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7/21/2019 Strategic Global Human Resource Management Research in the Twenty
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Strategic global human resource management research in the twenty-frst
century: an endorsement o the mixed-method research methodology
Abstract Global competition is rapidly becoming the norm in which nearly all
business organizations must compete in one fashion or another. The complexity and
value of strategic global human resource management (SGH!" will continue to
compound in signi#cance as globalization becomes the predominate form of
business. $oth practitioners and researchers maintain the grapple with
understanding the global phenomena and the resulting impact on the entire human
resource management system. %reviously& researchers' maintained research
programmes utilizing estern)style theories and methods& which were
predominantly *uantitative& to explore phenomena that may now be inappropriate.
These methods and theories fre*uently do not capture the +fabric' of global
phenomena that include complex interactions of culture& institutions& societal norms
and government regulations& among a few concerns. The mixed methods approachis proposed to add the +fabric' re*uired& illustrating the depth and ,exibility needed
to explore the SGH! issues. !ixed methods are a combination of *ualitative and
*uantitative approaches that maintain methodological rigour as well as measures
for reliability and validity. This paper explores the current methods& the reasons for
their lac- of success in portraying the depth of the phenomena and why the mixed
methods approach appears to be a superior method for research for the SGH!
#eld. eywords Strategic global human resource management/ globalization/ mix)
method research/ global research issues. 0ross)cultural research can be tenure
threatening choice. (Steers et al.& 1223" 0ross)cultural research is not for the faint
hearted. (Teagarden et al.& 12245 1361"
7ntroduction $oth human resource practitioners and researchers ali-e are concerned
with the shift towards globalization of business and the resulting impact on strategic
global human resource management (SGH!" (!artin and $eaumont& 1228/ 9epa-
and Snell& 1222/
:owling et al.& 1222/ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<3". Global competition is becoming
the norm and& at current growth rates& trade between nations will exceed totalcommerce within nations by 3<14 (:aft& 122=". 7n industries such as
semiconductors& automobiles& commercial aircraft& telecommunications& computers
and consumer electronics& it is impossible to survive and not scan the world for
competitors& customers& human resources& suppliers and technology (Gregersen et
al.& 1228". 7n this environment& the global human resource management becomes
more important to the success of the #rm& while at the same time becoming more
complicated and di>cult to administer (Grant& 1226/ amoche& 122=/ $oxall and
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%urcell& 3<<</ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<?". %ast research con#rms that the human
resources are a valuable component for an organization attempting to develop a
strategic competitive advantage (right et al.& 122@/ 9epa- and Snell& 1222". hen
human resources are employed strategically& #rms compete more eectively in this
new dynamic mar-etplace& especially when +the productivity of superior resources
depends upon the nature of their employment and the s-ill with which a strategybased on resource superiority is implemented' (%eteraf& 122?5 186". Bet& research
into global human resource management is increasingly di>cult to pursue& and
complicated& as culture and its alignment with strategy may be very di>cult to
research through strictly *uantitative methods. 7t would appear that organizations
must develop a cadre of managers who have a global mindset as a way of thin-ing
within the global mar-etplace (edia and !u-herCi& 1222/ %aul& 3<<</ $egley and
$oyd& 3<<?". These managers must develop a pluralistic management perspective
that encourages and maintains multiple perspectives in order to solve complex
global problems (Aguirre& 122=/ Harvey et al.& 1222/ eynolds& 122=". Two)thirds of
the world's 0DEs view the priorities within the intense change of the new global
mar-et place as5 foreign competition as a -ey factor in their #rm's future business
success& employment and revenues to be generated increasingly outside their #rm's
home country& and the eective management of human resources as critical to
global success (Hambric- et al.& 1282". This paper's focus is to develop a process for
conceptualizing SGH! utilizing a mixed)method research approach. First& the new
global hypercompetitive mar-et conditions and the problems for SGH! will be
explored. Second& previous types of research methods and their failure to provide
ade*uate insight in SGH! are examined. Then an examinationCusti#cation of a
mixed)method approach is considered as being a superior means for researching
SGH! issues in the twenty)#rst century. ;ext& an SGH! and a mixed)method
programme to assist in the development of a global human resource system aresuggested. Finally& barriers to the development of a SGH! programme are
examined to illustrate the types of research that will be needed utilizing the mixed)
method approach. The underlying foundation of the paper is that& given the
evolution of human resource management into a global networ- (e.g. SGH!"& new
problems will confront human resource managers and& therefore& new research
methods will be necessary. The evolution of a human resource management
perspective :omestic H! is typically de#ned as a broad typology that covers three
areas5 1" wor- relations (i.e. the way wor- is organized& the division of labour and
the deployment of wor-ers around technologies and production processes"/ 3"
employment relations (i.e. the arrangements governing such aspects ofemployment as recruitment& training& promotion& Cob tenure and the reward of
employees"/ and ?" industrial relations (i.e. the representational aspirations of
employees and the +voice systems' that may exist&
:owling et al.& 1222/ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<3". Global competition is becoming
the norm and& at current growth rates& trade between nations will exceed total
commerce within nations by 3<14 (:aft& 122=". 7n industries such as
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semiconductors& automobiles& commercial aircraft& telecommunications& computers
and consumer electronics& it is impossible to survive and not scan the world for
competitors& customers& human resources& suppliers and technology (Gregersen et
al.& 1228". 7n this environment& the global human resource management becomes
more important to the success of the #rm& while at the same time becoming more
complicated and di>cult to administer (Grant& 1226/ amoche& 122=/ $oxall and%urcell& 3<<</ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<?". %ast research con#rms that the human
