7A: Memory

7A: Memory12/2/13Lets talk about memoryWhat do you already know?What is memory?What is long-term memory?What is short-term memory?What helps you remember?DemosMemoryThe persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model (like a computer)Encoding Processing information into memory system, extracting meaning(The process of putting information into digital format.) Storage retention of encoded information (Hard Drive)Retrieval getting information out of storage(Accessing the Hard Drive)3Information ProcessingSensory Memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory systemShort-term Memory: activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgottenLong-term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Attention

All the rest

External Stimuli

Sensory Registers

gone

Short Term Memory

Long Term Memory

Retrieval

1. Encoding

3. Retrieval

2. Storage

Information Processing Model

5Information Processing RevisedWorking memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memoryEncodingAutomatic vs. Effortful ProcessingAutomatic: Unconscious encoding of incidental information, ivolves parallel processing and includes space, time, frequency and well-learned informationEffortful: requires attention and conscious effortRehearsal: conscious repetition of information, to maintain it consciousness or to encode it for storageAs rehearsal increases relearning time decreases (Forgetting curve, Ebinghaus)Encoding ContinuedSpacing Effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study (cramming) or practice. Spaced study and self-assessment beat crammingSerial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a listRecency effect-remember last items brieflyPrimary effect- remember first items bestDemoEncodingWe encode information with by associating it to what we already know.Visual Encoding: appearanceAcoustic Encoding: soundSemantic Encoding: meaning- produces best recognition of words

Visual EncodingImagery: Mental pictures; powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encodingWe remember words we can visualize better (remember the demo?)Rosy retrospection: we tend to remember positive events as more positive than they actually wereMnemonics: memory aids, techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Organizing InformationDemoChunking: Organizing items into, familiar, manageable units; often happens automaticallyHierarchies: organizing information into groups and subgroupsSensory MemoryVery brief and immediate storage of sensory informationIconic memory: momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. Photographic or picture-image memory lasting for a few tenths of a second (images clear quickly to make room for new ones)Echoic memory: momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli. If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words cans still be recalled within 3-4 seconds (What did I just say?)Working/short-term memoryConscious active processing of informationIncoming sensory information illuminated by our attentional flashlight Information recalled from long term (hard drive) and put in our conscious attention (view screen/edit)Lloyd and Margaret Peterson-consonant experimentMagic number 7 +/- 2Information not rehearsed is essentially forgotten

Long-Term memorylimitless space, new memories do not overwrite old ones.

Warm-upWhat is the information processing model? What three parts does it consist of?What are the three types of memory we have discussed?What are the differences between these types?What is rehearsal? How important is it to memory storage?SchemataA schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experienceIncoming information is fit with existing schemata (concept maps)Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given eventMemory StorageThere is no specific place for specific memories, memories are dispersed through out the cortex. (rats with parts of brain removed still were able to complete the maze) Where experiences are processed, memories are storedExperience changes neural passageways, as passageways are used, connections are strengthenedLong-Term Potentiation (LTP): A long-lasting change in the structure or function of a synapse that increase the efficiency of neural transmission.Stress Hormones and MemoryHeightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. (more glucose and proteins available)Memory serves to predict the future and possible dangersHormones such as Epinephrine act on brain centers in the brainFlashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or eventExtreme stress undermines learning and later recallHow does this apply to an exam?

Explicit and Implicit MemoryExplicit memoryMemory for information we can readily express and are aware of havingThis information can be intentionally recalledImplicit memory Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of havingCannot be intentionally retrievedAmnesia: loss of memory

Types of Long-Term MemoryEpisodic memoriesMemories for personal events in a specific time and placeSemantic memoriesMemory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific timeProcedural memoriesMotor skills and habits

Emotional memoriesLearned emotional responses to various stimuliExplicit memoryImplicit memoryThe Hippocampus and MemoryThe hippocampus helps process Explicit Memories for storage. Lateralization of the Hippocampus: specialized functions of the left and right hippocampus as well as different areas of each.If Hippocampus is damaged, it becomes difficult to form new Explicit memories, but implicit memories are still possible via the Cerebellum.Clive Wearing VideoCerebellum and Implicit memoriesPlays a key role in formation and storage of implicit memories. (procedural)If Clives cerebellum was still intact what could he still do?Retrieval Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.Relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. We remember more than we recall

Retrieval CuesAnchor points you can use to access the target information. (surroundings,mood,seating position)The more retrieval cues the better the chances are you will arrive at the target memoryBest retrieval cues are recorded at the time of the memory (sights, smells, tastes, sounds)Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. (meeting someone who reminds us of someone we know)

Context EffectsI need to pack my bag for basketball. (sitting on the couch)Why did I come up here? (in my room)I need to pack my bag. (sitting on the couch)We remember things in the context we experienced the thoughtDj vu: That eerie sense that Ive experienced this before. Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.Moods and MemoriesEvents that cause specific emotions are often remembered when the emotions come out again.State-Dependent Theory: what we learn in one state is more easily recalled when we are again in that state. (drunken recall)Mood-congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood. (if you fail a test and your girlfriend dumps you, you remember other bad things that have happened) prolongs moods (good or bad)Forgetting (7 sins of memory)3 sins of forgettingAbsent-mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failureTransience: storage decay over time (use it or lose it)Blocking: Inaccessibility of stored information (on the tip of my tongue) Three sins of distortionMisattribution: confusing the source of informationSuggestibility: the lingering effects of misinformationBias: belief-colored recollections

One sin of intrusionPersistence: unwanted memoriesSome forgetting isnt a retrieval problem at all. Encoding FailureWe cannot remember what we do not encode.

29OBJECTIVE 19| Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.Which penny is real?

30Storage DecayPoor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.

31OBJECTIVE 20| Discuss the concept of storage decay, and describe Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.Retaining SpanishBahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis32Retrieval FailureAlthough the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).33Experiences can affect Memory: InterferenceRetroactive interference: Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory. (The retro old info is interfered with by the new)Proactive interference: Occurs when information already in memory interferes with new informationBecause of proactive interference, new learning is disrupted by old habits.

34I need a volunteer that knows their colors.Dont read the words, just say the colors theyre printed in and as fast as you can35RedYellowGreen BlueRedBlueYellowGreenBlueRed36InterferenceWhen you look at the words you see both its color and meaning.When they are in conflict you must make a choiceExperience has taught you that word meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information.You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to.

37Motivated ForgettingMotivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories.

Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Sigmund FreudCulver Pictures38OBJECTIVE 22| Summarize Freud's concept of repression, and state whether this view is reflected in current memory research.Why do we forget?Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

39Memory ConstructionMisinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event.Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source, something we heard, read o reimagined.

These 2 concepts are the heart of many false memories.