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Air pollutionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, orbiological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or otherliving organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or builtenvironment, into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that isessential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletiondue to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human healthas well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world'sworst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's WorstPolluted Places report.[1]

Contents

1 Pollutants2 Sources

2.1 Emission factors3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)4 Health effects

4.1 Effects on cardiovascular health4.2 Effects on cystic fibrosis4.3 Effects on COPD and Asthma4.4 Possible links to cancer4.5 Effects on children4.6 Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

5 Reduction efforts5.1 Control devices

6 Legal regulations6.1 Canada

7 Cities8 NATA9 Governing Urban Air Pollution – a regional example (London)10 Carbon dioxide emissions11 Atmospheric dispersion12 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants13 See also14 References15 External links

Pollutants

Air pollution - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution

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Weather portal

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed,the emissions from this power plant in NewMexico contained excessive amounts ofsulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1)greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increasedUV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozoneconcentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas

A substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and theenvironment is known as an air pollutant. Pollutants can be in theform of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, theymay be natural or man-made.[2]

Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually,primary pollutants are directly emitted from a process, such as ashfrom a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motorvehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form inthe air when primary pollutants react or interact. An importantexample of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone — one ofthe many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, theyare both emitted directly and formed from otherprimary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by humanactivity include:

Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfurdioxide, a chemical compound with theformula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoesand in various industrial processes. Since coaland petroleum often contain sulfurcompounds, their combustion generates sulfurdioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually inthe presence of a catalyst such as NO2, formsH2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one ofthe causes for concern over the environmentalimpact of the use of these fuels as powersources.Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogendioxide are emitted from high temperaturecombustion, and are also produced naturallyduring thunderstorms by electrical discharge. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plumedownwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of theseveral nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one ofthe most prominent air pollutants.Carbon monoxide (CO)- is a colourless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product byincomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source ofcarbon monoxide.Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a colourless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also associated with oceanacidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration. It is otherwiserecycled in the atmosphere in the carbon cycle.Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are oftendivided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is anextremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbonVOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of


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Smog over Santiago, Chile

methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within theNMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may leadto leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is oftenassociated with industrial uses.

Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, aretiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gastogether. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally,originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrialprocesses also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosolsin our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heartdisease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer.

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[4][5]

Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned fromuse.Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. Itis normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly tothe nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers.Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals.Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processesRadioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and naturalprocesses such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants andcompounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; theword "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog resultsfrom large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture ofsmoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coalbut from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in theatmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutantsthat also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemicalsmog.Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a

key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratospherecommonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many ofthe chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally highconcentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant,and a constituent of smog.Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air


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Dust storm approaching Stratford,Texas

Controlled burning of a field outsideof Statesboro, Georgia in preparationfor spring planting

Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradationthrough chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist inthe environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnifyin food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factorswhich are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere.These sources can be classified into two major categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burningdifferent kinds of fuel

"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants,manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as wellas furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. Indeveloping and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is themajor source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood,crop waste and dung.[6][7]

"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraftand the effect of sound etc.

Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture andforestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is atechnique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairierestoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part ofboth forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a toolfor foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination ofsome desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highlyflammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displaceoxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reducedto below 19.5% by displacement

Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetationMethane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattleRadon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally


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Industrial Air Pollution emissions

occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a healthhazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such asthe basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfiresVegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. TheseVOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organiccarbon compounds—to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[8]

Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Emission factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that peopleattempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambientair with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. Thesefactors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by aunit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting thepollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coalburned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from varioussources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simplyaverages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generallyassumed to be representative of long-term averages.

There are 12 compounds in the list of POPs. Dioxins and furans aretwo of them and are intentionally created by combustion of organics,like open burning of plastics. The POPs are also endocrine disruptor and can mutate the human genes.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emissionfactors for a multitude of industrial sources.[9] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many othercountries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[10][11][12][13]

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Main article: Indoor air quality

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time.Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Buildingmaterials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatileorganic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional airpollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires instoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[14] Indoorpollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without properventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by theburning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilotlights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing


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emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domesticenvironments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronicinflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure toasbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath)and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are notalways stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevantdiseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/123072/AQG2ndEd_6_2_asbestos.PDF) , these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and PeritonealMesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated withprolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets producedander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting andfurniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in wallsand generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, andhouseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulationallows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heartdisease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may includedifficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. Theseeffects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospitaladmissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principallyaffect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants dependon the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status andgenetics.[citation needed]

The most common sources of air pollution include particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfurdioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide.Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in termsof total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[15]