resources are a valuable component for an organization attempting to develop a
strategic competitive advantage (right et al.& 122@/ 9epa- and Snell& 1222". hen
human resources are employed strategically& #rms compete more eectively in this
new dynamic mar-etplace& especially when +the productivity of superior resources
depends upon the nature of their employment and the s-ill with which a strategy
based on resource superiority is implemented' (%eteraf& 122?5 186". Bet& research
into global human resource management is increasingly di>cult to pursue& and
complicated& as culture and its alignment with strategy may be very di>cult to
research through strictly *uantitative methods. 7t would appear that organizations
must develop a cadre of managers who have a global mindset as a way of thin-ing
within the global mar-etplace (edia and !u-herCi& 1222/ %aul& 3<<</ $egley and
$oyd& 3<<?". These managers must develop a pluralistic management perspective
that encourages and maintains multiple perspectives in order to solve complex
global problems (Aguirre& 122=/ Harvey et al.& 1222/ eynolds& 122=". Two)thirds of
the world's 0DEs view the priorities within the intense change of the new global
mar-et place as5 foreign competition as a -ey factor in their #rm's future business
success& employment and revenues to be generated increasingly outside their #rm's
home country& and the eective management of human resources as critical to
global success (Hambric- et al.& 1282". This paper's focus is to develop a process for
conceptualizing SGH! utilizing a mixed)method research approach. First& the newglobal hypercompetitive mar-et conditions and the problems for SGH! will be
explored. Second& previous types of research methods and their failure to provide
ade*uate insight in SGH! are examined. Then an examinationCusti#cation of a
mixed)method approach is considered as being a superior means for researching
SGH! issues in the twenty)#rst century. ;ext& an SGH! and a mixed)method
programme to assist in the development of a global human resource system are
suggested. Finally& barriers to the development of a SGH! programme are
examined to illustrate the types of research that will be needed utilizing the mixed)
method approach. The underlying foundation of the paper is that& given the
evolution of human resource management into a global networ- (e.g. SGH!"& newproblems will confront human resource managers and& therefore& new research
methods will be necessary. The evolution of a human resource management
perspective :omestic H! is typically de#ned as a broad typology that covers three
areas5 1" wor- relations (i.e. the way wor- is organized& the division of labour and
the deployment of wor-ers around technologies and production processes"/ 3"
employment relations (i.e. the arrangements governing such aspects of
employment as recruitment& training& promotion& Cob tenure and the reward of
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employees"/ and ?" industrial relations (i.e. the representational aspirations of
employees and the +voice systems' that may exist&
nli-e the phenomena that exist in the many physical sciences& human resources
deals with essentially complex human phenomena. The use of *uantitative data to
research and understand human resource management is necessarily limited by theavailability of +hard' data on which to base decisions. To overcome this ,aw& global
research in particular has advocated a cross)fertilization of both *uantitative and
*ualitative research ($oyacigiller and Adler& 1221/ $rewer& 1223/ :aniels& 1221/
%ar-he& 122?". Iuantitative methods sometimes do not wor- well in the study of
global management due to the complexity and unstructuredness of the problems&
with multiple important interactive relationships that cannot be studied in a *uic- or
easy fashion (right& 1226". However& researchers must not overloo- or abandon
*uantitative analysis& but use it in concert with *ualitative research to grasp the
whole concept in explaining this new& dynamic& complex global mar-et. The impact
of globalization on 7H! The evolving global mar-etplace can be characterized as
one of uncertainty& diverse global competitors& rapid technological change&
widespread competitive wars and seemingly endless reorganizations (7linitch et al.&
1228". There is little doubt that to be viable during the twenty)#rst century in the
global environment& organizations& whether global or domestic& will need to be more
global in their outloo-& if not in their operations (hinesmith& 122?". The complexity
involved in operating in dierent countries and employing dierent nationalities of
employees is a -ey variable that dierentiates domestic and global H!. Four
additional variables (besides complexity" either diminish or accentuate dierences
between domestic and global H!5 the cultural environment/ the dierences in
industry structures between countries/ the extent of reliance on the home)country
domestic mar-et/ and the attitudes of senior management (:owling& 1222". Atwenty)year review by 0lar- et al.& (3<<<" of Cournal papers& published between
12== and 122= in twenty)nine maCor Cournals worldwide& that focused on
comparative or global H! found that the methods of data collection were5
*uestionnaires (@3 per cent"& case studies (?< per cent"& literature reviews (11 per
cent" and a very small number of studies used *uestionnaires in combination with
in)depth interviews and case studies (3 per cent". hat is most interesting is that
over @1 per cent of all the studies (total studies reviewed5 3<&38=" failed to oer any
explanation for their results and those that were explained simply stated cultural
(33 per cent"& institutional (12 per cent" or a combination of both. These variables
were explained ex post and typically were residual variables rather than
independent or explanatory variables (0lar- et al.& 3<<<". 7t would appear that
global research has not progressed in ?< years as the culturalsocietal setting +is still
a reality to be explained and as such cannot yet explain other realities' (oberts&
12=<5 ??<". esearchers are not alone in their slow)to)develop global mindset& as
practitioners from ;orth America also appear unprepared for this new mar-et
environment. Dightytwo per cent of non);orth American executives consider a
global outloo- as very important for the future versus 63 per cent for S 0DEs& and
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=< per cent non);orth American 0DEs versus ?4 per cent of S 0DEs consider
experience outside their home country as very important (Hambric- et al.& 1282". 7t
would appear that S 0DEs are underestimating the importance of a global mindset
as the global organization must have managers who are prepared to manage a
diverse& cross)cultural wor-force (Scullion& 1221". This new breed of global
managers will need to be very professional& of high *uality& deployable& multi)s-illed& multidisciplinary and cross)cultural (Janderbroec-& 1223".
