al., 2000). Since this study examines the role ofemotional intelligence in the workplace, we concentrated on familyinterference with work exploring a combination of three forms ofwork-family conflict (time, strain, and behavior), which consisted of threeitems each. Sample items are “The time I spend on family responsibilitiesoften interferes with my work responsibilities” (time-based familyinterference); “Due to stress at home, I am often preoccupied with familymatters at work” (strain-based family interference); “The behaviors thatwork for me at home do not seem to be effective at work” (behavior-basedfamily interference). All items were ranged from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to5 ¼ strongly agree (5 ¼ presents high conflict). The nine items wereloaded onto a single factor. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.79.

Independent/moderator variableEmotional intelligence. Over the years, considerable research effort resulted invarious instruments for measuring emotional intelligence (EQi of Bar-On, 1996;

JMP18,8

800

Executive EQ of Cooper and Sawaf, 1997; EIQ Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999;MSCEIT of Mayer et al., 2000; ECI of Boyatzis and Goleman, 1998).

In this study, emotional intelligence was measured with the self-reportmeasure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. (1998) for severalreasons: First, this measure is based on the framework of emotional intelligencedeveloped by Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990 and later formulated (Mayer andSalovey, 1997)[1]. Second, previous study found some limitations in earlyself-report measures of emotional intelligence such as insufficient reliabilityand connections with personality factors (Davies et al., 1998). Third, studiesthat evaluated the measure of Schutte and her colleagues (1998) in both adultand adolescents population indicate that this measure seems to overcome theobserved difficulties in other measures of emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi et al.,2000; Ciarrochi et al., 2001). Finally, in macro level studies, self report measureof emotional intelligence which is brief, validated and based on a cohesive andcomprehensive model of emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990;Mayer and Salovey, 1997) is very useful.

The measure used in this study consists of 33 items. Sample items are “Iknow when to speak about my personal problems to others”, and “I am awareof my emotions as I experience them” (appraisal and expression of emotion); “Ipresent myself in a way that makes a good impression on others”, and I havecontrol over my emotions” (regulation of emotion); “when I feel a change inemotions, I tend to come up with new ideas”, and I use good moods to helpmyself keep trying in the face of obstacles” (utilization). All items were rangedfrom 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha forthis scale was 0.90.

Control variablesWe control for:

(1) Organizational size. Measured by the number of permanent residents forwhich the organization is responsible for provision of services (Carmeli,2002);

(2) Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years therespondent is employed in the current organization;

(3) Gross income. (1 ¼ up to 10,000 NIS, New Israeli Shekel; 2 ¼ 10,001 to20,000 NIS; 3 ¼ 20,001 to 30,000 NIS; 4 ¼ 30,001 to 40,000 NIS; and4 ¼ above 40,000 NIS);

(4) Respondents’ age.

Because the vast majority of the respondents were male, differences betweenmale and female respondents could not be established.

Data analysisTo assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes,behavior, and outcomes, we performed a series of separate hierarchical

Emotionalintelligence

801

regression analyses. Each model had two steps. The first step involvedentering the control variables and the second step involved entering theindependent variable.

To examine the interaction hypotheses, the variables were entered into theregression equations in three steps. The control variables were entered in thefirst step. In the second step, we entered the “main effects” (work-familyconflict and emotional intelligence). Finally, the work-family conflict Xemotional intelligence product term variable was entered in the third step. Bothvariables were mean-centered as is suggested for variables that are to beconstituents of product terms (Aiken and West, 1991).

ResultsTable I reports the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients ofvariables used in the analysis. Though several variables are related, Table Iindicates no severe problems of multicolinearity as none of the related variablesexceeded the value of 0.60. Furthermore, we performed separate hierarchicalregressions for the effect of emotional intelligence on each one of the dependentvariables. Table I also provides a preliminary support for the significantrelationships between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, workbehavior and work outcomes.

Table II presents the results of hierarchical regression. Emotionalintelligence was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction(b ¼ 0.32, p , 0.01), supporting H1. This finding is consistent with theargument according to which emotionally intelligent individuals are likely todisplay higher overall satisfaction in the workplace.

