Army Aviation Digest - Jul 1983

8/12/2019 Army Aviation Digest - Jul 1983

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The mission the U.S.

~ U A f B t ~ R 7

J Maddox Brigadier General Charles E TeeterDeputy CommanderU.S. Army Aviation CenterFort Rucker, Alabama U.S. Army Aviation CenterFort Rucker, Alabama

2117

182022 Mr

COL Emmett F

26 Dale L Radtke2829 Aviation Personnel Notes303234 CPT

Steven L Ochsner36 C o m b a t n n f t r ~ . i ~ . n ~42 Views From H A : : u 1 ~ r ~44 1983 Worldwide Aviation Conference,

viation

COL Thomas MCover: ATC Action Line: HeIlC )Dt,ersand the National CW4 Peter C

Back Cover: Annual \. _ Awardsis to

f n ln l1 l i . f t f t v l \ l l \ r ~ + I \ I ' u and advanced research Honorable John O MarsSecretary of the ArmRichard K TierneyEditor

information of operational, functional


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A TL, which you may remember as AVLABS,TR ECOM, has been around since 1944, workto improve the Army's combat effectiveness.

this month's feature article, Colonel EmmettKnight, the Applied Technology Laboratory

tells us how ATL has had a hand inall aircraft developments ranging from

XV-4, XV-5 and XV-6 of the late 1950s and ear1960s to the UH-60 Black Hawk and AH-64

e o f today, and to the emerging LHX, orHel icopter Family of the 1990s. ATL's R&Dm is far too broad to cover in one article,

Colonel Knight ably describes some of toficant programs underway at this

Army Aviation Research and DevelopmentCaptain Mike Ryan, in his article Sustained

t Operations, discusses another aspectcombat effectiveness. He describes an Army

which indicates that current staffing ofunits is insufficient to realize their full

sustained combat operations.his article he tells us one potential way to over

this problem with the establishment ofsustainment battalions together with a plan

would provide for increased aviator staffingsupport mobilization.One of the latest efforts to improve combat ef

is the development of laserthe battlefield. But,

se can be potentially hazardous to inr. John Hogan's article, Laser Safety, describes laser safety procedures and

that suitable laser goggles must be wornthere is danger of exposure.A companion article entitled Laser appearsthe Threat section. Captain P) Dale L. Radtke

.ntial uses of the laser as ainstead of

explosions, laser weapons could blind theignite clothing, wires, Plexiglas, etc. He

1983

adds that the laser can greatly increase the probability of first-round hit capabilities for tanks,helicopters and artillery when used in conjunction with target acquisition and engagement.

Our efforts to improve combat effectivenesswi II be useless if we allow accidents to depletethe force. One quick way to obtain an immediatereduction in the accident rate is to improvecommunication among crewmembers, writesMajor Craig E. Geis in his article, Communication. Major Geis lists six accidents in which alack of communication was a common cause factor. The sin of omission-failing to speak upabout potential problem areas-is a serious problem. The author recommends solving this throughtraining programs at Ft. Rucker as well asArmywide.

This issue is replete with superb articlesreflecting how we strive for excellence both incombat effectiveness and in our endeavors to beAccident Free In '83. I recommend you read it,cover-to-cover.

Major General Bobby J MaddoxCommander, U. S. Army Aviation CenterFort Rucker, AL


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CONSOLIDA TE GLOSSARY Page 8

PPLIEDTECHNOLOGYBOR TORY

t ECOM, A VLABS, EustiDirectorate, regardless of the nametoday s modern Army aircraft withall their associated capabilities, inherent reliability and safety featurecan trace some major roots to thU.S. Army Aviation Research andDevelopment Command s ApplieTechnology Laboratory located aFt. Eustis, VA. ATL s one of foulaboratories of the U.S. ArmResearch and Technology Laboratories and s responsible for conducting exploratory and advanceddevelopment programs leadingtoward the introduction of tomorrow s advanced aeronauticasystems into Army inventory.The original mission of thlaboratory included research anddevelopment of all modes of transportation when the TransportatioCorps Board was established at FtMonroe, VA, in 1944. As aviationexpanded into its current role withithe Army and the aviation R Dmission evolved, the other modewere transferred to allow concentration in this important area. Thlaboratory also evolved throughsuccessive redesignations until nowATL s mission is specificalldirected toward R D in support oArmy Aviation. The commitment aATL focuses on improvement programs for the current fleet , on advancing technology in a wide rangof technical areas and on buildinga foundation of knowledge andtechnical know-how from whichfuture military aircraft systems an

U S ARMY AVIATION DIGEST


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equipment can be created.During the 1950s and 1960s conceptual and experimental aircraftactivities were conducted unilaterally and jointly with the U.S. AirForce, U.S. Navy and the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration. The organization was thencalled TRECOM and was primarily engaged in research anddem onstration of high speed vertical/short takeoff an d landing configurations (figure 1 suitable forpotential surveillance and target acquisition missions. Significant workwas conducted on the XV -4 Hummingbird, XV-5 Vertiplane andXV -6 Harrier, in addition to triser-

vice transports XC-142 Tilt-Wing,X-19 Tilt Propeller and X-22Ducted Fan Research Aircraft. During the same period, improvedhelicopter features were beingdeveloped. These included crashworthy fuel systems, elastomericbearings, cargo handling improvements, and engine and drivetrain components .

Wit h the Air Force/Army fixedwing/rota ry wing decision of 1966 ,the R D activity shifted to investiga te high performance rotarywin g configurat io ns with experimental helicopters being flownto record speeds . Research vehiclesincluded the XH-51 Compound

Colonel Emmett F KnightDirector

Applied Technology LaboratoryFort Eusti s, VA

Research Helicopter, HPH UH-l)High Performance Helicopter,S-61F Compound Research Helicopter and the UH-2 CompoundUtility Helicopter (figure 2). Theseactivities led to major involvementin the concept formulati on an dtechnology development for the220-knot, 2g, AH-56 Cheyenne ad vanced gunship (figure 3 . Researchaircraft concepts aimed at 250 to300 + knots were developed underthe Composite Aircraft Program .(The CAP considered compositeconfigurations for high speed rotarywing aircraft-s to pped rot or,stopped-stowed rotor and tilt rotor.The composite referred to low and

FIGURE 2: The XH51 Compound Research Helicopterin flight test to explore high speed and improvedperformance hovers at Oxnard, CA, during 1966. Anearlier model of this aircraft is now in the ArmyAvia t ion Museum at Ft. Ru ck er, AL.