The traditional S7H! models have been developed to capture the in,uence of H
programmes (e.g. policies& practices and issues" on a multinational organization's
outcomes and vice versa. The most cited models ta-e either a contingency
perspective& emphasizing consistency between H! and the organization's strategy
(Schuler et al.& 122?"& or a universalistic perspective& emphasizing complementarily
between H! and strategy (Taylor et al.& 1226". The S7H! models seem to be
appropriate under the conditions of strategic stability supported by the hierarchicalstructure and strong organizational culture. 7n these models& it is assumed that
multinational organizations compete primarily under low ambiguity and within
clearly de#ned geographic and industry boundaries. 7n other words& it is assumed
that slow)cycle pressures for organizational renewal and corporate restructuring are
salient. 7n such an environment& organizations are assumed to compete for
economic surplus to achieve a structural competitive advantage by aligning their
competencies with these activities. 7n most S7H! models international variables&
li-e national culture (contingency" or employment systems (complementarily"
($oxall and %urcell& 3<<<"& are dominant. However& :e 0ieri and :owling (1222"
argue against further development of speci#c international models. !oreover&
:owling et al.& (1222" argue that the S7H! models fail to capture H eectiveness
within global networ-s. ather& models encompassing the evolution process form
S7H! to an SGH! system need to be developed as organizations globalize their
operations. The shift from an S7H! to an SGH! system is crucial for the evolution
of the processes and mechanisms found in H! systems in order to match the
personnel needs of global organizations. This shift is not a semantic one but rather
a very de#nite dierence in the manner of managing the human resource function
(see Table 1". The SGH! system shapes organizational culture in terms of co)
operative traits and practices (i.e. content" rather than in values and attitudes
(:enison and !ishra& 1224". Also& this in,uence is re,ected in terms of the extent to
which organizational culture is shaped across the organizational units (i.e. strength". The extent to which the content and strength of organizational culture are shaped
by the shift to the SGH! system is in,uenced by the managerial global leadership
mindset. 7f this in,uence is signi#cant& the organization's global performance is
li-ely to be improved. The SGH! perspective on human resource management
goes beyond the S7H! view by emphasizing that H eectiveness arises not only
from the aggregate talent of
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Table 1 Transformation of intangible dimensions of human resource perspective
Traditional hierarchical S7H! Dvolving networ- heterarchy SGH! Agency
Stewardship 0ontrolmonitoring Trustcommitment build 7nformation asymmetry
nowledge sharing nidirectionality eciprocity Structure)oriented %rocess)oriented$ehavioural consistency 0ognitive reference Fit Flexibility Hierarchy Heterarchy
Eriented towards cost Eriented towards value Formal rules 7nformal norms HI
initiatives Subsidiary initiatives Functionalism 0ross)functionalism Administrative
spirit Dntrepreneurial spirit the organization's employees& but also from the co)
ordinated deployment of this talent across the global organization's networ- of
relationships. The e>ciency of this type of relational co)ordination is in turn a
function of the global organization's cultural context ($eer et al.& 1224". For the
global H manager to develop the leadership role& modesoptions and in,uence the
maCor transformation of the organization's cultural context& the role of human
resource management is to be refocused from the +traditional H focus on
attracting& selecting& and developing individuals to a new focus on developing an
organizational context which will attract and develop leaders as well as facilitate
teamwor-'. This new global leadership focus of H encompasses new approaches to
decision)ma-ing& as well as innovative approaches to organizing and managing
people within global networ-s (i.e. global team)based management& high
involvement of diverse employees and eective and meaningful communication
across cultures". 7n other words& the innovative global H leadership can succeed in
changing the organization's culture only by focusing more on the new strategic tas-
within global networ-s and less on modifying traditional H! programmes. The
focus on the new global strategic tas- re*uires both an eective leadership by the
global H manager and an e>cient design of the SGH! system. Speci#cally& theH manager's role transformation towards leadership within a global networ- is
contingent upon an e>cient SGH! system design. To yield an e>cient SGH!
system& the H! processes necessitate seamless interfaces across a variety of
dynamic relationships within a global networ-. The purpose of the seamless
interfaces is to mitigate dierent ris-s and uncertainties arising due to the
interaction among members within the global networ-. These human resource
processes must also contribute to the optimization of -nowledge integration within
the global networ- (Salbu& 1221". Therefore& it is proposed in this paper that the
architecture of the SGH! system depends upon the scope of the !;0 strategic
orientation relative to networ- members and the extent of the dynamics in the
global networ- environment. $y using the theoretical perspectives of relational
contracting (!ac;eil& 12=@& 12=8& 128<& 1284" and the -nowledge)based view of
the #rm (Grant& 1226"& a theoretical framewor- for an e>cient SGH! system
design supporting global H manager's leadership can be developed for global
organizations. :ue to the importance of human capital as one form of competitive
advantage in the new global mar-etplace& the SGH! manager's role will become
elevated (Gregersen et al.& 1228". The -ey to success in the global mar-etplace is
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the ability to attract& train and retain a diverse wor-force (Harvey and ;ovicevic&
3<<3& 3<<?". A dedicated and talented wor-force may serve as a valuable& scarce&
non)imitable resource that can help #rms execute an appropriate positioning
strategy (9ado and ilson& 122@" and the human dimension has received a good
deal of conceptual attention from strategy scholars (Fiol& 1221/ 9ado et al.& 1223/
umelt et al.& 1221". The global organization must be ,exible enough to developproductsservices that attract consumers& yet maintain a #t of organization systems
and controls that maintain corporate culture and *uality. Global organizations are
more e>cient and eective when they achieve #t relative to when there is not #t
($aird and !eshoulam& 1288/ 9engnic-Hall and 9engnic-)Hall& 1288/ !illiman et al.&
1221" and yet a focus on maximizing #t can be counterproductive if the #rm has
adopted con,icting competitive goals to correspond to a complex competitive
environment (9engnic-)Hall and 9engnic-)Hall& 1288". SGH! will be an integral
part of the #rm's strategy to #nd organizational #t yet maintain employeecustomer
,exibility& or& as coined& to +thin- globallyact locally'. The mar-etplace and
employees are ever changing and new culturally speci#c SGH! procedures will
re*uire ,exible innovative solutions. Flexibility can be bro-en into two components5
resource and co)ordination. esource ,exibility is when a resource can be applied to
a larger range of alternative uses. This is measured by the di>culty of switching the
use of one resource to another and the amount of time to do so. For example& the
extent to which the #rm can re)synthesize strategy& recon#gure change of resources
and redeploy resources refers to co)ordination ,exibility (Sanchez& 1224". SGH!
managers will be re*uired to establish systems that are ,exible enough& but also
encourage strategic or organizational goal #t. 7n the current dynamic global mar-et&
this tas- is enormous& if not impossible. $oth the SGH! researcher and practitioner
have nearly insurmountable obstacles to obtain the relevant information necessary
to develop or study SGH! systems. Global studies are invariably more expensive&time consuming and di>cult to +sell' to management than domestic studies& and
can be a liability for global researchers in a competitive research funding
environment. 7n addition& global research ta-es more time& involves more travel and
fre*uently re*uires the co)operation of host)county organizations& government
o>cials and researchers. :evelopment of a stream of global human resource
management research is conse*uently much more di>cult (:owling and Schuler&
1223". The evolution to strategic global human resource management systems
SGH! uses as its focus the belief that people are a valuable resource and should
be managed strategically. Thus SGH! needs to be aligned to and support the
organization's strategic obCectives in order to obtain legitimacy (amoche and!ueller& 1228". 7nstitutional theory posits that H! practices develop and attain
legitimacy through the construction of reality (Eliver& 122=". H! becomes
institutionalized& whereby its social processes& obligations or actualities come to
ta-e on a rule)li-e status in social thought and actions (!eyer and owan& 12==".
hen individuals within the #rm come to accept shared de#nitions of what
comprises legitimate H! practices& or H! becomes institutionalized& the
li-elihood of signi#cant changes in those practices recedes (Scott& 128=/ right and
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Snell& 1228". Therefore& research into SGH! must ta-e into account complex
interactions in how non)choice behaviours can occur and persist& through the
exercise of habit& convention& conveniences or social obligation (Eliver& 1221"&
reCecting the idea that organizational phenomena are the products of rational choice
based upon technical considerations (estney& 122?". !ore than Cust a complicated
uni*ue valuable resource& people are also a source of capabilities that are #rmspeci#c and more valuable than resources that are available and transferable.