Supporting H2a, we provide evidence that when senior managers have highemotional intelligence they tend to develop high affective commitment(emotional attachment) to the organization for which they work (b ¼ 0.23,p , 0.05). H2b, on the other hand, was not supported as the relationshipbetween emotional intelligence and continuance commitment was notsignificant (b ¼ 20.12, p ¼ ns). The beta coefficient, though not statisticallysignificant, was in the expected direction.

We found support for H3. Emotionally intelligent senior managers develophigh commitment toward their career (b ¼ 0.34, p, 0.001). However, contraryto H4, emotional intelligence was statistically unrelated to job involvement. Itmay be that the involvement of senior managers is more complex than weassumed, and is affected by other important factors not examined here. Thoughno prediction was made, we found that job involvement was significantlyrelated to tenure in the organization (b ¼ 0.20, p , 0.10) as well as to grossincome (b ¼ 0.25, p , 0.05).

The results support H5, stating that senior managers who have highemotional intelligence are more likely to effectively control work-family conflict(b ¼ 20.31, p , 0.01). Compared to low and middle-level position employees,

JMP18,8

802

Mea

ns.

d.

12

34

56

78

910

1112

13

Job

per

form

ance

5.61

0.78

1.00

Wit

hd

raw

al

inte

nti

ons

from

an

org

aniz

atio

n2.

180.

942

0.18

Alt

ruis

tic

beh

avio

r3.

780.

630.

32**

*0.

11

Car

eer

com

mit

men

t3.

590.

600.

22*

20.

47**

*0.

07

Job

inv

olv

emen

t4.

400.

890.

032

0.13

0.16

0.24

*

Aff

ecti

ve

com

mit

men

t4.

730.

880.

31**

20.

39**

*0.

160.

42**

*0.

48**

*

Con

tin

uan

ce

com

mit

men

t3.

871.

172

0.30

**2

0.05

20.

28**

20.

100.

022

0.07

Job

sati

sfac

tion

3.74

0.51

0.45

***2

0.38

***

0.31

**0.

39**

*0.

27**

0.55

***2

0.29

**

Wor

k-f

amil

y

con

flic

t2.

120.

492

0.19

0.04

20.

152

0.15

20.

012

0.19

0.34

***2

0.11

Em

otio

nal

inte

llig

ence

3.71

0.37

0.32

***2

0.20

*0.

38**

*0.

38**

*0.

140.

24*

20.

070.

27**

20.

27**

Org

aniz

atio

nal

size

24,7

2954

,259

20.

012

0.01

20.

010.

050.

21*

0.11

0.05

0.08

0.21

*2

0.07

Ten

ure

in

org

aniz

atio

n11

.47

9.13

0.02

20.

24*

0.12

0.21

*0.

170.

060.

050.

040.

102

0.05

0.03

Ag

e46

.63

9.24

20.

012

0.19

0.03

0.12

0.31

**0.

21*

0.15

0.17

0.15

0.10

0.17

0.43

***

Inco

me

2.56

0.54

0.14

20.

020.

26**

0.06

0.31

**0.

172

0.10

0.22

*2

0.11

0.01

0.16

0.13

0.25

*

Notes:

aT

wo-

tail

edte

sts;

*p#

0.05

,**

p#

0.01

,**

*p#

0.00

1

Table I.Means, standard

deviations, andcorrelationsa

Emotionalintelligence

803

Job

per

form

.

Wit

hd

rwl

inte

nt.

Alt

ruis

tic

beh

avio

r

Car

eer

com

mit

.

Job

inv

olv

e.

Aff

ecti

ve

com

mit

.

Con

tin

.

com

mit

.

Job

sati

sfac

tion

Wor

k

fam

ily

con

flic

t

b(t

)b

(t)

b(t

)b

(t)

b(t

)b

(t)

b(t

)b

(t)

b(t

)

Step1

Org

aniz

a-

tion

alsi

ze0.

00(0

.01)

20.

01(0

.93)

0.01

(0.0

7)0.

07(0

.73)

0.15

(1.4

7)0.

09(0

.83)

0.05

(0.4

3)0.