The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable toair pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[16] "Epidemiological studiessuggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fineparticle air pollution. . ."[17] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation betweenpneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[18] Worldwide more deaths per year are linkedto air pollution than to automobile accidents.[citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeansdie from air pollution annually.[citation needed] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lungand heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.[citation needed] The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changesin diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heartattacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-relatedhospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation needed]


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The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[19] Leaked industrialvapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst airpollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores froma biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the causeof hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation needed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the UnitedStates of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000were injured.[20]

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin andSan Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annualpremature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, whichaverage fewer than 2,000 per year.[21]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In severalhuman experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acutevascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[22][23] This serves as a plausible mechanistic linkbetween the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and increasedcardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Effects on cardiovascular health

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutantlevels are highest.[24] A recent study also found an association in women between air pollution and ischemia,but not hemorrhagic stroke.[25] Air pollution has also been associated with increased incidence and mortalityfrom coronary artery disease.[26]

Effects on cystic fibrosis

Main article: Cystic fibrosis

A study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near andaround particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lungfunction.[27] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonasaeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in thestudy were located in the United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency. During thetime of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near largemetropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants foundin their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer fromdecreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke andimproper use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function.[28]

Effects on COPD and Asthma

Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease


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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis andemphysema.[29]

Researches have demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma [30] and COPD[31] from increased exposureto traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hosptializations andmortality from asthma and COPD.[32][33]

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates fromchronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from theoutlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, anddyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence.The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smokinghabits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[34]

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazardsbecome more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lowerlevels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[35]

Possible links to cancer

A large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas withhigh nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.[36]

There are also possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancerand brain cancer.[37]

Effects on children

Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them todevelop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protectivemeasures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now usecompressed natural gas to help eliminate the “pea-soup” smog.[38] Research by the World Health Organizationshows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic worldpower and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, andIndonesia. In the United States, the Clean Air Act was passed in 1970; however, in 2002 at least 146 millionAmericans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutantsexceeded federal standards.[39] Those pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone,particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoorsmore and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.

Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly,since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia LungAssociation showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozoneconcentrations) would produce a $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.[40] Thisfinding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) effects.


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Reduction efforts

There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce airpollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructureplanning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that landis used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries havepermissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships,farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles),increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such asbioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles).

Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. Theycan either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into theatmosphere.

Particulate controlMechanical collectors (dust cyclones,multicyclones)Electrostatic precipitators An electrostaticprecipitator (ESP), or electrostatic aircleaner is a particulate collection devicethat removes particles from a flowing gas(such as air) using the force of an inducedelectrostatic charge. Electrostaticprecipitators are highly efficient filtrationdevices that minimally impede the flow ofgases through the device, and can easilyremove fine particulate matter such asdust and smoke from the air stream.Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dustloads, a dust collector consists of ablower, dust filter, a filter-cleaningsystem, and a dust receptacle or dustremoval system (distinguished from aircleaners which utilize disposable filters toremove the dust).

Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is aform of pollution control technology. Theterm describes a variety of devices thatuse pollutants from a furnace flue gas orfrom other gas streams. In a wet scrubber,the polluted gas stream is brought intocontact with the scrubbing liquid, byspraying it with the liquid, by forcing itthrough a pool of liquid, or by some other

contact method, so as to remove thepollutants.

ScrubbersBaffle spray scrubberCyclonic spray scrubberEjector venturi scrubberMechanically aided scrubberSpray towerWet scrubber

NOx controlLow NOx burnersSelective catalytic reduction (SCR)Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)NOx scrubbersExhaust gas recirculationCatalytic converter (also for VOC control)

VOC abatementAdsorption systems, such as activatedcarbonFlaresThermal oxidizersCatalytic convertersBiofiltersAbsorption (scrubbing)Cryogenic condensersVapor recovery systems

Acid Gas/SO2 control


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Smog in Cairo

Wet scrubbersDry scrubbersFlue-gas desulfurization

Mercury controlSorbent Injection TechnologyElectro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)

K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipmentSource capturing systemsContinuous emissions monitoring systems(CEMS)

Legal regulations

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class ofstandards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards andE.U. Air Quality Directive (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/legislation/directive.htm) ) set maximum atmospheric concentrations forspecific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which areintended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class(such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scalewith various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public therelative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguishbetween different pollutants.

Canada

In Canada air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the The Air Quality Health Index or(AQHI). It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution byadjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.

The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada andEnvironment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and supportof the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication andcommunity engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHIimplementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated withlocal air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10.The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today,tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +

Risk: Low (1-3) Moderate (4-6) High (7-10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, theindex has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to takeprecautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as ‘low’, ‘moderate’, ‘high’or ‘very high’, and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.

