1. Process SynchronizationBackgroundThe Critical-Section ProblemPetersons SolutionSynchronization HardwareSemaphoresClassic Problems of SynchronizationMonitors

2. 1. Background Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes A solution to the consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers can have an integer count that keeps track of the number of full buffers. Initially, count is set to 0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a buffer. Producer Consumer while (true) { while (true) { while (count == BUFFER_SIZE) while (count == 0); // do nothing ; // do nothing nextConsumed = buffer[out]; buffer [in] = nextProduced; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; count--; count++; nextConsumed } } Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 2

3. 1. Background Contd Where several processes access and manipulate the same data concurrently and the outcome of the execution depends on the particular order in which the access takes place, is called a race condition To guard against the race condition, ensure that only one process at a time can be manipulating the data which require that the processes be synchronized count++ could be implemented as count-- could be implemented as register1 = count register2 = count register1 = register1 + 1 register2 = register2 - 1 count = register1 count = register2 The concurrent execution of "counter++" and "counter--" is equivalent to a sequential execution where the lower-level statements are interleaved in some arbitrary order but the order within each high-level statement is preserved Consider this execution interleaving with count = 5 initially: S0: producer execute register1 = count {register1 = 5} S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6} S2: consumer execute register2 = count {register2 = 5} S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 - 1 {register2 = 4} S4: producer execute count = register1 {count = 6 } S5: consumer execute count = register2 {count = 4} Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 3

4. 2. The Critical-Section Problem Each process in a system has a segment of code, called a critical section, in which the process may be changing common variables, updating a table, writing a file, and so on When one process is executing in its critical section, no other process is to be allowed to execute in its critical section is known as critical-section problem Each process must request permission to enter its critical section and the code implementing this request is the entry section The critical section is followed by an exit section and the remaining code is the remainder section General structure of a typical process do{ entry section critical section exit section remainder section } while (TRUE); Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 4

5. 2. The Critical-Section Problem Contd A solution to the critical-section problem must satisfy the following three requirements1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical sections2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some processes that wish to enter their critical section, then only those processes that are not executing in their remainder sections can participate in the decision on which will enter its critical section next, and this selection cannot be postponed indefinitely3. Bounded Waiting - There exists a bound, or limit, on the number of times that other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes Two approaches are used to handle critical sections in OS (1) preemptive kernels and (2) nonpreemptive kernels Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 5

6. 3. Petersons Solution Restricted to Two Process only Two data items shared is between the process P1 & P2 (Pi & Pj) int turn; Boolean flag[2] The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical section. If turn == i, then process Pi is allowed The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the critical section. flag[i] = true implies that process Pi is ready Algorithm for Pi do { flag[ i ] = TRUE; turn = j ; while (flag[j] && turn == j ) ; critical section flag[i] = FALSE; remainder section } while (TRUE); Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 6

7. 3. Petersons Solution Contd To Prove 1.Mutual exclusion is preserved. Pi enters its critical section only if either flag[j] == false or turn = I if both processes are executing in their critical sections at the same time, then flag [i] == flag [j] == true(NOT Possible) 2.The progress requirement is satisfied. Since Pi does not change the value of the variable turn while executing the while statement, Pi- will enter the critical section 3.The bounded-waiting requirement is met. Once Pj exits its critical section, it will reset flag[j] to false, allowing Pi to enter its critical section. Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 7

8. 4. Synchronization Hardware Race conditions are prevented by requiring that critical regions be protected by locks i.e., a process must acquire a lock before entering a critical section and it releases the lock when it exits the critical section. do { acquire lock critical section release lock remainder section } while (TRUE); All these solutions are based on the locking, however, the design of such locks can be quite sophisticated Uniprocessors If interrupts could be disabled during critical section Modern machines provide special atomic(non- interruptable) hardware instructions Either test memory word and set value - TestAndSet() Or swap contents of two memory words Swap() Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 8

9. 4. Synchronization Hardware ContdTestAndndSet Instruction boolean TestAndSet (boolean *target) { boolean rv = *target; *target = TRUE; return rv: } if two TestAndSet () instructions are executed simultaneously (each on a different CPU), they will be executed sequentially in some arbitrary orderMutual-exclusion implementation with TestAndSet ( ) while (true) { while ( TestAndSet (&lock )); // critical section lock = FALSE; // remainder section } Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 9

10. 4. Synchronization Hardware ContdSwap() instruction void Swap (boolean *a, boolean *b) { boolean temp = *a; *a = *b; *b = temp: }Mutual-exclusion implementation with the Swap() A global Boolean variable lock is declared and is initialized to false and each process has a local Boolean variable key while (true) { key = TRUE; while ( key == TRUE) The above both algorithms do Swap (&lock, &key ); not satisfy the bounded-waiting // critical section requirement lock = FALSE; // remainder section } Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 10