06(0

.56)

0.19

(1.9

3*)

Ten

ure

in

org

aniz

a-

tion

al2

0.09

(20.

75)

20.

10(2

0.87

)2

0.09

(20.

87)

20.

03(2

0.23

)0.

20(1

.76*

)0.

15(1

.24)

0.19

(1.5

8)0.

12(1

.06)

0.18

(1.6

2)

Inco

me

0.16

(1.5

4)0.

03(0

.31)

0.18

(1.9

1*)

0.05

(0.4

5)0.

25(2

.43*

*)

0.11

(1.0

8)2

0.16

(21.

48)

0.13

(1.2

1)2

0.16

(21.

59)

Ag

e0.

06(0

.58)

20.

22(2

1.94

*)

0.08

(0.8

7)0.

27(2

.53*

*)

0.06

(0.5

7)0.

00(2

0.04

)0.

00(0

.00)

20.

04(2

0.36

)2

0.03

(20.

29)

R2

0.03

80.

068

0.05

50.

082

0.19

30.

064

0.05

10.

058

0.09

3

Step2

Em

otio

nal

inte

llig

ence

0.32

(3.0

8***)

20.

20(2

1.93

*)

0.54

(6.0

3****)

0.34

(3.4

4****)

0.04

(0.4

5)0.

23(2

.21*

*)

20.

12(2

1.11

)0.

32(3

.12*

**)2

0.31

(23.

20***)

DR2

0.09

0.03

90.

286

0.11

30.

002

0.05

00.

014

0.09

80.

096

Ffo

rDR2

9.49

***

3.71

*36

.41*

***

11.8

3****

0.19

4.87

**

1.23

9.70

***

9.91

***

R2

for

tota

l

equ

atio

n0.

135

0.10

70.

341

0.19

50.

195

0.11

40.

065

0.15

50.

189

Notes:*

p#

0.10

**p#

0.05

,***p#

0.01

,****p#

0.00

1

Table II.Results of hierarchicalregression analysis: theinfluence of emotionalintelligence on workattitudes, behavior andoutcomes

JMP18,8

804

senior managers may encounter a higher level of job demands that result inwork-family conflict. The results indicate that senior managers who have highemotional intelligence may better and more carefully handle the inherentwork-family conflict than those who have low emotional intelligence.

H6, which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will displayhigher levels of altruistic behavior, was strongly supported (b ¼ 0.54,p , 0.001). In addition, H7, which states that emotional intelligence will benegatively related to withdrawal intentions from the organization, and H8,which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will perform the jobbetter than senior managers with low emotional intelligence, were supported(b ¼ 20.20, p , 0.10; b ¼ 0.32, p , 0.01, respectively). These results indicatethat emotional intelligence is an important predictor of both contextualperformance and task performance. Note, however, that H9, which states thatthe higher a senior manager is on emotional intelligence, the weaker will be thenegative effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction was not supported(see Table III). The interactive effect of work-family conflict and emotionalintelligence on job satisfaction was not significant (b = 0.03, p ¼ n.s.).

H10 postulated that the higher a senior manager is on emotionalintelligence, the weaker will be the negative effect of work-family conflict oncareer commitment. The interactive effect of work-family conflict andemotional intelligence on career commitment was significant at the 0.05 level(see Table III) and explained an additional 3.4 percent of explained variance inthe career commitment.

In accordance with convention for plotting interactions (Aiken and West,1991; Cohen and Cohen, 1983), the cut values for the high and low states on themoderator variable (emotional intelligence) were plus and minus one standarddeviation from the mean. Figure 1 presents the interaction of work-familyconflict and emotional intelligence in predicting career commitment. As shown

Job satisfaction Career commitmentb R 2 DR 2 b R 2 DR 2

Step 1Organizational size 0.03 0.04Tenure in organization 0.14 0.02Income 0.16 0.02

Age 20.05 0.058 0.058 0.20* 0.048 0.048Step 2Work-family conflict (WF) 20.05 20.09Emotional intelligence (EI) 0.30*** 0.157 0.097*** 0.37**** 0.205 0.156****