These human capabilities are seen as developing& carrying and exchanging
information (Amit and Shoema-er& 122?". The integration and co)ordination of
personnel throughout the global system in SGH! has proved to be di>cult to
manage due to barriers of distance& language& time& culture& turf battles and
accountability& and the proliferation of communication channels& to name a few
($artlett and Ghoshal& 122<". The strategic eectiveness of the human organization
in the global mar-et is of considerable importance and both practitioners and
researchers have begun to explore the theoretical and empirical lin-ages between
SGH! and strategy (Adler and Ghadar& 122</ obrin& 1223/ !illiman et al.& 1221".
SGH! is seen as positioning its resources through vertical and horizontal #t. The
alignment of SGH! practices and strategic management is referred to as vertical
#t and is seen as directing human resources towards the primary initiatives of the
organization (Schuler and Kac-son& 128=". 0ongruence of SGH! practices is
referred to as horizontal #t and is viewed as instrumental for e>ciently allocating
human resources ($aird and !eshoulam& 1288".
SGH! is a relatively young profession and& because SGH! is of an applied
nature& there is tension between SGH! researchers and practitioners (Swanson&
122=& 1228/ uona& 1222/ Toracco& 122=/ Kacobs& 122=". :ue to this apparent
tension& the output by researchers is Cudged primarily by its usefulness to practice(9ynham& 3<<<". The research)practice)development)theory)cycle is both
epistemological (nature of -nowledge" and ontological (nature of reality" and assists
in a multi)paradigm view in SGH!. This view is more conducive to the multifaceted
nature of human and organizational realities& and to constantly transforming
contexts of human and organizational reality (Gioia and %itre& 122</ 9ynham& 3<<<".
SGH! research has become ever more di>cult as the focus repeatedly turns to
emerging mar-ets because they constitute the maCor growth opportunity in the
evolving world economic order. Their potential has already aected a shift in global
organizations& which now highlight emerging mar-et investments when
communicating with shareholders& as illustrated by 0oca)0ola. 0oca)0ola invested
L3 billion in 0hina& 7ndia and 7ndonesia (which together account for more than @<
per cent of the world's population" and predicts that it can produce sales in those
countries that double every three years for the inde#nite future& compared with
0o-e's @M4 per cent average annual growth in the S mar-et in the past decade
($usiness ee-& 1226". For SGH! research in particular& issues such as the
cultural environment& the industry with which the multinational is primarily involved&
the extent of reliance of the multinational on its home)country domestic mar-et and
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the fact that attitudes of senior management will aect the global and local human
resource planning& sta>ng& performance management& training and development&
compensation and bene#ts& and labour relations& must all be included to understand
and develop an understanding of the #eld (:owling et al.& 1222". Iuantitative
analysis may not be e*uipped to consider all the underlying issues in SGH!. The
mixed)methods approach in researching the diering global institutional eects (i.e.social processes& obligations and complex interactions of non)choice behaviours"&
lin-ages between SGH! and strategy& the importance of the emerging mar-et and
the #eld's practitioner)oriented view appears a superior method of research.
7dentifying and de#ning the problem of re,ecting external reality with explanations
that best produce desired outcomes with nebulous relationships is di>cult& but a
tas- that researchers must endeavor. The results of academic study should also be
practitioner oriented but in researching in emerging mar-ets often there has been
little or no research which has proven successful. :ata collection and analysis
procedures that are ,exible but maintain integrity as to validity and reliability are
necessary in exploring complex interactions especially in attempting to integrate
SGH! and the #eld of strategy. A generalizable +story' that is developed to explain
the phenomenon under investigation will be eective as a bridge between an
academic researcher and the practitioner& as well as in understanding and
describing complex global interactions. Appropriate methodologies for research
related to SGH! issues Although there have been recent attempts to augment
*uantitative research techni*ues& *uantitative techni*ues still are the norm for
global research (Teagarden et al.& 1224". Iuantitative techni*ues focus on the
measuring of things that can be counted +using predetermined categories that can
be treated as interval or ordinal data and subCected to statistical analysis' (%atton&
122=5 3=?". %redetermined categories are developed& unavoidably so& through a
researcher bias. This type of research assumes that the predetermined categoriesalso encompass the construct that the statistical analysis is attempting to evaluate.
+To date& the academic community& by itself& has remained primarily dedicated to
single culture and comparative research which& while still necessary& is no longer
su>cient and therefore no longer relevant for the competitive environment of
today's transnational' (Adler and $artholomew& 12235 466". Iuantitative research
suggests of the universalist paradigm or that the universalist typically will research
through carefully designed *uestions leading to proof or disproof through
measurement and rigorous evaluation utilizing existing theory and literature
($rewster& 1222". The universalist paradigm (dominant in the SA" uses evidence to
test generalizations of an abstract and law)li-e character and tends towardsacceptance of convergence. The disadvantages of this viewpoint are that it ignores
other potential focuses& the research obCectives are too narrow (i.e. ethnocentric"
and it ignores other levels (i.e. culture" and other sta-eholders (i.e. institutional&
governmental and legal" (Guest& 122</ %ieper& 122<". $oth *uantitative and
*ualitative research& performed in concert& will provide researchers with the
evidence needed to evo-e an understanding within the global mar-etplace. The use
of *ualitative research is especially signi#cant in relation to dierent cultures whose
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values& goals and morals vary signi#cantly. Iualitative research focuses on people's
experiences and the meanings they place on events& processes and the
environment of their normal social setting. Iualitative data +focuses on naturally
occurring& ordinary events in natural settings& so that we have a starting handle on
what Nreal lifeO is li-e' (!iles and Huberman& 122@5 1<& emphasis in original". Also&
management research trends suggest that researchers may be moving even furtheraway from rigour and limiting applicability due to their failure to triangulate. 9ower
internal validity& external validity and construct validity have been found in the
128<s and 122<s due to methodological approaches that do not use rigorous
triangulation (Scandura and illiams& 3<<<". Triangulation through the use of mixed
methods in global research will strengthen researchers' #ndings. Table 3 identi#es
#ve accepted steps applicable to research in the social sciences. Dach of these
steps will be compared and contrasted for *uantitative& *ualitative and mixed
methods for use with SGH! problemsissues. :e#ne problem and develop
hypothesis esearch of global social behaviour theories& problem de#nition and the
development of hypothesis have fundamental confounding problems5 1" culture
de#nition/ 3" identifying whether a phenomenon is culturally speci#c or universal/ ?"
determining how a researcher can mas- their own cultural bias in designing and
conducting a study/ @" determining which aspects of the study should be identical
and which e*uivalent across cultures/ and 4" identifying threats to interpretation
caused by interactions between cultural and research variables (Adler& 128@".