FIGURE 3: Eleven AH56 Cheyenne CompoundHelicopters were produced by lockheed for theArmy.This advanced gunsh ip flew at 215 knots in levelflight 245 knots in a dive, and demonstrated highmaneuverability and exce ll ent fi rsthi t accuracy withits weapons systems. One o f these proto types canbe seen at the Ft. Rucker Aviation Museum or theTransportati on Museum at Ft. Eust is , VA.

JULY 1983 3


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rotorcraft

studies conducted at A VLABS in the 1967 to1970 timeframe. These studies weredone for the UTTASmanager office and the V.S.Combatand

studies alsotimeframethe maneuver rewhich enhances BlackHawk and, l . U U . L l ' - ' ', n u L . J

onstrator was in-AVLABS. This led to thewhich powers both theBlack Hawk and the as wellas the Seahawk and the AirThe reuaOlllH

that these helIcoptersthe desiredmaintainability - : l t t r . h,nt.,.cation rP f l f l l l T P IT IP n tc

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became theEustis Directorate of the V.S.Air Research andment Laboratories. This was aresult Aviation Command's effort to increase its avia-R&D ... .... ... H.UL

mande'tei()DInelrlt of the rotors,drive cargo hoist andcontrols for the HLH and 1 1'::>'J,::>I ,_ment of the XT-701In aO lltliOn, eXI=,efllmelltalandfabricatedterials andturb ine engine technolc,gy ' '::> '::>I,,rLment was nnr , , , , , r1HP category. incrash worthy seats andirnnrr Jj . rI ballistic tolerancewell as thevehicle advanced

These programs will also contribute

Rotor are advanced Cle vellJPlneltldemonstration programshave been covered r , : :>, pnt l \Jand others. areprograms at ATL

seventwo sup} ort divi-a division and anOffice of Counsel make upteam which operateswith a of about 335civilian and Twothirds of these are techni-cians and other direct-associated with research ac-The laboratory is o n ~ n t i z e ~ dto handle a varied and continuous workload while m.:unltailling

of flexibility to assurean to meet orcrash n r ' \ l a r o t chouse CaI)atnlltyand ballistics

A < 10rl1 t f ,,nt

Facilities are also available for anumber of additional aeronauticaand systems mvesllgallons.



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ccoE:oen0uCoa:

Clf)>.0o5r:::a.

FIGURE 5: An OHS8 is being mounted and instrumented to undergo amodel analysis test to check out software developed to conduct airframestructural modifications and to develop flight hub loads to be used forground flying, i.e., fullscale aircraft fatigue testing. The test fixture orbackstop is capable of suspending complete helicopter systems up toBlack Hawk size and accommodate eight phaserelated loads that can beapplied on the aircraft simultaneously. It also can accommodate largestructures for static testing.

ULY 1983

The A TL mission requires a closeworking relationship with themilitary planner and user. ATLstrives to define the potential ofdeveloping technologies so thatfuture capabilities can be an-ticipated and assimilated into the re-quirement process. In addition asignificant amount of technical sup-port is provided to Army projectmanagers and other governmentdevelopment organizations. Themission of the laboratory is ac-complished through in housestudies and projects joint pro-grams and coordination with othergovernment agencies as well as con-tractual arrangements with aero-space industrial firms colleges anduniversities.

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PPLIEDTECHNOLOGY L BOR TORY

e program at ATL covers toobroad a range for full explanationin this article. However, to providea flavor of ongoing activities, hereare some of the major programs being conducted:illIT 1 The purpose of the Advanced Digital/Optical ControlSystem program s to demonstratethe advantages of a helicopter flightcontrol system designed to be survivable in the battlefield environment with enhanced mission performance provided by decreased pilotworkload and improved handlingqualities. ADOCS consists of adigital optical component development phase and a control systemflight demonstrator phase. Twelvecontracts for various hardware anddesign studies, awarded to nine different contractors, were essentiallycompleted in 1982. The flightdemonstrator phase, initiated withBoeing Vertol in November 1981,will use component technology todevelop next-generation hardware.This will be mechanized in a redundant configuration to demonstrateand verify the battlefield compatibility and improved mission performance predicted. During 1982the preliminary design phase of theprogram was completed and detailsystem design and hardware fabrication were initiated. The firstflight of the ADOCS demonstratoris planned for 1984.illIT S The No Tail Rotor program was conducted by HughesHelicopters Company to demonstrate the capability of the conceptof flying a single rotor helicopterwith anti torque and directional control devices other than a tail rotor(figure 6). The NOTAR system scomprised of a circulation controltail boom, a direct jet thruster and

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a vertical fin. A 19-hour flight testprogram investigated the concept inhover, forward, sideward and rearward flight; during steady and transient maneuvers; and in autorotation to power recovery. TheNOTAR showed improvementsover the standard OH-6A in hoverand sideward flight, with lowercockpit vibration and lower noiselevels. ATL and the contractor arecontinuing investigation of this promising method of eliminating the tailrotor in future applications.illIT 1 An advanced oil debrisdiscrimination and filtration systemhas been developed which extendscomponent life, permits full implementation of on-condition maintenance and provides a quantumimprovement in operational readiness. See April issue of the A v -tion Digest page 2, Army Aviation Lube Systems," for complete

details. The system has been proposed for incorporation into alArmy UH-1 and AH-1 helicoptersIt also has immediate potential fobroad application to turbine engineand drive systems in all othehelicopters, fixed wing aircraft andturbine-powered surface vehicles.illIT 1 In an effort to improvthe battlefield survivability of thAH-1S Cobra helicopter, a Survivability and Vulnerability Improvement Modification contractual program has been initiated (figure 7)This program will eliminate ththreat of fuel fires due to smalhighly explosive incendiary ballistiimpacts by incorporating a fuel firesuppression system. The fuel firesuppression system includes treatment for the dry bay areas aroundthe fuel tanks as well as protectionfor the fuel and remaining spacwithin the tank. To allow for in

photo courtesy of Hughes Helicopter

FIGURE 6: NOTAR an OH6A hovers at the Hughes Helicopter s Palomar,CA, facility to demonstrate no tail rotor flight. Work is sponsored by the ArmConcept Team and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency to explore the feasibility of a single rotor helicopter directional control systemother than a conventional tail rotor. This is accomplished with a hybrid systeof a circulation control tailboom and a direct jet exit system.