Step 3EI £ WF 0.03 0.158 0.001 0.21** 0.239 0.034**

Notes: *p # 0.10 **p # 0.05, ***p # 0.01, ****p # 0.001

Table III.Results of the

moderating role ofemotional intelligence

(EI)

Emotionalintelligence

805

in Figure 1, the interaction of emotional intelligence with work-family conflictaffects both the strength and direction of this relationship. For senior managerswho are low on emotional intelligence there is a strong positive relationshipand for those who are high on emotional intelligence there is a moderatenegative relationship. That is, when senior managers with low emotionalintelligence experience high work-family conflict, they manage to maintainhigh career commitment. When highly emotionally intelligent senior managersexperience high work-conflict, they reduce their career commitment to a morereasonable level to deal with work-family conflict.

DiscussionThe major goal of this study was to examine the extent to which a criticalcomponent of managerial skills – emotional intelligence – augments positivework attitudes and the contextual and task performance of senior managersemployed in a public sector setting. This study advances the literaturepertaining to emotional intelligence by empirically demonstrating theimportance of emotional intelligence for developing positive work-relatedattitudes and contextual and task performance.

These findings are especially of importance for organizations whichrecognize the critical role the top management team plays in their success (seeFinkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Theeffectiveness of the top management team is a function, inter alia, of themanagement skills (Whetten and Cameron, 2001) possessed by the seniormanagers from which it is comprised. Skills of managing people are of uniqueimportance for the creation of effective management and leadership, andemotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence” (Salovey and Mayer,1989-1990) may be the most critical component of this class of skills. Hence,having senior executives with high emotional intelligence is a necessity forattaining sustainable results.

This study went beyond the simple premise of the importance of emotionalintelligence to demonstrate the extent to which the latter augments favorableattitudes and outcomes. The results indicate, for example, that emotionallyintelligent senior managers develop emotional attachment to their

Figure 1.Interaction betweenemotional intelligence(EI) and work-familyconflict (WF) predictingcareer commitment (CC)

JMP18,8

806

organizations and are also more committed to their career. In addition, findingsalso indicate that emotionally intelligent senior managers tend to be moresatisfied with their work. Retaining talented and knowledgeable seniormanagers becomes a major concern for many organizations. Selecting seniormanagers who have high emotional intelligence may have a positive impact onthe extent to which an organization succeeds in retaining its most criticalworkforce. Research findings revealed that occupational commitment (Lee et al.,2000) and organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) aresignificantly related to withdrawal intentions, and that job satisfaction andorganizational commitment are by far the main predictors of turnover (Griffethet al., 2000). Interestingly, however, emotional intelligence was not significantlyassociated with job involvement. It may be that senior managers exhibit highinvolvement in their jobs because of the role itself, which demands much timeand effort. Another possible explanation is manifested by the relationshipbetween income and job involvement (b ¼ 0.25, p , 0.05), suggesting thateconomic factors influence the subjective felt of job involvement. Emotionalintelligence may help an individual to better handle demanding managerialwork. Nevertheless, we are still in need of further investigation regarding thefactors that foster an individual’s high level of involvement in her job (Brown,1996).

Another important relationship examined in this study is the relationshipbetween emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family policiesadopted and implemented by an organization may not provide the wholesolution, especially with respect to family interference with work, simplybecause employees have some responsibility in determining their own familybalance. The results of this study advance the literature by indicating thatemotionally intelligent employees may better handle this conflict. Anintegration of work-family programs and an emotionally intelligentworkforce can better attain the desired balance. This study indicates thatcompared to emotionally intelligent senior managers, low-emotionallyintelligent senior managers are not less able to be sensitive enough toacknowledge how work is affected by family matters, and, thus, feel no need toreduce their career commitment. Senior managers who are high on emotionalintelligence recognize having important responsibilities at work, and at thesame time realize that they may neglect their family and their needs. In otherwords, they are equally sensitive to what they feel when they are consumedwith my work all the time. This recognition help them balance their careercommitment to a healthy mid point (not very high but not very low either).Further examination of the interactive effect of work-family conflict andemotional intelligence on career commitment and job satisfaction revealed thatemotional intelligence moderated only the negative influence of work-family oncareer commitment. Clearly, this finding should receive further investigation

Emotionalintelligence

807

but it illuminate the kind of role emotional intelligence may play in therelationship of “work stress” and work attitudes.