11. 4. Synchronization Hardware ContdBounded-waiting mutual exclusion with TestAndSet ().Common data structures are initialized to false do { boolean waiting[n]; & boolean lock; waiting[i] = TRUE;To prove the mutual exclusion key = TRUE;Process Pi can enter its CS only if either waiting[i] = false or while (waiting[i] && key) key = false. The first process to execute the TestAndSet () key = TestAndSet(&lock); will find key = false and all others must wait. The variable waiting[i] = FALSE; waiting[i] can become false only if another process leaves its critical section i.e. only one waiting [i] is set to false, // critical section maintaining the mutual-exclusion requirement j = (i + 1) % n;To prove that the progress(Same as above) while ((j != i) && !waiting[j])Process exiting the CS either sets lock to false or sets j = (j + 1) % n; waiting[j] to false allow a process that is waiting to enter if (j == i) its critical section to proceed lock = FALSE;To prove that the bounded-waiting elseProcess which leaves its CS, scans the array waiting in the waiting[j] = FALSE; cyclic ordering (i+1, i+2,...,n-1, 0,..., i)It designates the // remainder section first process in this ordering that is in the entry section } while (TRUE); (waiting [j] =- true) as the next one to enter the critical section. Any process waiting to enter its critical section will do so within n-1 turns Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 11

12. 5. Semaphores Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting Semaphore S is integer variable, apart from initialization, is accessed only by 2 standard atomic operations: wait () and signal () Originally called P() and V() The Definition of wait (S) { signal (S) { while (S value --; if (S->value < 0) { //add this process to S->list; block(); } } Implementation of signal: signal(semaphore *S) { S->value++; if (S->value list; wakeup(P); } } Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 14

15. 5. Semaphores Contd5.3 Deadlock and Starvation Deadlock two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused by only one of the waiting processes Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1 P0 P1 wait (S); wait (Q); wait (Q); wait (S); . . . . . . signal (S); signal (Q); signal (Q); signal (S); When P0 executes wait(Q), it must wait until P1 executes signal(Q). Similarly, when P1 executes wait(S), it must wait until Po executes signal(S) These signal () operations cannot be executed, Po and Pi are deadlocked. Starvation indefinite blocking. A process may never be removed from the semaphore queue in which it is suspended. Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 15

16. 6. Classical Problems of Synchronization Large class of concurrency-control problems which are used for testing nearly every newly proposed synchronization scheme. Bounded-Buffer Problem Readers and Writers Problem Dining-Philosophers Problem6.1 Bounded-Buffer Problem N buffers, each can hold one item Semaphore mutex initialized to the value 1 to provide mutual exclusion for accesses to the buffer Semaphore full initialized to the value 0 Semaphore empty initialized to the value N.The structure of the producer process The structure of the consumer processdo{ do{ // produce an item wait (full); wait (empty); wait (mutex); wait (mutex); // remove an item from buffer // add the item to the buffer signal (mutex); signal (mutex); signal (empty); signal (full); // consume the removed item} while (true) ; } while (true) ; Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 16

17. 6. Classical Problems of Synchronization Contd..6.2 Readers-Writers Problem A database is shared among a number of concurrent processes Readers only read the data set; they do not perform any updates Writers can both read and write. Problem first readers-writers problem, requires that, no reader will be kept waiting unless a writer has already obtained permission to use. second readers-writers problem, requires that, once a writer is ready, that writer performs its write as soon as possible That is allow multiple readers to read at the same time. Only one single writer can access the shared data at the same time. Solution to first readers-writers problem Shares the following data Semaphore mutex initialized to 1. The structure of a writer process Semaphore wrt initialized to 1. while (true) { Integer readcount initialized to 0. wait (wrt) ; // writing is performed signal (wrt) ; } 17 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

18. 6. Classical Problems of Synchronization Contd.. If a writer is in the critical section and n readers are waiting, then one reader is queued on wrt, and n - 1 readers are queued on mutex. When a writer executes signal (wrt), It may resume the execution of either the waiting readers or a single waiting writer The structure of a reader process do { wait(mutex); readcount + + ; if (readcount == 1) wait(wrt); signal(mutex); // reading is performed wait (mutex); readcount --; if (readcount == 0) signal(wrt); signal(mutex); }while (TRUE); Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 18

19. 6. Classical Problems of Synchronization Contd..6.3 The Dining-Philosophers Problem A large class of concurrency-control problem i.e. It is a simple representation of the need to allocate several resources among several processes in a deadlock-free and starvation-free manner Five philosophers who spend their lives thinking and eating share a circular table surrounded by five chairs and In the center of the table is a bowl of rice, and the table is laid with five single chopsticks From time to time, a philosopher gets hungry and tries to pick up the 2 chopsticks that are between him and his left and right neighbors) A philosopher may pick up only one chopstick at a time, he cannot pick up a chopstick that is already in the hand of a neighbor. When a hungry philosopher has both his chopsticks at the same time, he eats without releasing his chopsticks until finished eating 19 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