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tegration of the fuel fire suppressionsystem with no increase in weight tothe aircraft, two additional concurrent tasks were conducted. The firsttask would replace the current armored crew seats with lighterweight, crashworthy, armored crewseats. The second task will redesignthe engine armor to provide nearlyequal protection at less weight.Prior design efforts confirmed thatthe modifications could be appliedto the AH-IS helicopter without aweight increase and would significantly increase the overall combatsurvivability. The objective of theprogram is to conduct the advanceddevelopment phase of the SA VIMprogram for subsequent engineeringdevelopment and timely integrationinto an AH-lS block improvementprogram.

K [ J ~ Advancements in gas turbine engine technology have multiple impacts on helicopter acquisition, operational cost, improvements in capability, improvementsin performance reductions inmaintenance man-hour per flighthour and improvements in survivability. The Army continues tobe a leader in advancing rotary wingaircraft propulsion technology.ATL recently initiated a newModern Technology DemonstratorEngine program which offers asignificant benefit for current andfuture Army, Navy and Air Forceaircraft. This advanced engine hasbeen identified as the prime powerplant for the triservice JVX aircraftprogram (figure 8). The engine willprovide a fuel cost savings of morethan 500 million allotted over thelifespan of the JVX fleet and similarsavings can be expected if the engineis applied to the Army CH-47 fleet.The MTDE is ATL's third majorturboshaft technology demon-

JULY 1983

I777777it pow 0 ER F l l EOI LLLLLLI STRUCTURAL PANELS

DEHcnON/SUPPRfSSIONSVSHM

FIGURE 7, AH1S improvement: The Survivability and VulnerabilityImprovement Modification program.

SPECIFIC .600FUEL

COIiSUMPTION

~ - FUEL EFFICIENT ENGINEREGEN VATN - REGENERATIVEY RI BLE RE

TURBINE NOZZLET .550

IIiTERMEDIATEImD POWER

MTDE MODERN TECH DEMOENGINE

SFC _500IP.ODUCTlON

.450

.400MToE

Ci)T701-AO-700AT e07 1HP 0

lOTARE VPI36AT 11245 HP

.350 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 500SHAFT HORSEPOWER AT INTERMEDIATE

RATED POWERIPRODUCTION I

FIGURE 8: Turboshaft Engine Performance: The current engine technologythat is being used by the Army and other DOD agencies is represented bythe upper line or group of engines, the T63, T53, T58, T55, T64, etc.Through the use of advanced technology, represented by the lower bandshown on the figure, significant improvements in fuel economy can berealized. This technology has already been demonstrated in the 800 shafthorsepower size in the Army s ATDE program. The Army has just initiatedthe contractual phase of the MTDE program to demonstrate the technologyin the 5,000 to 6,000 shaft horsepower size. The T700 engine which is nowentering the inventory and represents the latest production technology inturboshaft engines, is above the advanced technology band.

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PPLIEDTECHNOLOGY L BOR TORY

FIGURE 9: Computer aided design/computer aided manufacture hasproven to be an unanticipated benefit of the ACAP.

coE3:ol)

uoco '0:.

2 ..on.

- --

FIGURE 1 : The upper cutter, one of four components ofthe WSPS installed on an AH1S Cobra helicopter, severs a3/8inch steel, sevenstrand cable during tests conducted byAVRADCOM s ATl. The tests of the AH1S Cobra WSPSwere conducted at the Impact Dynamics Test Facility,NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA.strator effort and was preceded bythe 1,500 HP Demonstrator Engineprogram (which provided the basisfor the T-700 engine development)and the 800 HP Advanced Develop-

ment Technology Engine programwhich is providing the basis for anLHX-size engine. The enginesresulting from these technologydemonstrator programs will un-

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doubtedly receive widespread commercial applications includingforeign military sales.illIT S A TL continues to lead anambitious R&D program todemonstrate the major advantagesand benefits of composite materialsand advanced structural conceptsfor helicopter airframe components. The primary goal of theACAP is to reduce airframe production costs and airframe weightwhile improving crashworthiness,ballistic tolerance, electrical electronic compatibility, reliability andmaintainability and improve othermilitary characteristics. Design support tests have been performed onall critical areas of the airframestructure, to include coupons,panels, subelement and subassembly tests of the materials,design concepts, joints and attachments. All qualitative goals andrequirements of the ACAP havebeen met or exceeded during thedetailed design and support testingphase (figure 9). The contracts withBell Helicopter Textron and Sikorsky remain within cost and scheduletargets. The first flight of theACAP is planned during 1984.illIT S ATL participated in thedesign and conducted qualificationtests of the Wire Strike ProtectionSystems on OH-58, UH-l andAH-l aircraft (figure 10). Qualification tests on the OH-6 are currently underway, and similar tests forthe UH-60A are scheduled in thespring of 1984. Successful cuts of3/8-inch steel cable have verified theperformance and structural integrity of the system. The MexicanGovernment has experienced atleast three known incidents of actual wire strikes involving Jet

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Ranger equipped with WSPS. Allresulted in successful cuts of1/2-inch steel cable. This modification holds great promise ineliminating a major cause offatalities in Army aircraft accidents.a:JIT S The Integrated Technology Rotor/Flight ResearchRotor Project is a joint undertaking of the A VRADCOM s Researchand Technology Laboratories andNASA. Joint project responsibilityrests with ATL the AeromechanicsLaboratory and NASA at AmesResearch Center. The objective ofthis program is to demonstrate asignificant advance in rotor systemstechnology through the integrationof rotor design, aerodynamics,structures and materials anddynamics and acoustics. The program will demonstrate that life cycle costs can be reduced; thatreliability, maintainability and survivability can be enhanced; that performance characteristics such asrotor lift over drag, fuel consumption, high speed maneuverability,agility and handling qualities can beimproved; and that rotor weight,rotor noise and vibratory loads canbe reduced. The concept definitionphase of the program has been successfully completed and preliminarydesigns are about to begin. The ITRprogram also will provide NASAwith an advanced flight researchrotor fully instrumented, havingthe capability for significant variation in selected rotor properties forfuture research programs.a:JIT 1 ATL in 977 initiated acombat maintenance programwhich is beginning to produceuseful products in a number ofareas. The program is keyed to theconcept that maintenance during