We found a direct and significant relationship between emotionalintelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization. This intensifiesthe important role that emotional intelligence may have in retaining valuableorganization members. The results of this study also indicate that emotionalintelligence augments both contextual (altruistic citizenship behavior) and taskperformance. Contextual performance of senior managers is valued, becausethe latter oftentimes serves as a “role model” and “character” for theorganization’s members to follow. This process may have a positive effect onthe organization since organizational citizenship behavior has the potential, forexample, to enhance co-worker and managerial productivity, freeing themanagement from work-related problems so that it can deal with moreproductive tasks, and enhancing the sustainability of the organization’sperformance. In addition, the finding that emotionally intelligent seniormanagers perform better on the job provides clear evidence to the questionasked by Cherniss (2000) regarding “how important it (emotional intelligence)is for effective performance at work”, and is consistent with Cavallo andBrienza’s findings of a “strong relationship between superior performingleaders and emotional competence”.

Limitation and directions for future researchSeveral limitations constrain the interpretation and application of the study’sfindings. The aim of this study to explore the role of emotional intelligenceamong senior managers is also a weakness, because it has not includednon-managerial employees. Future studies may be benefited from anexploration of a wider range of employees at different organizational levels.One should also be cautious while generalizing the results of this study to othercultures or sectors. Prospective research should be directed to exploredifferences among for-profit, governmental and not-for-profit organizations.

Validated and usable measures were employed to reduce the possibility ofbias in general method variance, and data was collected from a large number oforganizational units to allow for better external validity and increasedgenerality of the results (Cook and Campbell, 1979). Still, the reader is cautionedto recognize the limitations of relying on self-reported data. This may carry abias of general method variance. As can be seen results of hierarchicalregressions provided a relatively small proportion of the explained variance ofthe dependent variables. We also compared subjective-reported data toobjective data on organizational size and the comparison yielded no difference.And, as Xie (1996) indicated, there is no theoretical foundation to expect thatinteractions are associated with common method variance. Future studies maybenefit from a longitudinal research design. One, however, must recognize thatcollecting data from a large number of organizations is problematic. Finally,

JMP18,8

808

this study used a relatively new measure of emotional intelligence and thoughstudies reported good reliability and evidence of validity, it would be useful toconduct a study which compare results of this study with those used otheracceptable measures of emotional intelligence.

Note

1. When this study was conducted, the MSCEIT instrument was not available to the author.

References

Abraham, R. (1999), “Emotional intelligence in organizations: a conceptualization”, Genetic,Social, and General Psychology Monographs, Vol. 125 No. 2, pp. 209-24.

Aiken, L.S. and West, S.G. (1991), Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions,Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1990), “The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuanceand normative commitment to the organization”, Journal of Occupational Psychology,Vol. 63, pp. 1-18.

Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1996), “Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to theorganization: an examination of construct validity”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 49No. 3, pp. 252-76.

Ashforth, B.E. and Humphrey, R.H. (1995), “Emotion in the workplace: a reappraisal”, HumanRelations, Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 97-125.

Bar-On, R. (1996), The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of Emotional Intelligence,Multi-Health Systems, Toronto.

Bar-On, R. and Parker, J.D.A. (2000), The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory,Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace,Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Bar-On, R., Brown, J.M., Kirkcaldy, B.D. and Thome, E.P. (2000), “Emotional expression andimplications for occupational stress: an application”, Personality and IndividualDifferences, Vol. 28, pp. 1107-18.

Becker, H.S. (1960), “Notes on the concept of commitment”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 66No. 1, pp. 33-42.

Black, J. and Porter, L. (1991), “Managerial behavior and job performance: a successful managerin Los Angeles may not succeed in Hong Kong”, Journal of International Business Studies,Vol. 22, pp. 99-114.

Blau, G.J. (1985), “The measurement and prediction of career commitment”, Journal ofOccupational Psychology, Vol. 58, pp. 277-88.

