A Course on A Course on Linguistics for Linguistics for

Students of EnglishStudents of English

The Goals for this CourseThe Goals for this Course

To get a scientific view on language;To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand some basic theories on linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic To understand the applications of the linguistic

theories, especially in the fields of language theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;communication……;

To prepare for the future research work. To prepare for the future research work.

The Requirements for this courseThe Requirements for this course

Class attendanceClass attendance Classroom discussionClassroom discussion Fulfillment of the assignmentFulfillment of the assignment Examination Examination

Reference BooksReference Books

戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊， (2002)(2002) ，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，胡壮麟， (2001)(2001) ，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

刘润清，刘润清， (1995)(1995) ，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to LanguageAn Introduction to Language the the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.

Chapter 1. IntroductionChapter 1. Introduction

1. What is language?1. What is language?

Language can meanLanguage can mean what a person says what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions) (e.g. bad language, expressions) the way of speaking or writing the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s (e.g. Shakespeare’s

language, Luxun’s language)language, Luxun’s language) a particular variety or level of speech or writing a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. (e.g.

language for special purpose, colloquial language) language for special purpose, colloquial language) the abstract system underlying the totality of the the abstract system underlying the totality of the

speech/writing behavior of a community speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese (e.g. Chinese language, first language) language, first language)

the common features of all human languages the common features of all human languages (e.g. He (e.g. He studies language)studies language)

a tool for human communication. (social function) a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. a set of rules. (rule-governed) (rule-governed)

Sapir’s definition (1921)Sapir’s definition (1921)

““Language is a purely human and non-instinctive Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”symbols.”

Hall’s definition (1968)Hall’s definition (1968)

Language is “the institution whereby humans Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”arbitrary symbols.”

Chomsky’s definition (1957)Chomsky’s definition (1957)

““From now on I will consider language to be a From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”elements.”

Language can be generally defined asLanguage can be generally defined as

a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.human communication.

Language is a systemLanguage is a system

Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.*bkli, *I apple eat.

Language is arbitraryLanguage is arbitrary

Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”“pen” by any by any other name is the thing we use to write with.other name is the thing we use to write with.

Language is symbolic in natureLanguage is symbolic in nature

Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare ----Shakespeare

Language is primarily vocalLanguage is primarily vocal

Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. than spoken form.

Language is human-specific Language is human-specific

Human-specific---- different from the Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.cries.

The design/defining features of human The design/defining features of human languagelanguage (Charles Hockett)(Charles Hockett)

• ArbitrarinessArbitrariness• Productivity/CreativityProductivity/Creativity• DualityDuality• DisplacementDisplacement• Cultural transmissionCultural transmission

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.sounds and meanings.

Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )

Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…

Productivity/creativity Productivity/creativity

----Peculiar to human languages----Peculiar to human languages ，， users of language can understand users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the , though it does not describe a common happening in the world.world.

A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. novelty impossible.

The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires alone about people, animals, hopes or desires

Duality (double articulation) Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more A communication system with duality is considered more

flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.dictionary of sentences of that language.

DisplacementDisplacement ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real

or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. places.

A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last yearA gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees

communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.discoveries.

Cultural transmissionCultural transmission

----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; ----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).rather than by instinct).

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.gibbons and bees.

A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.learning, rather than by instinct.

The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.

Functions of languageFunctions of language Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social

contact.contact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Informative: give information about facts. Interrogative: get information from others.Interrogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse,

startle, soothe, worry or please) startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform Performative: language is used to do things, to perform

actions. actions.

The origin of languageThe origin of language

The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind. to mankind.

The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. grunts of men working together.

The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological development.psychological development.

许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学 ,,至少不够严至少不够严谨谨 ..他对语言的定义做了如下概括他对语言的定义做了如下概括 :: 语言是一种符号系统语言是一种符号系统 ..

当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候 ,,它是表它是表达相互反应的中介达相互反应的中介 ;;

当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候 ,,它是它是认知事物的工具认知事物的工具 ;;

当它作用于文化的时候当它作用于文化的时候 ,,它是文化的载体它是文化的载体 ..

2. What is linguistics? 2. What is linguistics?

----Linguistics is the ----Linguistics is the scientificscientific study of language. study of language.

----A person who studies linguistics is known as ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. a linguist.

Four principles of linguistic studiesFour principles of linguistic studies

Exhaustiveness/adequacy Exhaustiveness/adequacy

Consistency Consistency

Economy Economy

Objectivity Objectivity

The scope or major branches of linguisticsThe scope or major branches of linguistics

Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics1.1. PhoneticsPhonetics2.2. PhonologyPhonology3.3. MorphologyMorphology4.4. SyntaxSyntax5.5. SemanticsSemantics Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics1.1. Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics2.2. SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3.3. PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics …… ……

Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics

Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.auditory phonetics.

Phonology----sound patterns of languagesPhonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of wordsMorphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into

sentence.sentence. Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning

of language is conducted in the context of language use----of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics)Pragmatics)

Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics

Applied linguistics----linguistics and language Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching teaching

Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use education) affect language use

Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process psychological process

Stylistics----linguistic and literature Stylistics----linguistic and literature

Some other applications Some other applications

Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics

NeurolinguisticsNeurolinguistics

Computational linguistics (e.g. machine Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translation)translation)

Some important distinctions in linguistics Some important distinctions in linguistics

Descriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive vs prescriptive

Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)linguistic)

Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)grammar)

Synchronic vs diachronicSynchronic vs diachronic

Synchronic study---- Synchronic study---- description of a description of a language at some point language at some point of time (modern of time (modern linguistics)linguistics)

Diachronic study---- Diachronic study---- description of a description of a language through time language through time (historical development (historical development of language over a of language over a period of time)period of time)

Speech vs writingSpeech vs writing

Speech ---- primary medium of languageSpeech ---- primary medium of language

Writing ---- later developedWriting ---- later developed

Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)

Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.members of the speech community.

Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.

Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.

Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence and performance (Chomsky) Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the

rules of his language rules of his language

Performance ---- the actual realization of this Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication knowledge in linguistic communication

Chomsky looks at language from a psychological Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.the mind of each individual.

Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar vs modern linguistics

Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Latin-based framework

Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework not necessarily Latin-based framework