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English Linguistics 1
English Linguistics 1
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3 What's in a word: lexicology
3.1 Conceptual and lexical categories3.1.1Conceptual categories3.1.2Lexical categories
3.2 Words and meanings3.2.1Routes to meaning3.2.2What is meaning?
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3.3 Lexical fields
3.4 Lexical relations/meaning relations3.4.1. Synonymy3.4.2. Relationships of contrast3.4.3. Hierarchical relationships
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3.5 Lexical ambiguity3.5.1Polysemy3.5.2Homonymy
3.6 Metaphor and metonymy3.6.1Metaphor3.6.2Metonymy
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3.1 Conceptual and lexical categories
aspects focused on so far:signs - the link between their (material) form and meaning / function
in order to get a better understanding of the nature of language:a 'look' into the minds of the speakers / the conceptual world –
the pre-linguistic world
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3.1.1 Conceptual categories
concept: a person's 'idea' of what something in the world is likee.g. 'mother', 'dog' – single entities
–
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humans tend to 'slice' reality into discernible units → conceptual categories
whenever we perceive sth. we attempt to categorize it,
e.g. piece of music classification as jazz, rock, pop, classical, techno, ethno, world music etc.
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conceptual categories laid down / expressed in language = linguistic categories (signs) we all have made experience that there are more concepts than linguistic expressions, e.g. when we try to describe a phenomenon knowing that there is no exact term; different from just not knowing a term!
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conceptual categories/stage
linguistic categories/level other modes of expression
lexicon syntax/grammar
form meaning
realization as sound
sign
Fig. 3-1: From concept to sound (simplified)
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What makes the step from concept to linguistic category so interesting?problems / questions:
- Are concepts universal/ the same for all humans?- Are concepts socio-culturally determined?- What happens when concepts are 'translated' into languages?no attempt at definite answers! just a glimpse at some phenomena
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compare expressions for same concept in different languages:EFG HufeisenI→ different languages may 'translate' the same phenomenon differently – the construal / construction of the 'world' in linguistic items
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Signs differently motivated:E , F, I – relationship between the animal as a whole and the protecting deviceG –
F, I, G – E –
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E grand piano -F piano à queue -G Flügel - F and G –
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concept: 'part of the street for pedestrians'BE pavement -AE sidewalk -F trottoir - from trotter:
G Gehsteig -Bürgersteig -
AuG Trottoir - see French, but?
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so far: conceptual categories 'translated' words or lexical categories
similar relationships applies also to 'translation' grammatical categories
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different ways of saying more or less the same thing Look at that rain.
same lexical category: raindifferent word classes: (1) noun, (2) verb
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E kissNavajo
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Summary: when transforming a concept into a linguistic category languages may focus on different characteristics / features of the concept and make this characteristic the most prominent by expressing it linguistically,at the same time – disregard other features;
the same applies to more complex conceptual phenomena
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3.1.2 Lexical categories
examples from 3.1.1 relatively 'clear' (horse-shoe, piano, pavement)
definition/ description of their 'lexical meaning'
can be agreed upon by different people
other cases add another dimension, e.g. vase ?
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ex. vasemany different shapes and types -common denominator: 'container for flowers'question: what is our concept of a typical
'vase'?
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Fig. 3-2
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ex. chair: task: draw a picture of a 'chair', that comes to your mind, do not think too long about it, there is no 'right' or 'wrong'
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the most typical or best member – the subtype that first comes to mind= prototype / prototypical member≠ peripheral members
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Fig. 3-3: Chairs
category of stools different from chairs – lack of a back
Fig. 3-4: A selection of the drawings of cup-like objects used by Labov
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• centre firmly established• boundaries far from absolute • fuzzy, overlap
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3.2 Words and meanings
3.2.1 Routes to meaning
Two starting points:1. word which senses?2. concept which words?
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ad 1.dictionary fruit a, b, c, d….. word form list of various senses= semasiology (Greek sema 'sign')
Look up the senses/meanings of 'fruit' in the DCE or another monolingual dictionary (at least 5 to 6 meanings):
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fruit /fru:t/ n plural fruit or fruits
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ad 2.onomasiology (Greek ónoma 'name') concept list of words which denote the same or similar concepts
use a dictionary of synonyms to find synonyms for the concept of 'fruit':(thesaurus, synonym finder)
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fruit, n.a.
b.
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3.2.2 What is meaning? no generally accepted definition of 'meaning'
suggestion (1):words name or label things in the world, two aspects are taken care of:
distinction between denotation and reference
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• denotation – class of things indicated by a word
• reference – a particular thing when the word is used
e.g. A cat .
A cat . Three men . Three men .
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suggestion (2):two aspects -all 'things' in the world the expression can be used to refer toand the inherent / internal characteristics or features
distinction between extension and intension
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• extension – all things, facts, abstract ideas … which can be referred to by the same linguistic expression (= ~ denotation, see above)
• intension – the features which define the expression
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exs.:evening star, morning star – different intension, same extension =
Tony Blair (extension) different intensions (up to 2007):
the prime minister of GB, the Labour leader, Cherie's husband
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suggestion (3):the semantic triangle – room for the idea, the concept
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signifiésignifiedBegriff
signifiantsignifierBezeichnung
chosethingSache
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Other types of meaning (so far: 'denotation and reference')
e.g.That girl is a real cat. ('unpleasant woman')cat – different from cat1 (denotation)they differ in denotation - they also differ in the associations that come to our mind
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+ types of meaning which refer to associations that words have for us connotation / connotational meanings
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Try to complete the types:
individual associations:woman
stylistic or social: give other choices with a stylistic differencedomicile -
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regional: editorial – petrol – chips – …reflected meaning:the Holy Ghost, the Comforter
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collocational meaning 'good looking, attractive'pretty - handsome
pretty + [ ]
handsome + [ ]
different in their collocations
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languages differ in the collocational range of words
G Nase, Zähne, Schuhe putzenE
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