Blood, M.R. (1969), “Work values and job satisfaction”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 53,pp. 456-9.

Boyatzis, R., Goleman, D. and Rhee, K. (2000), “Clustering competence in emotional intelligence:insights from the emotional competence inventory (ECI)”, in Bar-On, R. and Parker, J.D.A.(Eds), Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Brown, S.P. (1996), “A meta-analysis and review of organizational research on job involvement”,Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 120 No. 2, pp. 235-55.

Carlson, D.S., Kacmar, M.K. and Williams, L.J. (2000), “Construction and initial validations of amultidimensional measure of work-family conflict”, Journal of Vocational Behavior,Vol. 56, pp. 249-76.

Emotionalintelligence

809

Carmeli, A. (2002), “A conceptual and practical framework of measuring performance of localauthorities in financial terms: analysing the case of Israel”, Local Government Studies,Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 21-36.

Cherniss, C. (2000), ““Emotional intelligence: what it is and why it matters”, paper presented atthe Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, NewOrleans, LA, April, p. 15.

Ciarrochi, J., Chan, A.Y.C. and Bajgar, J. (2001), “Measuring emotional intelligence inadolescents”, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 31, pp. 1105-19.

Ciarrochi, J., Chan, A.Y.C. and Caputi, P. (2000), “A critical evaluation of the emotionalintelligence construct”, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 28, pp. 539-61.

Cohen, J. and Cohen, P. (1983), Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for theBehavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

Cook, T.D. and Campbell, T.D. (1979), Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analytical Issues forField Settings, Rand-McNally, Chicago, IL.

Cooper, R.K. and Sawaf, A. (1997), Executive EQ: Emotional Intelligence in Leadership andOrganizations, Grosset/Putnam, New York, NY.

Davies, M., Stankov, L. and Roberts, R. (1998), “Emotional intelligence: in search of an elusiveconstruct”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 75, pp. 989-1015.

Dulewicz, V. and Higgs, M.J. (1999), Users’ Guide for the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire,NFER-Nelson, Windsor.

Dulewicz, V. and Higgs, M.J. (2000), “Emotional intelligence: a review and evaluation study”,Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 341-72.

Finkelstein, S. and Hambrick, D. (1996), Strategic Leadership: Top Executives and Their Effectson Organizations, West Publishing Company, St Paul, MN.

Furnham, A. (1990), The Protestant Work Ethic: The Psychology of Work-Related Beliefs andBehaviors, Routledge, New York, NY.

Gardner, H. (1983), Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Books, New York,NY.

George, J.M. (2000), “Emotions and leadership: the role of emotional intelligence”, HumanRelations, Vol. 53 No. 8, pp. 1027-55.

Goleman, D. (1995), Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ, Bantam Books,New York, NY.

Goleman, D. (1998), Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY.

Goleman, D. (2001), “An EI-based theory of performance”, in Cherniss, C. and Goleman, D. (Eds),The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve EmotionalIntelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA,pp. 27-44.

Grandey, A.A. (2000), “Emotion regulation in the workplace: a new way to conceptualizeemotional labor”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 95-110.

Greenhaus, J.H. and Beutell, N.J. (1985), “Sources of conflict between work and family roles”,Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 76-88.

Griffeth, R.W., Hom, P.W. and Gaertner, S. (2000), “A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlatesof employee turnover: update, moderator test, and research implications for the nextmillennium”, Journal of Management, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 463-88.

Hambrick, D.C. and Mason, P.A. (1984), “Upper echelons: the organization as a reflection of itstop management”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9, pp. 193-206.

JMP18,8

810

Hammonds, K.H. (1996), “Balancing work and family: big returns for companies willing to givefamily strategies a chance”, Business Week, September, p. 16.

Hochwarter, W.A., Perrewe, P.L., Ferris, G.R. and Brymer, R.A. (1999), “Job satisfaction andperformance: the moderating effects of value attainment and affective disposition”, Journalof Vocational Behavior, Vol. 54, pp. 296-313.