Further obstacles for researchers include5 selection of topic& how and who to
sample& translation& measurement& instrumentation& administration of the research&
data analysis and interpretation. The way in which one as-s the research *uestion is
important because it determines& to a large extent& the research methods that are
used to answer it. The goals and obCectives of the proCect must be identi#ed to
formulate the *uestions. Iuantitative methods develop highly speci#c hypothesesthat employ operational de#nitions and are clearly testable. Global research
conveys hidden nuances& the phenomena are often idiosyncratic and not
comparable to apparently similar domestic phenomena& and so rigid *uantitative
techni*ues may be inappropriate. !ixed methods attempt to de#ne the problem&
re,ecting external reality that is situational and culturally speci#c& with explanations
that may best produce desired outcomes. The #rst *uestion attempting to de#ne
the problem and to understand nebulous causal relationships starts out broadly and
becomes progressively narrowed and more focused during the research process as
concepts and their relationships are uncovered. 7n the development of the
evaluation *uestions& the researcher must be obCective and have an openness orwillingness to listen and to give voice to respondents& whether they are individuals
or organizations. This means having an understanding& while recognizing that
researchers' understandings are often based on the values& culture& training and
experiences they bring to the research situations and that they might be very
dierent from those of the respondents. Global research therefore becomes more
complicated and is often di>cult to coordinate or to maintain formal practices.
Global research theories and techni*ues are di>cult to impose upon foreign
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management& and& if applicable& they must be culturally close to the countries
where those theories exist. 7n addition& it is argued& the application of management
models and theories developed in one country is inappropriate within another
(Azumi& 12=@/ Hofstede& 128<& 128?& 122?/ 9aurent& 128?& 1286". Further& national
cultures dier in the degree to which they enable managers to adopt non)
homegrown practices (ir-bride and Tang& 1223/ Tayeb& 1288& 1224"& althoughrecent research suggests that some contingency)type theories may be applicable
(alston et al.& 1222". esearch problems and theory development in SGH! are
often driven by the needs of the practitioner& not based upon domestic developed
theory and often tac-le vague issues. However& an impasse between the
practitioner and the researcher arises from a dierence in focus and goals& or
relevance versus rigour& or usefulness versus validity& especially in regard to those
researchers who are characterized by *uantitative techni*ues (:ubin& 12=6/
!arsic-& 122</ Jan de Jen& 1282". +The demand that theory be useful therefore&
characterizes an applied #eld' and re*uires that there +be a mar-et orientation (i.e.&
a practical real)world need" for the theory' (:ubin& 12=65 12". %roblem de#nition and
hypothesis development in SGH! research generally fall into three types of
models5 classi#catory (i.e. categorizing activities& entities or data for the purpose of
clarifying complex relationships"& descriptive (i.e. explaining a process and much
more complex than classi#cation" and causal (i.e. representations that attempt to
develop casual relationships according to some pre)speci#ed theoretical structure"
(%unnett and Shen-ar& 1226". $efore data collection& the researcher utilizing a
,exible mixed)method approach may be able to establish a line of reasoning and
identi#cation of anticipated results. The mixed)method techni*ue will provide a
means to address the multifaceted problems more eectively due to ,exibility and
unconstrained view. 0onstruct research design to help ensure internal and external
validity5 selection of sample& control or manipulation of subCects andinstrumentation The most fre*uently used research approaches to global issues
consist of5 1" comparative (i.e. comparisons of two or more countries and some
speci#c aspect of H!"& 3" international (e.g. H! within global organizations"& ?"
foreign national (e.g. singlecountry studies by non)indigenous researchers
attempting to draw conclusions with home)country implications"& and @" a
combination of the above (Adler& 128?/ Adler and $artholomew& 1223& 122=/ %eng
et al.& 122<". A estern ethnocentric bias permeates much of global research
literature& underpinning the universalistic approach that the instruments and
measures developed in one culture are believed to be e*ually appropriate and
applicable in other nations. This view fails ade*uately to specify the nature ofsocietalcultural dierences and how they aect the phenomenon under
investigation due to the use of instruments and measures that remove societal or
cultural dimensions from organizations (0hild& 1281/ 0lar-& 1226/ 0ray and !allory&
1228". Bet& the basic purpose of examining global perspectives is to contribute an
understanding of the extent to which there are dierences and similarities among
nations as well as between organizations and their members in dierent relational
settings (0lar- et al.& 3<<<". 7t is suggested that& when performing global research&
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the #rm should not copy successful solutions that resulted from other cultural
traditions& but that the underlying goals adapted to that culture should be examined
(Albert& 1282". Another criticism of recent research is the need to move away from
the parochialism inherent within AngloAmerican research towards a more pluralistic
perspective based on openness to other perspectives ($oyacigiller and Adler& 1221/
edding& 122@/ 0lar- et al.& 3<<<". As the predominant current paradigm from aestern researcher's perspective utilizes both estern theories and *uantitative
research& it is apparent that in the very least a mixedmethods approach that
attempts to understand new global phenomena should be utilized. As !cGrath
(1283" noted& it is not possible to do an un,awed study/ the global un,awed study is
nearly impossible. So the primary manner in which to address the issue of research
trade)os is to obtain corroborating evidence from using a variety of methods&
-nown as triangulation. Simplistically& a triangulation method ta-en from navigation
and military history& which +usePsQ multiple reference points to locate an obCect's
exact position' (Kic-& 12=25 6<3"& may provide legitimate guidance to social science
researchers. Triangulation within mixed methods has developed into four
perspectives that combine both *ualitative and *uantitative research& and are used
according to the situation5 1" se*uential studies (i.e. the researcher conducts two
separate phases or *ualitative and *uantitative research"/ 3" parallelsimultaneous
studies (e.g. both types of research are conducted simultaneously"/ ?" e*uivalent
status designs (e.g. both approaches are used e*ually to understand the
phenomena under study"/ and @" dominantMless dominant studies (e.g. one or the
other method is used as the single dominant paradigm" (0reswell& 1224". A mixed)
method approach to designing a study that explores the underlying relationships
through *ualitative data in co)ordination with *uantitative data will assist the
researcher in the explanation of complex and seemingly ambiguous global
constructs. For example& seven cultural factors have been identi#ed that must beaddressed in global training design5 1" social systems and institutions& 3"
interpersonal relationships& ?" politics& @" polities& 4" religion& 6" economic systems
and =" educational and technological bases ($in Bahya& 1282". Specify data
collection procedures ich interaction is the sine *ua non of global research for
which *uantitative methods are mostly inade*uate (Teagarden et al.& 1224". Bet&
typical global research is performed through *uestionnaires with a estern)style
theory supporting the research #ndings. This disposition should be avoided& as
investigators should attempt to avoid prior commitment to any theoretical model
(Jan !aanen et al.& 1283". An evolving coherent theoretical framewor- rather than
one imposed a priori has been suggested& so the researcher will +be open to whatthe research site has to tell us' (Glaser and Strauss& 126=5 118". The mixed)method
approach will assist researchers due to its evolving and exploratory nature.