JULY 983

midintensity combat operationsmust be tailored to the situation athand. Criteria for maximum deferral of routine scheduled and unscheduled maintenance are beingdeveloped to provide maintenanceand operation officers the flexibility of responding to an unusuallyhigh flying hour program for shortperiods of time.Practical concepts for performingcombat damage assessments alsoare being developed along withquick, effective field repair techniques that can get an aircraft safely back into the air for limitedperiods.One concept showing particularpromise is the use of shape memoryalloys to perform field repairs onfluid lines, flight control linkagesand drive shafts. Concepts for carrying out rapid repair of electricalwiring and conducting extensivecannibalization of combat damagedaircraft also are being developed.Action is underway to use portionsof the ATL combat maintenanceprogram to support a U.S. ArmyMateriel Development and Readiness Command directed initiativeto develop improved proceduresand guidance for maintenance andrepair of Army equipment duringcombat.a:JIT 1 In 1979, the Army s aviation weaponization responsibilitywas assigned to A TL. Among thefirst programs conducted under thisnew management was the field testin 979 of a Hughes 500D helicopterequipped with a mast-mountedsight. The following year similar testswere conducted using an MMSequipped Bell OH-58C developed ina joint AVRADCOM/ARRADCOM program and an MMSequipped UH-1H. The test results

contributed to the establishment ofrequirements for the Army Helicopter Improvement Program/NearTerm Scout Helicopter, now inengineering development. The utility of the electro-optical sensors inthe MMS and other such systems onArmy helicopters will be furtherenhanced through joint advanceddevelopment programs being pursued by ATL in cooperation withthe Night Vision/Electro-OpticalLaboratory. These and other programs will greatly reduce the timerequired to detect, classify andprioritize targets in the sensors fieldof view-further reducing the exposure time of the helicopter andthereby increasing its survivability.

s the 1980s close, LHX andJVX engineering development activities will be using technologybrought to credibility throughAVRADCOM advanced programs.Future emphasis can be projectedtoward increased aircraft productivity, integration of functions toimprove reliability and reduce costand increase combat effectivenesswith mission systems. The work being accomplished today at ATLruns the gamut from advancedtechnology engines to battlefieldprotection concepts, from smarterweapons to composite structures. Amajor thrust involves investigationof methods to manufacture, support and operate these new technologies economically. Programsunderway or envisioned encompassa basic premise common to all: Toachieve substantially improvedmilitary characteristics and performance by applying advancedtechnology while striving for reduced weights, costs and complexity,and to do this in consonance withuser requirements.


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Effective communication and crewcoordination within the cockpit are asimportant as learningthe technical aspects of flyingMajor Craig E Geis

A N J f H E R YE R has passed in which the in-flation rate climbed, unemployment hovered around10 percent, our pay raise was held at 4 percent, costof living continued to spiral and Army Aviation postedits highest accident rate ever. The 86 individuals whodied in 1982 Army Aviation mishaps would welcomethe opportunity to face these problems anew today.Instead, the rest of us are still faced with the ever

nagging question, What can we do to decrease thenumber of accidents? We continue to study each ac-cident to determine what happened, what caused it andwhat we can do about it in the future. This is a worthyapproach as long as we can achieve our objective ofreducing the number of accidents. The realization,though, is that as hard as we investigate, educate andregulate, the objective just slips away Realizing thatCONSOLIDA TE GLOSSARY Page 8

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accidents consist of a multitude of contributing factors, this article focuses on one area that can producean immediate reduction in the accident rate. Effectivecommunication-the elusive key needed to begin tounlock the mystery of aviation accidents.One essential component of teamwork in the cockpitis good communications flow. Studies have shown thatsome of the key factors involved in this process include

Factors that influence cockpitcommunications.

leadership style groupdynamics, emotionalmakeup problemanalysis and decisionmaking style. But it iscommunication, orinformation flow,that effectively integrates all the otherfactors. Commercialairline studies havefurthermore shownthat we need to de-velop pilots who have the ability to exercise authoritywithout ambiguity, who are at the same time sensitiveto the cockpit workloads of other crewmembers, areable to delegate appropriate tasks and are supposedto do all of these things by communicating intentwithin the cockpit to the copilot, crewchief or observer.How effective we are in relaying intent will, to a greatextent, determine cockpit performance and error rate.

Whether our communications are clear or ambiguousplays an important role in cockpit performance.We also need to examine the relationship betweencommunication and human error. The NationalAeronautics and Space Administration's Aviation Safety Reporting System showed that human error was theprimary cause of 70 percent of all civil aviation incidents during a recent 5-year period. The Army identified pilot error in 80 percent of their aviation accidents from 1958 through 1972. The error was usually manifested by interpersonal problems in the im

proper transfer of information between crewmembers,or no transfer at all Sixty civil pilot-error accidentsstudied were caused by a variety of interpersonal problems, including: preoccupation with minor mechanicalproblems, inadequate leadership, failure to setpriorities, inadequate monitoring, failure to useavailable data and failure to communicate intent.The following accidents analyzed by the authorshow that communication problems similar to civil incidents are also experienced in Army Aviation:

JULY 1983

/- / / :. ~ : :D A UH-1H pilot on a terrain flight navigationtraining mission experienced a right fuel boost segment

light and master caution light. The pilot was descending the side of a hill when this occurred, and it causedhim to concentrate on the inside of the aircraft ratherthan the outside. Neither the pilot nor the copilot waslooking outside when the aircraft struck wires andcrashed. What instructions did the pilot communicateto the copilot after experiencing the emergency situa-tion? What information did the copilot communicateto the pilot in terms of the assistance he could offer?

_ ~ k ~ f t ~ ~A TH-1G instructor pilot was assigned to fly anaircraft with a known unreliable fuel quantity indicator(during the previous 30 days it had been written up asunreliable 7 times). The maintenance officer releasedthe aircraft for flight. The IP relied upon the inaccurate

fuel quantity indicator to continue his checkflight, laterfuel exhaustion occurred with an indication of about780 pounds of fuel. Why didn t the I communicatewith the maintenance officer s to why the aircraft w sreleased for flight? Why didn t the I communicatewith the student to ensure sufficient fuel quantitychecks were made after the decision w s made to flythe aircraft? Why didn t the student communicate withthe I regarding the significance of he unreliable fuelquantity indicator?