20. 6. Classical Problems of Synchronization Contd.. Simple solution is to represent each chopstick with a semaphore semaphore chopstick[5]; and all are initialized to 1 A philosopher tries to grab a chopstick by executing a wait () operation on that semaphore A philosopher releases the chopsticks by executing the signal() operation on the appropriate semaphores It could create a deadlock i.e. if all five The structure of philosopher Pi philosophers become hungry simultaneously and each grabs left do { chopstick making all the chopstick[ ] equal wait (chopstick [i] ) ; to 0, which delays to grab right chopstick forever. wait(chopstick [ (i + 1) % 5] ) ; Several possible remedies // eat- Allow at most four philosophers to be sitting signal(chopstick [i]); simultaneously at the table. signal(chopstick [(i + 1) % 5]);- Allow a philosopher to pick up her / / think chopsticks only if both chopsticks are }while (TRUE); available- Allow an odd philosopher to pick up first left chopstick and then right chopstick, whereas an even philosopher picks up right chopstick and then left chopstick 20 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

21. 7. Monitors Incorrect use of semaphore operations:1. Interchanges the order of wait() and signal () signal(mutex); //critical section wait(mutex);2. replaces signal (mutex) with wait (mutex) wait(mutex); //critical section wait(mutex);3. omits the wait (mutex), or the signal (mutex), or bothTo deal with such errors, researchers have developed high-level languagesynchronization construct called the monitor type7.1 Usage A type, or abstract data type, encapsulates private data with public methods to operate on that data Presents a set of programmer-defined operations that are provided mutual exclusion within the monitor A procedure defined within a monitor can access only those variables declared locally within the monitor and its formal parameters Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time The syntax of a monitor is shown 21 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

22. 7. Monitors Contd Syntax of a monitor Schematic view of a monitormonitor monitor-name{ // shared variable declarations procedure P1 () { . } procedure P2 () { . } procedure Pn () {} Initialization code ( .) { } } Additional synchronization mechanisms are provided in monitor by the condition construct which define one or more variables of type condition condition x, y; 22 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

23. 7. Monitors Contd The only operations that can be invoked on a condition variable are wait () and signal() x.wait() means that the process invoking this operation is suspended until another process invokes x.signal() which resumes (if any) exactly one suspended process; Monitor with Condition Variables 23 Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE

24. 7. Monitors Contd 7.2 Dining-Philosophers Solution Using Monitors Philosopher i can set the variable state[i] = eating only if two neighbors are not eating: (state[(i+4)%5] != eating) and (state[(i+1) % 5] != eating) philosopher i must invoke the operations pickup() and putdown() in the following sequence: DP.pickup(i); eat DP.putdown(i); This solution will ensure that there is NO deadlocks but starvation may occurmonitor DP{ enum {THINKING, HUNGRY, EATING}state [5] ; void test (int i) { condition self [5]; if ( (state[(i + 4) % 5] != EATING) && (state[i] == HUNGRY) && void pickup (int i) { (state[(i + 1) % 5] != EATING) ) { state[i] = HUNGRY; state[i] = EATING ; test(i); self[i].signal () ; if (state[i] != EATING) self [i].wait; } } } initialization_code() { void putdown (int i) { for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) state[i] = THINKING; state[i] = THINKING; // test left and right neighbors } } test((i + 4) % 5); test((i + 1) % 5); Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 24 }

25. 7. Monitors Contd7.3 Implementing a Monitor Using Semaphores Semaphores and Variables semaphore mutex; // (initially = 1) where processes waiting to enter the monitor wait semaphore next; // (initially = 0) where processes that are within the monitor and ready, wait to become the active process int next_count = 0; number of process suspended on next Each procedure F will be replaced by wait(mutex); //body of F; i f (next_count > 0) signal(next) else signal(mutex); to ensure Mutual exclusion within a monitor For each condition variable x, Semaphores and Variables semaphore x_sem; // initially = 0 int x_count = 0; The operation x.signal can be The operation x.wait can be implemented as: implemented as: x_count++; if (x_count > 0) { if (next_count > 0) signal(next); next_count++; else signal(mutex); signal(x_sem); wait(x_sem); wait(next); x_count--; next_count--; Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE } 25

26. 7. Monitors Contd7.4 Resuming Processes Within a Monitor Semaphores and Variables If several processes are suspended on monitor ResourceAllocator { condition x, and then x. signal () executed boolean busy; by some process how to determine which of the suspended processes should be condition x; resumed next void acquire(int time) { Using FCFS ordering scheme may not be if (busy) x.wait(time); adequate busy = TRUE; Conditional-wait construct can be used } which has the form : x.wait(c); void release() { c is a priority number or time required to busy = FALSE; complete the process x.signal(); For example a process that needs to access } the resource must observe the following Initialization_code() { sequence: R.acquire(t); access the resource; busy = FALSE; R.release(); } where R is an instance of type } ResourceAllocator Loganatahn R, CSE, HKBKCE 26