The estern)style*uantitativeuniversalist research approach to global research
may not be successful in these transitional and emerging mar-ets and must be
augmented through contextual research. For example& +few if any& estern
institutions actually -now how to achieve ... translation of successful estern
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methods into African contexts' (!achlachlan& 122?5 1=</ Harvey& 3<<3". Global
research is di>cult outside ;orth America and Durope because archival sources are
rare and often incomplete& mass mailings are rarely successful and academia often
plays a dierent role in other countries. Also& in these countries less emphasis is
placed on contractual business relationships and more upon trust and interpersonal
relationships. 7n these settings& data collection will re*uire a non)traditionalapproach (Teagarden et al.& 1224". 7n the development of data collection procedures
the evaluator should ma-e use of non)technical literature such as reports&
videotapes& newspapers& periodicals and other materials to assist in the
development of the evaluation *uestions. This process will assist in providing a
source for comparison and sensitivity to nuances in the data& it can be used as a
secondary source of data& stimulate further elaboration during the research process
and can be used to supplement interviews and observations (Strauss and 0orbin&
1226". Simply identifying target respondents as a potential sample becomes
complicated& as the issues and *uestions to be discussedas-ed must be
understandable to the respondent. 7n global research& this becomes all the more
di>cult due to diering symbols& cultural understandings and language. The
*uestions must be translated forward and bac-ward with the meaning intact. se of
culturally speci#c symbols must be avoided and conceptual e*uivalence be
established. The design and format of the *uestionnaires should be ,exible in
comparison with the traditional experimental or longitudinal survey designs. The
*ualitative and mixed methods design allows a researcher to adCust the ongoing
data)collection methods and modes of analysis much more *uic-ly to respond to
context)speci#c constraints (9ee& 1222". 7n global research& this ,exibility allows the
researcher to delve more deeply into the underlying latent constructs not
observable through direct *uantitative techni*ues. :ata)collection strategies for the
mixed)method techni*ue typically fall within four general categories5 1" as-ingindividuals for information andor experiences/ 3" see-ing what people do& recording
what they do or ma-ing inferences/ ?" as-ing individuals about their relationships
with others/ and @" using data collected andor documented by others. Self)report
techni*ues or as-ing for information andor experiences are the most fre*uent
sources of data in traditional *uantitative and *ualitative research& yet are the
wea-est form of data)collection strategy (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". Dven more
so in global research& there are cultural biases (including within subgroups" that
ma-e this type of data)collection strategy even less credible& such as the
ac*uiescence bias (yes)saying"& extremity bias (tendency to pic- the end points of a
scale"& central tendency bias (middle of scale selections" and positivity bias(selection of positive bias" (%unnett and Shen-ar& 1226/ sunier& 1228". The
interview is a powerful method of data collection& which may have open) and
closed)ended interview formats& that typically results in copious amounts of
information& but is very expensive and time consuming (9avra-as& 122?/ Fowler and
!angione& 122<". 7t is also especially appropriate when a researcher re*uires in)
depth -nowledge of issues and relationships as found in SGH!. +0ross)cultural and
multicultural research is a prime example of such applications' (Tasha--ori and
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Teddlie& 12285 1<?" and +personal interviews constitute the most prevalent
instrument' of obtaining data in global survey research (%unnett and Shen-ar&
1226". The observational method eliminates the need to use either the interview or
self)report techni*ues& thus avoiding the biases involved. nfortunately& this
method also has drawbac-s& such as +obCective self)awareness' (unintentional
changes of the subCect" and +actor)observer dierence' (subCects' action responsesare not the same as to what observer considers as stimulus". Although the bene#ts
of multiple methods are illustrated through the faults of each of the techni*ues
described (there are both more techni*ues and more faults of each"& time and cost
is a relevant part of any researcher's agenda. Several sources that will assist in data
collection and veri#cation are5 experts& personal -nowledge and archival data that
could support data collection in a well)designed study. Select data analysis
methodology The challenge faced by researchers in the global mar-etplace is how
to solve a multidimensional puzzle located at the crossroads of national and
organizational cultures (9aurent& 1286". nfortunately& estern researchers utilizing
their ethnocentric tools have performed much of the global research. +e cannot&
and should not& expect wholesale transfer of American ... concepts and tools'
(errigan and 9u-e& 128=5 1@" for management training theory and practices. 7n the
mixed)method techni*ue& the distinction between data collection and data analysis
may not be clear)cut. 7n practice& for example& the researcher will often be creating&
testing and modifying analytic categories as an iterative process& such that data
analysis may be considered +an organic whole that begins in the data)gathering
stage and does not end until the writing is complete' (%otter& 12265 13<". The
*uestions are developing empirical data that involve and derive from the
participants' experiences within a natural setting. The phenomena of interest rely
on the interpretations& sensema-ing and +lived' experiences of the organizational
participants. !ixed)method research is often not standardized& thus presentingproblems for the researcher who is accustomed to reliable and well)validated
measures. This type of research should be seen as a process of data reduction that
simultaneously enhances the data's meaning/ however& issues of reliability and
validity will still be applicable (!arshall and ossman& 1224". esearchers wish to
Custify their interpretations of the data in some way in order to assess rigour and
authenticity. The criteria used are5 1" applicability (the extent to which readers can
apply the #ndings to their own contexts"/ 3" empowerment (the extent to which the
#ndings enable readers to ta-e action"/ ?" rhetoric (the strength of the argument
presented"/ and @" resonance (the extent to which the research process re,ects the
goals of the research" (Guba and 9incoln& 1282". egardless of the nature& type orscale of measurement in regard to research data& both validity and measurement
reliability must be ascertained. $ecause attributes of global research& its constructs
or latent variables& may not be observable& it is not possible to observe the degree
of correspondence between a variable and the measure obtained. Although a
correlation coe>cient cannot be calculated for *ualitative observations&