Hooijberg, R., Hunt, J.G. and Dodge, G.E. (1997), “Leadership complexity and development of theLeaderplex model”, Journal of Management, Vol. 23, pp. 375-408.

Kanungo, R.N. (1982), “Measurement of job and work involvement”, Journal of AppliedPsychology, Vol. 67 No. 3, pp. 341-9.

Kellett, J.B., Humphrey, R.H. and Sleeth, R.G. (2002), “Empathy and complex task performance:two routes to leadership”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 13, pp. 523-44.

Lee, K., Carswell, J.J. and Allen, N. (2000), “A meta-analytic review of occupational commitment:relations with person- and work-related variables”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 85No. 5, pp. 799-811.

Locke, E.A. (1969), “What is job satisfaction?”, Organizational Behavior and HumanPerformance, Vol. 4, pp. 309-36.

Mabe, P. and West, S. (1982), “Validity of self-evaluation of ability: a review and meta-analysis”,Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67, pp. 280-96.

Martins, L.L., Eddleston, K.A. and Veiga, J.E. (2002), “Moderators of the relationship betweenwork-family conflict and career satisfaction”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 45No. 2, pp. 399-409.

Mathieu, J.E. and Zajac, D.M. (1990), “A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates,and consequences of organizational commitment”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 108,pp. 171-94.

Mayer, J.D. and Salovey, P. (1997), “What is emotional intelligence? Implications for educators”,in Salovey, P. and Sluyter, D. (Eds), Emotional Development, Emotional Literacy, andEmotional Intelligence, Basic Books, New York, NY, pp. 3-31.

Mayer, J., Caruso, D. and Salovey, P. (1999), “Emotional intelligence meets traditional standardsfor an intelligence”, Intelligence, Vol. 27, pp. 267-98.

Mayer, J., Salovey, P. and Caruso, D. (2000), “Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality,and as a mental ability”, in Bar-On, R. and Parker, J.D.A. (Eds), The Handbook ofEmotional Intelligence, Jossey-Bass, New York, NY.

Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N.J. (1984), “Testing the ‘side-bet theory’ of organizational commitment:some methodological considerations”, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,Vol. 17, pp. 289-98.

Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N.J. (1997), Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research andApplication, Sage Publications/ATOB, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Michaels, C.E. and Spector, P.E. (1982), “Causes of employee turnover: a test of the Mobley,Griffeth, Hand and Meglino model”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67 No. 1, pp. 53-9.

Miller, H.E., Katerberg, R. and Hulin, C.L. (1979), “Evaluation of the Mobley, Horner, andHollingsworth model of employee turnover”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64 No. 5,pp. 509-17.

Mirels, H.L. and Garrett, J.B. (1971), “The protestant ethic as a personality variable”, Journal ofConsulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 40-4.

Mobley, W.H. (1977), “Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction andemployee turnover”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 62 No. 2, pp. 237-40.

Emotionalintelligence

811

Mobley, W.H. (1982a), “Some unanswered questions in turnover and withdrawal research”,Academy of Management Review, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 111-16.

Mobley, W.H. (1982b), Employee Turnover: Causes, Consequences, and Control, Addison-WesleyPublishing Company, Reading, MA.

Mobley, W.H., Horner, S.O. and Hollingsworth, A.T. (1978), “An evaluation of precursors ofhospital employee turnover”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 63 No. 4, pp. 408-14.

Morrow, P.C. (1983), “Concept redundancy in organizational research: the case of workcommitment”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 8, pp. 486-500.

Morrow, P.C. (1993), The Theory and Measurement of Work Commitment, JAI Press Inc.,Greenwich, CT.

Mowday, R., Porter, L. and Steers, R. (1982), Organizational Linkages: The Psychology ofCommitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover, Academic Press, New York, NY.

Pearce, J. and Porter, L. (1986), “Employee responses to formal performance appraisal feedback”,Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71 No. 2, pp. 211-18.

Podsakoff, P.M. and MacKenzie, S. (1989), “A second generation measure of organizationalcitizenship behavior”, working paper, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.

Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S., Moorman, R.H. and Fetter, R. (1990), “The influence oftransformational leader behaviors on organizational citizenship behaviors”, TheLeadership Quarterly, Vol. 1, pp. 107-42.