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A UH IH instructor pilot failed to compute aweight and balance computation for a daystandardization flight, after making a special effort tocomplete the flight portion which had been twicebefore delayed. f computed t would have shown anaft center of gravity. The instructor pilot allowed thepilot to maintain an excessive nose-high deceleration;as a consequence, the tail rotor blades struck the runway Why didn t the IP communicate with the studentand have him compute a weight and balance? Whydidn t the student communicate with the IP and ask

o A UH IH instructor pilot allowed the pilot, aftera demonstration and two practice nap-of-the-earthquick-stop maneuvers, to enter a third practice quickstop at a lower altitude (about 5-foot skid height) andapply incorrect flight control actions. The tail rotorblades struck the ground. Why didn t the pilot communicate with the copilot regarding the lower altitudeof the third practice quick-stop? Why didn t the copilot communicate any concern to the pilot regardingthe 5-foot skid height?2

o A copilot of a CH-47D exceeded the longitudinaland lateral cyclic limits because he lost composure dueto repeated warnings from the flight engineer. The aircraft experienced a forward transmission oil cooler fanfailure, which was misinterpreted by the flight engineeras an impending power train failure. fter receiving information from the flight engineer why didn t the pilotcommunicate with the copilot regarding an appropriatediagnosis of the problem? Why didn t the pilot communicate further with the flight engineer regarding thesymptoms? Why didn t the copilot recognize the concerns of the pilot and communicate his desire to be ofassistance?

o A copilot of a UH-IH, during an emergency landing approach with power available, placed the governorswitch into the emergency position without the pilot sknowledge while the throttle was in the full on position. The pilot compensated for the overspeed by adding collective and rolling off throttle. However, thecopilot returned the governor switch to the auto position at this point, causing further confusion and anaccident ensued. Why didn t the pilot communicate hisintent and issue instructions to the copilot during theemergency approach? Why didn t the copilot communicate his intent to place the governor into theemergency position then return it to the auto position?u s RMY AVIATION DIGEST


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is important to find a common link among thesix accidents described. The accident investigationboards listed the causes as divided attention, impropermotivation, poor judgment, lack of training, etc.Although these causes include a multitude of factorswhich must be considered, I believe effective communications is the key integrative factor.

We must begin to analyze the cockpit environmentas a management situation in which we freely shareinformation to arrive at an acceptable decision.Throughout our careers in aviation, we continue to emphasize technical instruction in the use of aircraft controls. Very little time is actually spent learning the communication skills which are needed to integrate thevarious subsystems.Looking back, now, at the accidents from theperspective of effective communications, imagine thepersonal thoughts which might have gone on in theminds of the people involved. I think it may help toswitch the governor to emergency. No need to compute a weight and balance on this one because it's justlike all the others. I ought to ask the IP about thefuel gauge write-up, but h must see it. I don't feelconfident doing this maneuver at 5 feet, but the IP isthere if a problem develops . He said it looks likea power train failure, so I better not check for anythingelse, just get it on the ground. The student hasenough to worry about so I can keep track of our fueleasy enough.

The remedial measures recommended by the accident investigation board include: unit commanders improve monitoring of instructor pilots, inform person-

nel of problems encountered and remedies via publications, revise procedures for emergencies, improvemonitoring of personnel, and pilot in command improve monitoring of copilot activities. In most caseslike these, we are talking about one-way downwardcommunication. We must work to ensure that information passes from lower levels upward just as freelyas directions come down. We are talking communications flow. We may find a pilot at fault for his actions,but if the crew withheld i n f o r ~ t i o n or passed it inan unclear manner, they should be equally at fault. Weall realize that time is usually a critical factor in mostemergencies and some of the questions asked of eachaccident may not be pertinent. The important thing isthat we become aware of the fact that effective communications flow among all crewmembers is essentialto safe flight.Take a moment now to reflect on your aviation ex-perience and answer these questions:1. Have you ever been in a situation in the cockpitwhere you had information which you felt could impact on the safety of the flight?2. f yes did you ever ot relay that information to theother crewmem bers?3. f yes what was the result of your decision towithhold this information? i.e., accidents, incidents,precautionary landing, near incidents, cockpit confusion (low fuel status, wrong landing zone, missedcheckpoints, preflight errors, inadvertent instrumentmeteorological conditions), etc.

Maybe I should havemonitore those aviatorscloser

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; :;:::: - ~ ~ ~ ~/

4. What do you think was the significant factor leadingto your decision not to share the information? i.e. proficiency of other person at the controls, your proficiency responsibility for the flight, fear of rebuttal, fearyou were not correct in your evaluation, inexperience,rank, number of flight hours, what was happening wasso obvious you thought anyone could see it, etc.5. What reasons did you give above that you now consider important enough to bet your life on?

I am certain that poor cockpit communications surfaced somewhere in your answers. A number of factors could contribute to this, among them:

4

Decisionmaking in the cockpit cannot be a totally democratic endeavor because of short decisiontimes. The trait of assertiveness among pilots faroutweighs passivity. The military teaches and places a premium onaggressiveness. There is a fine line between assertiveness in thecockpit and the perception of mutiny. Senior-subordinate relationships may affectcomm unications.

Wef rl4st begin to analyze the cockpitenvj r \ as a management s i t u a ~tion , ,e reely share informationto a n acceptable decision.

The emotional make-up of the pilot, copilot andcrew will more than likely be different. Flying with different crews can changecrewmember's relationships to each other. The measure of time. The individual with less experience may defer decisionmaking to the more experienced member. Lack of confidence of any crewmember causes theothers to try and do too much themselves Clear lines of authority are usually set. High goal orientation or desire for mission accomplishment without consideration for the othercrewmembers.

Each of these factors are made up of many parts, butthe effective sharing of information amongcrewmembers is one common link which must be considered in resolving any of these.Recognizing what is going on within the cockpit isvital to effective two-way communications. The commercial airlines have approached this problem in anumber of ways. First, they recognize the need fortraining in crew communications; second, they dosomething about it with new employees and seasonedcrews. Northwest Airlines has been using line-orientedflight training simulators to improve cockpit communications and decisionmaking. Other airlines sendindividuals to the Institute of Safety and SystemsManagement at the University of Southern Californiawhich teaches human behavior in the cockpit.NASA personnel have said that United Airlines hasa program in operation now which is far ahead of therest of the industry. I interviewed Captain Robert

rump of United's pilot training center in Denver andfound an exceptional training program in full swing.United's training course is titled Command, Leadership and Resource Management. The training program is a systematic approach to improving the



17/48

The pilot may be held accountabfelf6rhs actions but if the crew has passedinformation in an unclear manner they

too ar e responsible.