triangulation of multiple data sources will su>ce (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". The
resultant data must have a +trustworthiness' *uality in regard to design and
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measurement *uality and the four criteria that could be collectively combined to
establish this trustworthiness are5 credibility& transferability& dependability and
con#rmability (9incoln and Guba& 1284". :ierent methods for determining the four
criteria include5 prolonged engagement& persistent observation& triangulation
techni*ues& peer debrie#ng& negative case analysis& referential ade*uacy& member
chec-s& dependability audit&
con#rmability audit and re,exive Cournal (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". Global
research is very di>cult and time)consuming& and causes the researcher many
additional steps along the entire spectrum of the process of research design. Finally&
researchers (0aracelli and Greene& 122?" have established four mixed data analysis
strategies. 1 :ata transformation concerns the conversion of one data type into
another so that both can be analysed together& such as converting *ualitative data
into numerical codes and *uantitative data into narratives for analysis. 3 Typology
development is when a set of substantive categories are developed& then used as a
framewor-. ? Dxtreme case analysis includes the collection of additional data to
explain extreme cases in the hopes that issues previously not recorded are exposed.
@ :ata consolidationmerging is the process of creating a new data set by
consolidating data sets in either *ualitative or *uantitative form for further analysis.
Dvaluation of results and drawing conclusions 7n regard to the evaluation of results
and the researcher's drawing of conclusions& the researcher's sta-eholders and
constituents vary signi#cantly in their understanding of research methods&
terminology and application. Two issues are important in reaching closure5 when to
stop adding new information and when to stop iterating between theory and data
(Disenhardt& 1282". hen only incremental improvement occurs with each new
amount of data& closure should occur. As the scienti#c mission of organizational
researchers re*uires that they share their #ndings& the primary mechanism wouldbe to prepare the manuscript for a scholarly Cournal. Although there are no hard and
fast rules& and these would vary across Cournals& some suggested guidelines are
common to global research and are not so very dierent from purely *uantitative)
type research& except for the content. A non)traditional approach such as the
contextual*ualitative research view would complement *uantitative research& for it
searches for an overall understanding of what is contextually uni*ue and why. The
research is inductive (versus deductive for the universalist" and theory is drawn
from an accumulation of data collected or gathered. The maCor role of the
contextualist in global research and literature is to identify the way labour mar-ets
wor- and what the more typical organization is doing (as opposed to the universalist
and their research of +leading edge' companies and +best practices'" ($rewster&
1222". The contextual approach also focuses on the individuals within the
organization& the long)term health of the organization and or the community and
country within which the organization operates& rather than the declared corporate
strategy and approach laid down by senior management. ;either the universalist
nor the contextual paradigm is wrong or an inade*uate way to study global issues&
but research in this area will be +enhanced if we utilize the best of both' ($rewster&
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1222". As SGH! has a strong applied tradition& a strong theoretical or conceptual
basis must be put forth to Custify whether the researcher did intend to solve a
distinct managerial problem or concern. A literature review that provides a
foundation for evaluation and subse*uent referral should be developed. Assuming
that either theory& problem)solving or hypothesis)testing is the researcher's goal&
the researcher must follow the tradition of falsi#ablity& level of analysis& unit of focusand operationalization. The sample and context of the sample would then include
the type of selection& information given to the subCects& subCects' emotional and
social states& and the researcher's rapport with the subCects (if direct contact was
made". :ata collection& analysis and veri#cation discussing reliability& validity&
generalizability& replication& types and -inds of data with steps in its collection
should all be supplied. Finally& a discussion in regard to the results& implications&
limitations& contribution and alternative explanations should be considered. 7n
evaluating the results of global research and drawing conclusions& the development
of procedures and guidelines often may dier widely. Transnational #rms no longer
have Cust one culture that inherently de#nes their organizational culture& as senior
executives are generally from numerous nationalities (Adler and $artholomew&
1223". The transition from multi)domestic to global creates the greatest challenge in
global research in regard to the internationalization process and thus must be ta-en
into account in the process of drawing conclusions. Summary and conclusion The
historic arrangement between researchers and the static domestic environment is
succumbing to a global mar-etplace fraught with uncertainty and new variables that
were previously unaccounted for. The tried and true *uantitative methods&
framewor-s and paradigms of estern researchers no longer seem ade*uate in
regard to global H! research. Global researchers are now confronted with complex
new issues that interact such as5 social systems and institutions& interpersonal
relationships& politics& polities& religion& economic systems and educational andtechnological bases. The demands for shared norms and values within a global
networ- pose a myriad of simultaneous challenges andor problems in the
development of SGH! systems5 1" fre*uent ambiguity about human resource
management authority/ 3" multiple interdependencies among subsidiaries/ ?"
increased uncertainty about the sustainability of networ- ,exibility and e>ciency/
@" possible discontinuities in securing top)level support for changes in human
resource management systems/ and 4" di>culties in ac*uiring the multiplicity of
s-ills and competencies re*uired for eective SGH! in -nowledge sharing
(;ona-a& 122</ ing and Jan de Jen& 1223". hich combination of these challenges
will be most salient at a particular time period or for a speci#c networ-con#guration will depend upon which aspect dominates the relational content in the
global networ-& these aspects being5 1" the communications aspect& 3" the
exchange aspect or ?" the normative aspect. The communications aspect of
relational content in a global networ- refers to the human resource management)
related information apprehension among networ- members. The exchange aspect is
related to operating human resource management aspects supporting the ,ow of
goods andor services& whereas the normative aspect re,ects shared expectations
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that networ- members have of one another based on some social feature (i.e.