Ritzer, G. and Trice, H.M. (1969), “An empirical study of Howard Becker’s side-bet theory”, SocialForces, Vol. 47 No. 4, pp. 475-8.

Salovey, P. and Mayer, J.D. (1989), “Emotional intelligence”, Imagination, Cognition andPersonality, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 185-211.

Schutte, N.S. and Malouff, J.M. (1999), Measuring Emotional Intelligence and Related Constructs,Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York, NY.

Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Simunek, M., McKenley, J. and Hollander, S. (2002), “Characteristicemotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing”, Cognition and Emotion, Vol. 16 No. 6,pp. 769-85.

Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Hall, L.E., Haggerty, D.J., Cooper, J.T., Golden, C.J. and Dornheim, L.(1998), “Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence”, Personalityand Individual Differences, Vol. 25, pp. 167-77.

Smith, C.A., Organ, D.W. and Near, J.P. (1983), “Organizational citizenship behavior: its natureand antecedents”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68, pp. 653-63.

Smith, P.C., Kendall, L.H. and Hulin, C.L. (1969), The Measurement of Satisfaction in Work andRetirement: Strategy for the Study of Attitudes, Rand-McNally Company, Chicago, IL.

Staw, B.M., Sutton, R.I. and Pelled, L.H. (1994), “Employee positive emotion and favorableoutcomes at the workplace”, Organization Science, Vol. 5 No. 1, February, pp. 51-71.

Steiner, C. (1984), “Emotional literacy”, Transactional Analysis Journal, Vol. 14, pp. 162-73.

Tsui, A.S., Egan, T.D. and O’Reilly, C.A. (1992), “Being different: relational demography andorganizational attachment”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 37, pp. 549-79.

Van Maanen, J. and Kunda, G. (1989), “Real feelings: emotional expression and organizationalculture”, Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 11, pp. 43-103.

Vroom, V. (1964), Work and Motivation, Wiley, New York, NY.

Wasielewski, P.L. (1985), “The emotional basis of charisma”, Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 8,pp. 207-22.

JMP18,8

812

Whetton, D.A. (2001), Developing Management Skills, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River,NJ.

Wolff, S.B., Pescosolido, A.T. and Druskat, V.U. (2002), “Emotional intelligence as the basis ofleadership emergence in self-managing teams”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 13,pp. 505-22.

Xie, J.L. (1996), “Karasek’s model in the People’s Republic of China: effects of job demands,control, and individual differences”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39,pp. 1594-618.

Zaccaro, S.J. (2001), The Nature of Executive Leadership: A Conceptual and Empirical Analysis ofSuccess, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.

Further reading

Cavallo, K. and Brienza, D. (n.d.), “Emotional competence and leadership excellence at Johnsonand Johnson: the emotional intelligence and leadership study”, unpublished manuscript,Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

Fine, G.A. (1988), “Letting off steam? Redefining a restaurant’s work environment”, in Moore,M.D. and Snyder, R.C. (Eds), Inside Organizations: Understanding the Human Dimension,Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 119-28.

Fisher, C.D. and Ashkanasy, N.M. (2000), “The emerging role of emotions in work life: anintroduction”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 21, pp. 123-9.

Hochschild, A.R. (1983), The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feelings, Universityof California Press, Berkeley, CA.

Mobley, W.H., Griffeth, R.H., Hand, H.H. and Meglino, B.M. (1979), “Review and conceptualanalysis of the employee turnover process”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 86, pp. 493-522.

O’Reilly, C.A. and Chatman, J. (1986), “Organizational commitment and psychologicalattachment: the effects of compliance, identification, and internalization on prosocialbehavior”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71, pp. 492-9.

Organ, D.W. (1988), Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome, LexingtonBooks, Lexington, MA.

Schappe, S.P. (1998), “The influence of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and fairnessperceptions on organizational citizenship behavior”, The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 132No. 3, pp. 277-90.

Scholl, R.W. (1981), “Differentiating organizational commitment from expectancy as amotivating force”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 6, pp. 589-99.

Emotionalintelligence

813