I wonderwh t happened

transfer of information among all members of theflight crew. t is not intended to be a one-shot approach. t is an integral part of the entire training effort, designed to include all members of the flight crewin every phase of their career. In the program's introduction, Richard Ferris, chairman and chief executive officer UAL, Inc., explained that: Cockpitmanagement is a team effort and the ultimate measureof success will depend upon the contribution of eachcrewmember. The captain orchestrates this effort sothat each does what has to be done, when it has tobe done, and with a knowledge of why it has to bedone. In order to make consistently good decisions,you must get input from all members of your team.Although Richard Ferris uses the term CockpitManagement in the UAL program, the key lies in theability of all crewmembers to share information freely.

The first part of the UAL program consists of selfstudy based on a modification of the Managerial GridLeadership Theory of Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.Using case studies, the participants analyze the situations to identify problem areas in communication andrecommend solutions. Affording the opportunity towork with actual cockpit transcripts, this learning program teaches that awareness is not only what is going on in the cockpit but the most effective way tomanage the situation. After completing the self-studycourse, which takes about 1 hours, a 4-day seminarprovides the participants the opportunity to look at

JULY 983

how they lead and manage, and to acquire newresource-management skills.

Actually, a number of approaches can be used to address the outcome of improving the exchange of information in the cockpit. The Managerial Grid, Situational Leadership, Vertical Dyad Linkage, Path-Goaland the Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness all are beneficial in teaching awareness andcommunication-transfer skills. It is not my intent todiscuss these theories in detail because each theory hasits strong points to offer which should be considered.The important thing to remember is that each theoryproposes a single most effective leadership style;therefore, a blend may be the best approach. f an individual is in a situation which does not fit the expectedmodel, the tendency is to abandon it. The knowledgethat different approaches are available allows a pilotto tailor the situation appropriately.

The question no longer remains, Do we need' atraining program? but When can we start one?The method to reduce accidents through an effectivetraining program which will encourage allcrewmembers to readily share information is at ourfingertips. A training program instituted at the U.S.Army Aviation Center, Ft. Rucker, AL, could be usedto train all initial entry aviators and individuals attending follow-on training. This program also could befielded for Armywide use and integrated into unit safety instruction and aircrew training programs.

5


18/48

Postscript 1983The mission called for four aircraft to move somepersonnel from one location to another. A pilot andcopilot flew to the pickup zone to make a reconnaissance of the zone and to get a detailed briefing ofthe mission. After receiving the mission briefing, thecrew flew back to their station. They did not do a routereconnaissance on their way back.Arriving at their station, the pilots briefed the crewsof the other aircraft. The map from which the briefing was given had no wire hazards marked along themission route. There was a known wire hazard at thepickup zone, which was briefed.The flight of four helicopters took off and flew alonga highway for several miles. The flight then went intoa tactical trail formation, flying about 125 feet abovethe ground and 90 knots indicated airspeed. While flying down a valley following a stream and a road enroute to the pickup zone, the PI of the lead aircraft,who was navigating, checked his map. The copilot sawa set of wires and flew over them, watching them passunder the aircraft to his right. When the copilot returned his attention to the area in front of the aircraft, hesaw more wires in his flight path. He applied aft cyclicincreased collective and yelled "Wire " over the intercom. The PI looked up about the same time and sawthe wires.

The UH-l came to rest lying on its left side with thenose and left cockpit door jammed against a tree trunk.CommentaryThe unit was operating in violation of Field Manual1-51 and its own standing operating procedure. No wirehazard map was maintained in the field operations office and a route recon was not done before a flightbeing conducted below the highest terrain feature. Hadthe pilots who had earlier flown to the pickup zonefor the mission briefing made even a cursory inspection of the route on their return to their station, notingonly the most significant wire hazards, the wires involved in the accident could have been marked on theoperations map and properly briefed. The pilots maintained individual wire hazard maps and informallydiscussed wires they had seen. Reliance on individually maintained maps and informal discussions does notprovide adequate protection from wire strikes.The 90 knots airspeed was excessive for the altitudebeing flown, particularly in an area of unknownhazards. The wires had become dark through aging,and the rising vegetation-covered terrain provided adark background for the wires, making them extremely

16

difficult to see. The high speed being flown reducedthe time available to see and react to the wires.The copilot focused his attention on the first set ofwires that they passed over. When he looked forwardagain, he did not have enough time to miss the secondset of wires. The PIC, who was also the mission commander, did not see the wires because his attention waschannelized on his map. Neither pilot saw the poleson which the wires were strung. Only two of the fourcrews in the flight saw the poles and were aware of thewires.It is now time to test your own awareness and see whatcould have been done differently in this situation.

How many individuals had information which hadan impact on the flight? What information was not relayed to othercrewmembers?

What prevented crewmembers from sharing information they had?ACCIDENTS LIKE THIS CAN BE PREVENTEDTHROUGH EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS INTHE COCKPIT.

ABOUT TH E AUTHORMajor Craig E. Geis is chief of the Organizational EffectivenessDivision at Ft. Rucker AL. He received his B.B.A from Long Is landUniversity an M BA in management from Georg ia Southern Col-lege Statesboro GA and an M A in psycho logy from Austin PeayState University Clarksville TN . Major Ge is is a graduate of theU.S . Army Command and Genera l Staff College Ft. LeavenworthKS and has commanded an aviation platoon in combat and anav iation company in Korea. He has served as a managementanalyst at Ft. Campbell KY and an assistant professor on the facu l-ty of the Department of Behavorial Science and Leadership at theUnited States Military Academy West Point NY.

u.s. ARMY AVIATION DIGEST


19/48

Hangar Talk is a quiz containing questions based onpublications applicable to Anny Aviation. The answers are atthe bottom of the page. f you did not do well, perhaps youshould get out the publication and look t over.