[41]


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Nitrogen dioxide concentrations asmeasured from satellite2002-2004

HealthRisk

Air QualityHealthIndex

Health Messages

At Risk population *General PopulationLow 1-3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities

Moderate 4-6Consider reducing or reschedulingstrenuous activities outdoors if youare experiencing symptoms.

No need to modify your usual outdooractivities unless you experience symptomssuch as coughing and throat irritation.

High 7-10Reduce or reschedule strenuousactivities outdoors. Children and theelderly should also take it easy.

Consider reducing or reschedulingstrenuous activities outdoors if youexperience symptoms such as coughing andthroat irritation.

Very high Above 10Avoid strenuous activities outdoors.Children and the elderly should alsoavoid outdoor physical exertion.

Reduce or reschedule strenuous activitiesoutdoors, especially if you experiencesymptoms such as coughing and throatirritation.

[42]

It is measured based on the observed relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ground-level Ozone (O3) andparticulate matter (PM2.5) with mortality from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three ofthese pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existinghealth problems.

When developing the AQHI, Health Canada’s original analysis of health effects included five major airpollutants: particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbonmonoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and wereremoved from the AQHI formulation.

The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.

Cities

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitanareas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulationsare relatively lax or nonexistent[citation needed]. However, even populatedareas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution with LosAngeles and Rome[43] being two good examples.

NATA

The National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) is EPA's ongoingcomprehensive evaluation of air toxics in the U.S. EPA developed theNATA as a state-of-the-science screening tool for State/Local/Tribal Agencies to prioritize pollutants, emissionsources and locations of interest for further study in order to gain a better understanding of risks. NATAassessments do not incorporate refined information about emission sources, but rather, use general information


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about sources to develop estimates of risks which are more likely to overestimate impacts than underestimatethem. NATA provides estimates of the risk of cancer and other serious health effects from breathing (inhaling)air toxics in order to inform both national and more localized efforts to identify and prioritize air toxics, emissionsource types and locations which are of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to population risk.This in turn helps air pollution experts focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where thepotential for health risks are highest. Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer health effectsbased on chronic exposure from outdoor sources, including assessments of non-cancer health effects for DieselParticulate Matter (PM). Assessments provide a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to humanhealth that would result if air toxic emissions levels remained unchanged.[44]

Governing Urban Air Pollution – a regional example (London)

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a commonstrategy against which member states can “set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent orreduce harmful effects on human health and the environment . . . and improve air quality where it isunsatisfactory”.[45]

On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled thatunder this directive[45] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term actionplan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[46]

This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-statesas regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens fromdangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.

In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breachingof PM10 limit values.[47] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nationupwards of £300 million per year.[48]

In March 2011, the City of London remains the only UK region in breach of the EC’s limit values, and has beengiven 3 months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.[49] TheCity of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year withinthe city.[50] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping thewestern congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[51]

In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the current need for Europeancities to communicate with Europe through their nation state’s central government, arguing that in future “Agreat city like London” should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the EuropeanCommission regarding its air quality action plan.[49]

In part, this is an attempt to divert blame away from the Mayors office, but it can also be interpreted asrecognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and developsolutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations.Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmentalorganisations [52] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control asindependent actors.

Particularly promising at present are global city partnerships.[53] These can be built into networks, for example


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Most Polluted World Cities by PM[55]

Particulatematter,

μg/m³ (2004)City

168 Cairo, Egypt150 Delhi, India128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)125 Tianjin, China123 Chongqing, China109 Kanpur, India109 Lucknow, India104 Jakarta, Indonesia101 Shenyang, China

Countries with the highest CO2 emissions

CountryCarbon dioxide emissions per

year (106 Tons) (2006)Percentage of global total

Avg. emissionper Km2 of its land (Tons)

China 6,103 21.5% 636 United States 5,752 20.2% 597 Russia 1,564 5.5% 91 India 1,510 5.3% 459 Japan 1,293 4.6% 3421 Germany 805 2.8% 2254 United Kingdom 568 2.0% 2338 Canada 544 1.9% 54 South Korea 475 1.7% 4758 Italy 474 1.7% 1573

the C40 network, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public ‘non-state’ network of the world’s leadingcities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[53] The C40 has been identified as ‘governance from themiddle’ and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[54] It has the potential to improve urban air quality asparticipating cities “exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxideemissions independently from national government decisions”.[53] A criticism of the C40 network is that itsexclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful cityand regional actors.