culture". The interplay of these aspects may pro#le the emergence of the following
potential barriers creating signi#cant problems for SGH! researchers. !ultiplicity
of networ- units The multitude of current and potential global networ- units
re*uires continuous managerial mental accounting and prioritization in selecting
actual collaborating units. This re*uires shifting the human resource managementselection criteria for personnel as well as practices as the #rm strategic orientation
changes. 7n other words& a global human resource manager needs to develop an
informed sense of which unit's human resource management systems are most
compatible with the obCectives of the networ-. !oreover& when operating
simultaneously in multiple vertical and horizontal networ-s& a global human
resource manager faces multiple actors with varying human resource management)
related tas-s& policies and resources instrumental for the #rm strategic goal
achievement. These multi)actor structures re*uire managerial multi)tas-ing
competence in the development of the #rm dynamic relational capabilities and
routines. Global networ- instability Though a global networ- oers the potential for
the #rm's rapid adaptation to changing conditions& ,exibility of adCustment and
capacity for innovation& an SGH! system must bridge the gaps of incomplete
-nowledge or goal con,icts in the networ- about human resource management
,exibility. Timely managerial action is re*uired to facilitate rapid human resource
management responses& in the global networ-& to emerging pro#table opportunities
and successful human resource management adaptation to the current and future
sets of its technologies& products and production capacities and to rapidly changing
mar-ets. The SGH! system must direct collaborative eort and operating needs
towards eective outcomes while maintaining networ- responsiveness& changing
networ- memberships and avoiding hierarchy. :iscontinuities in internal
organizational support The success of global networ-ing of human resourcemanagement systems re*uires prior attainment of internal organizational resource
co)ordination and top)level management support. 7n other words& external
networ-ing success depends upon a previous success in the internal management
coalition)building environment for human resource management ,exibility. The most
critical internal support mechanism for continuity of a global human resource
management success is the top management team headed by the 0DE. !ulti)
dimensionality of strategic human resource leadership tas- A manager developing
an SGH! system faces a complex tas- of multiple interdisciplinary dimensions5 1"
technical dimensions (technological options" of the global networ-/ 3" legal
dimensions (regulative restraints" aecting networ-ing/ ?" political dimensions(centrality bargaining" of networ- power distribution/ and @" economic dimensions
(value capturing" of value chain streamlining. This multidimensionality of the
strategic human resource management tas- imposes extraordinary time and
competency demands upon global human resource managers and their ability to
combine multiple dimensions into eective #rm actions. !ulti)s-ill leadership
demands for global networ- human resource management Global networ-s re*uire
,exible capacities& s-ills and -nowledge that go beyond those of hierarchical human
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resource management. These multi)s-ill demands for managing within a SGH!
system include5 1" agile and decisive leadership behaviour expressed in continuing
engagement and assertive acting on a changing information base (i.e. thin-ing and
acting in options"/ 3" ability to identify& access and tap into the s-ills& -nowledge
and resources of internal and external networ- sta-eholders (i.e. global human
resource managers need to -now who possesses or controls the critical resources5capital& technology& information& expertise& time and the absorptive capacity
indispensable for ,exible human resource management designs"/ ?" capability to
formulate mutual bene#ts and engender purposeful interactions among the
identi#ed sta-eholders with the obCective of pursuing human resource management)
related aspects of a co)operative ideaproCectprogrammerelationshipmembership/
@" building trust with the sta-eholders who possess needed resources (i.e.
expertise"/ 4" multi)level co)ordination across many global human resource cultures&
procedures and divisions of labour incorporated into the global networ-/ and 6"
trans)disciplinary competence *uic-ly to ac*uire& utilize and apply -nowledge from
multiple disciplinary practices. :omestic H! has had to evolve along with the
global mar-etplace& as new employees such as expatriates& third)country nationals&
host)country nationals and inpatriates have provided a plethora of new and often
contradictory demands. SGH! demands new research tools eectively to
understand and evaluate this global phenomena. Dxacerbating this trend is the
predilection of estern researchers to continue using out)dated theories and
methods to evaluate methodologically the global issues whose applicability is in
doubt. A mixed)method research stream is considered the most appropriate method
to examine these new global issues in SGH!. nfortunately& both the time and the
cost of this type of research are either prohibitive or frighten researchers who are on
the +tenure cloc-'. A combination of *ualitative and *uantitative through a mixed)
method techni*ue provides the researcher with the ,exibility to adapt to uncertainglobal issues and the ability to delve deeply to discern the cultural& societal and
institutional nuances present. 7n essence& the uncertain global mar-etplace will only
continue to grow and& along with it& the many issues for SGH!. The human
element in global organizations becomes increasingly important in this setting and
both global co)ordination and control of their wor-force will aect corporations'
strategies. These global employees may also provide the necessary core
competency with which to maintain global competitiveness. As SGH! ta-es the
forefront in corporate strategy and practitioners recognize the complexity of a
global wor-force& the mixed)method techni*ue will be needed to develop both
theoretical and practical global SGH! applications. eferences Adler& ;.K. (128?"+0ross 0ultural !anagement esearch5 The Estrich and the Trend'& Academy of
!anagement eview& 8(3"5 336M?3. Adler& ;.K. (128@" +nderstanding the ays of
nderstanding5 0ross)cultural !anagement !ethodology eviewed'. 7n Farmer& .;.
(ed." Advances in 7nternational 0ooperative !anagement& Jol. 1. Greenwich& 0T5 KA7
%ress& pp. ?1M6=. Adler& ;.K. and $artholomew& S. (1223" +!anaging Globally
0ompetent %eople'& Academy of !anagement Dxecutive& 6(?"5 43M64. Adler& ;.K. and
$artholomew& S. (122=" +Academic and %rofessional 0ommunities of :iscourse5
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Generating nowledge on Transnational Human esource !anagement'& Kournal of
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+Strategic Human esource !anagement5 A Global %erspective'. 7n %ieper& . (ed."
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(122?" +Strategic Assets and Erganizational ent'& Strategic !anagement Kournal&
1@5 ??M@6. Azumi& . (12=@" +Kapanese Society5 A Sociological eview'. 7n Tidemann&
A.D. (ed." An 7ntroduction to Kapanese 0ivilization. ;ew Bor-5 0olumbia niversity
%ress& pp. 414M?4.
$aird& 9. and !eshoulam& 7. (1288" +!anaging Two Fits of Strategic Human esource
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