viation Life SupportEquipmentTM 11-5820-800-12 and TC 1-62

MSG Jackson J. R OotenDirectorate of Training and Doctrine

U S Army Transportation SchoolFort Eustis VA

1. The AN/PRe 90 radio set is capable ofoperating in one out of how many modes?a. 4 c. 2b. 3 d 5

2. When in the MeW mode, the AN/PRe 90will operate on either 243.0 MHz or 282.8MHz.a. True b. False3. Under normal conditions, the antenna of theAN/PRe 90 radio should be pointed directlytoward the rescue aircraft.a. True b. False

4. The AN/ PRe 90 is normally used as abeacon transmitter which transmits a continuous "down-going beeper" AM signal forabout how many hours?a. 14 c. 12b. 24 d. None of the above

5. When operating in temperatures below 50degrees Fahrenheit , the AN/ PRe radio andspare battery should be carried inside flightclothing to prevent cold soaking.a. True b. Falsec. Not important because batteries are stored

in refrigerators.6. The battery enclosure of the AN/ PRe 90should be cleaned with boric acid or vinegar.a. True b. False7. The night end of the Mark 13 , Mod 0 , flarecan be identified by:

a. Red plastic capb. Protrusions on the plastic capc. A washer attached to the night end lanyardd. All of the above

8. Survival vests containing signal kit , personneldistress, A/ P 25S-5A , must be stored in accordance with DOD 5154 .45 , DOD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards.a. True b. False

9. When the SRU-21 / P survival vest has thesurvival kit, individual, tropical , installed, itmust be safeguarded in accordance with AR40-61 because:a. It contains flaresb. It contains a controlled drugc. It contains classified informationd. None of the above

10. If trioxane fuel (fire starter found in somesurvival kits) is ingested, which of the following first aid measures must be taken?a. Induce vomiting, treat for shock, seekmedical helpb. Treat mouth area for burns and treat forshockc. Do not induce vomiting; drink milk , eatbread or any high protein food. Seekmedical attentiond. No first aid measures apply; trioxane isnontoxic

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s-p ele 'ZI-008-0Z8S-II WI 'V "9S-P eu d 'ZI-008-0Z8S-II WI 'V 'SS- ele 'ZI-008-0Z8S-II WI 'V 'J>S- ele 'ZI-008-0Z8S-n WI 'S:

t ele 'ZI-008-0Z 8S-II WI 'S: Zp- ele 'ZI-008-0Z8S-II WI 'S: 1

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JULY 1983 17


20/48

The oddsare on thehunderst

ON ANY SUMMER DAYthere may be as many as45,000 thunderstorms occurring around the world. Thechances that your aircraft will encounter one of these storms arequite good. In the central regionof the United States, from theCanadian border to Texas andfrom the Rockies to the easternseaboard (with the exception ofthe Northeast), a thunderstormwill occur on the average of atleast once every 3 days duringJune, July and August. (Thunderstorms are even more frequent insome areas of the Rockies andover the Florida peninsula.) It'seasy to see why almost everyaviation safety publication youpick up at this time of year contains at least one warning aboutth understorms.The Army takes a dim view ofyour gambling an aircraft and thelives of everyone aboard by flyinginto thunderstorms.

Aircraft wilt not beintentional aowninto thunder orms.

Paragraph 4-2c(3}, chapter 4, AR95-1, Army Aviation: GeneralProvisions and Flight Regulations, is quite clear on this point.The difficulty is not whetherthunderstorms should be avoidedbut rather how to avoid them.The National TransportationSafety Board reports that there isan average of 45 to 5 accidentsevery year more than half of

18

them fatal which can be attributed to thunderstorms.Thunderstorms tear wings off ofaircraft, bend control surfacesout of shape, shatter windowsand silence radios. Preventing thisfrom happening to your aircraftdepends to a large extent on you.There are three things which willhelp you avoid the hazards ofth understorms.PREFLIGHT WEATHERBRIEFINGS

It is a command responsibilityto provide a weather briefing itis your responsibility to get it.Unless you want to play you betyour life with high winds, shear,turbulence, lightning, down burstsand hail in a thunderstorm, it's aresponsibility you won't neglect.Remember, too, the weatherforecast you receive beforetakeoff will be void 1 hour and

U S ARMY SAnTY CENTIR

3 minutes from the time it isreceived. Coordination with aweather facility will be requiredto extend the forecast.I f you are flying a missionfrom one of the many sites whereweather observation andforecasting facilities are inadequate or nonexistent, a forecastcan be obtained from a civil ormilitary air weather facility.Depending on weather information from a supported unit may

make you a loser. An overeager,mission-minded unit commandermay not be the best judge ofwhether or not a mission shouldbe cancelled because of marginalweather conditions. In one case,an equally eager pilot launched aweather check mission undersuch marginal conditions. He, hiscrew and his aircraft were lost.An official weather report from a

u s ARMY AVIATION DIGEST


21/48

trained forecaster/observer wasavailable to him by telephone. Hedidn t have to gamble.MONITORING WEATHERADVISORIESA vigilant ear tuned to radioweather reports will keep youabreast of en route weather conditions as well as those at yourdestination.IN FLIGHT WEATHEROBSERVATIONSWhile you can t expect to beyour own weather forecaster,close observation of the cloudscan help you avoidthunderstorms.A irmass or convectionthunderstorms begin as fluffy,white puffs of cloud in the summer sky. There is no way topredict which of these innocentappearing clouds will turn intoraging thunderstorms. Unfortunately, they don t always fit theclassic picture of a towering,anvil-topped, black, cumulonimbus cloud and identification canbe difficult. Any rapid, verticalgrowth of such clouds must bewatched carefully.Frontal thunderstorms can beas low as a few hundred feet oras high as 10,000 feet aboveground level. The cloud topsrange from 25,000 to 45,000 feetor higher. They form more slowlythan airmass thunderstorms, arelarger (up to 30 miles in diameterat the base) and are more concentrated. These thunderstormsare longer-lived than other typesand several can be hidden in thestratiform clouds of a front. Fortunately, the presence and movement of frontal thunderstormscan be forecast with considerableaccuracy. This is one area wherethe preflight briefing pays foritself.Squall lines of thunderstormscan extend over 1 miles andreach up to 60,000 feet. Stormsin a squall line are particularlyvicious and they are too closelylinked to penetrate safely. You