Carbon dioxide emissions

Total CO2 emissions

Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions


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Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions

Country Carbon dioxide emissions per year(Tons per person) (2006)

Qatar 56.2 United Arab Emirates 32.8 Kuwait 31.2 Bahrain 28.8 Trinidad and Tobago 25.3 Luxembourg 24.5 Netherlands Antilles 22.8 Aruba 22.3 United States 19 Australia 18.1

Per capita CO2 emissions[56]

Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

Atmospheric dispersion

Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling

The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models forpredicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are:

Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources.Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modelingArea source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststormsPhotochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

The point source problem is the best understood, sinceit involves simpler mathematics and has been studiedfor a long period of time, dating back to about the year1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for buoyantpollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths,with consideration given to wind velocity, stack height,emission rate and stability class (a measure ofatmospheric turbulence).[57][58] This model has beenextensively validated and calibrated with experimentaldata for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.

The roadway air dispersion model was developedstarting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response torequirements of the National Environmental Policy Act


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Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollutiondispersion plume as used in many atmospheric dispersionmodels

and the U.S. Department of Transportation (thenknown as the Federal Highway Administration) tounderstand impacts of proposed new highways uponair quality, especially in urban areas. Several researchgroups were active in this model development, amongwhich were: the Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESLInc. group in Sunnyvale and California, California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. Theresearch of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program wassuccessful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model werein court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the NewJersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.

Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smallerfraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line sourcemodel, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical modelswere developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs,such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants

Main articles: Ocean acidification and Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the upper atmospherecausing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxideemissions from combustion of fossil fuels are a source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogenoxides, and ozone.

This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological advancements during thisperiod have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to the phenomenon. Currently, scientists arestudying the role of changes in composition of greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for theeffect on climate change.

A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbondioxide to cause increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

See also

Acid rainAir Hygiene FoundationAir pollutant concentrationsAir Quality IndexAir Quality Health IndexAir stagnationAP 42 Compilation of AirPollutant Emission FactorsASEAN Agreement on

Flue-gas desulfurizationFlue gas emissions from fossilfuel combustionGlobal Atmosphere WatchGlobal dimmingGlobal warmingGreenhouse effectHealth Effects Institute (HEI)Indicator value


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Transboundary Haze PollutionAsian brown cloudAtmospheric chemistryAtmospheric dispersionmodelingBeehive burnerBest Available ControlTechnologyBibliography of atmosphericdispersion modelingBuilding biologyList of atmospheric dispersionmodelsCritical loadEmission standardEmissions & GenerationResource Integrated DatabaseEnvironmental agreement

International Agency forResearch on CancerKyoto ProtocolLight water reactorsustainabilityList of smogs by death tollLowest Achievable EmissionsRateNASA Clean Air StudyParticulatePolluter pays principleSmog and HazeStenchTire fireRegulation of greenhousegases under the Clean Air Act

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External links

Air quality science and general information

International Conference on Urban Air Quality (http://www.urbanairquality.org/) .UNEP Urban Issues (http://www.unep.org/urban%5Fenvironment/)European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Quality (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/index.htm) .UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (http://www.unep.org/pcfv/)Database: outdoor air pollution in cities (http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/en/index.html) from the World Health OrganisationInteractive map of US facilities emitting air pollution (http://www.npr.org/2011/11/07/142089991/poisoned-places-air-pollution-in-your-town)

Air quality modelling

Stuff in the Air (http://www.stuffintheair.com/airqualitymodeling.html) Standard air quality modellingprocedure for industrial sources.Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling (http://atmosphericdispersion.wikia.com/) . Addresses theinternational community of atmospheric dispersion modellers — primarily researchers, but also users ofmodels. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work.Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas (http://www.air-dispersion.com/formulas.html) Oneof six technical articles devoted to air quality and air pollution dispersion modeling.

Effects on human health

World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/)Air Pollution Triggers Blood Clots (http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44436/story.htm)American Lung Association of New England on air quality (http://www.ownyourair.org/) .Dispersion of traffic pollution from street canyons in Edinburgh (http://www.iom-world.org


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/pubs/IOM_TM9609.pdf) by A Searl and D Buchanan. Institute of Occupational Medicine ResearchReport TM/96/09Impact assessment of the mortality effects of longer-term exposure to air pollution: exploring cause-specific mortality and susceptibility (http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0301.pdf) by BG Miller.Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/03/01Comparing estimated risks for air pollution with risks for other health effects (http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0601.pdf) by BG Miller and JF Hurley. Institute of Occupational Medicine ResearchReport TM/06/01The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom(http://comeap.org.uk/documents/reports/128-the-mortality-effects-of-long-term-exposure-to-particulate-air-pollution-in-the-uk.html) , UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.

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