JULY 983

may also encounter tornadoesalong their trailing edges. Squalllines occur most often in latesummer afternoons.Mesoscale convective complexMCC) is a type of thunderstormsystem which has only recentlybeen given the attention itdeserves. These storms developrapidly and persist from aminimum of 6 hours to as longas 12 hours. MCCs appear togrow in areas of favorable flyingconditions (weak pressure gradients and light winds). Upper aircharts may even indicate theMCC has developed within aridge of high pressure. However,detailed analysis bymeteorologists shows the areaswere usually unstable, with anupper level disturbance embeddedin the winds at higher altitudes.MCCs are usually circular orelliptical in shape. They can be1 times the size of an airmassth understorm; large enough tocover one or several states. Therapid development, tremendoussize and lingering habits of theMCC give it a substantial impacton flight planning and operations. Your best bet is to sit thismonster out on the ground.Tornadoes form when updraftsin thunderstorms create a rotatingmotion at the cloud base. Theparticularly violent winds in thesefunnel-shaped clouds may bemoving at 200 miles an hour. Invisible tornadic vortices mayoccur below the base ofthunderstorms, but they can alsooccur as far as 20 nautical milesfrom the rain and lightningassociated with storms. Vorticesare not visible on radar but thedust they pick up over land, orspouts they form over water, areclues to the presence of thesedangerous weather phenomena.The operator s manual for youraircraft includes RECOMMENDED procedures to be used forthunderstorm penetration whenavoidance is impossible, but any

safety specialist will tell you thereare no SAFE procedures for fly-ing through thunderstorms. Pilotswho have inadvertently flownthrough them-and survived-cantell you it is an experience youcan well do without.Trying to climb over athunderstorm or penetrate between the storms of a squall lineis risky. f you attempt to slipunder the storm, the violentwinds blowing down and outfrom behind and up and into thestorm in front may pull your aircraft into it. Circumnavigation ofa large storm may exhaust yourfuel. Trying to go around one onthe downwind side can involveyou in hail and lightning. North

west Airlines Captain WilliamKenmir developed this useful ruleof thumb several years ago: Forevery knot of wind at your flightlevel, stay one nautical mile awayfrom the downside of the s t o r m ~The odds of winning alwaysfavor the thunderstorm. Don tgamble. Get that preflightweather briefing, stay alert to enroute weather advisories and bevigilant in your in-flight observations. The last minutes of oneflight were described this way bywitnesses, Parts of the aircraftwere falling from low-ceilingclouds, followed by the aircraftwhich looked like it had nowings on iC This pilot hadreceived a severe weather warningbut he did not ask for help incircumnavigating the heavy turbulence and continued his flight.The aircraft was subjected tostresses for which it was notdesigned. There were nosurvivors.

Provisions and Flight Regulations:

9


22/48

PEARI SPersanalEquipmentAndRescuelsurwval owdbwn

Antiexposure SuitsHis hands became very cold, making some survivalkit items difficult to manipulate after he had been in

the raft 30 to 40 minutes. The pilot stated that the antiexposure suit he wore was instrumental in his saferecovery, and long-term survival would have been

doubtful without it. Sea temperature was 46 degreesFahrenheit. This story certainly tells it all about overwater flying. Without an antiexposure suit, one is risking safe recovery after a safe escape from a downedaircraft. Cold water works fast on rendering the unprotected body useless. Life supporters must continueto preach the word and ensure the suits are properly maintained for use. Also, don't forget to packsome winter gloves in the kit. The aircrew personnelwill appreciate that little extra.Nomex Flight Clothing

Clearly and briefly stated, fire protective (Nomex)clothing for aircrew personnel is it All others are outSufficient time has elapsed for all aviation units tobudget and procure Nomex flying clothing. The nylonflight jacket is no longer authorized for wear by aircrew personnel in flight. The N-2B nylon winter parkais currently used by aircrew personnel in Alaska andsome cold weather regions. Unfortunately, this parkacontains nylon. We are taking action to adopt the U.S.Air Force CWU-45/P Nomex winter jacket and forthe information of all concerned the CLO valuesfor the N-2B and the CWU-45/P are the same.Anti-G ProtectionFor those of you who are undergoing test pilot training for high performance aircraft, or who are alreadyassigned to Edwards AFB, CA, or other test sites requiring anti-G suit protection, just remember that ablackout from loss of G protection is an averageof 5 seconds. Use that G suit when you need it.Questions and AnswersDear PEARL I have heard some scuttlebutt thatthere is a move to authorize the removal of lifesavingfire extinguishers from someArmy aircraft Could thisbe true?No, this is not true, although we were privy to a letter which had asked for authority to eliminate fire extinguishers and first aid kits because they wanted toput fuel or ammo in for the weight that would besaved. I would like to quote the requirement for fire

CONSOLIDA TE GLOSSARY Page 2820 u s RMY VI TION DIGEST


23/48

extinguishers and first aid kits and this will be clarifiedin a soon to be published Army Regulation 95-XXX,

The Army Aviation Life Support Equipment SystemProgram. Chapter 2, Aviation Life Support Equipment Requirements, paragraph 2-2, is quoted: Firstaid kits will be installed in Army aircraft in accordancewith TM 55-1500-328-25 and in the minimum quantities specified in CTA 8-100. Medical supplies will beupdated, deleted or extended in accordance with SB8-75. Paragraph 2 3 covering fire extinguishers is alsoquoted: Each Army aircraft will have a minimum ofone currently inspected, operable fire extinguisher (ofthe proper type identified in the appropriate aircraftTM) per aircrew and passenger compartment installedand accessible during all flights and while conductingrun-up procedures. PEARL is most happy to respondto questions such as these. Be looking for the newALSE regulation expected to be fielded in the nearfuture.

Dear PEARL, I have recently been assigned responsibility as the unit ALSE officer. Can you tell me whereI can get copies o f all the PEARL articles?We agree that PEARL is very important to the

ALSE area and no red-blooded Army aircrew personshould ever be caught without PEARL. We havealways recommended that you read PEARL and keepthe articles handy. You can start by first making sureyou receive the Army A viation Digest. All aviationunits do receive copies and unfortunately they also lovePEARL, but ask your commander to be sure you getcopies so you can start a PEARL library of ALSE.As time will allow, we will put together a pamphletof PEARL articles and make them available to ALSEofficers and their personnel. We cannot give you adefinite date when this will be completed, but if youwill identify yourself and give us your address, we willcompile a listing. Please be sure your request identifiesPEARL's ALSE pamphlet.Dear PEARL, now that summer is here would youplease resurface your article on scuba diving? Can flying after scuba diving cause the bends at altitudesless than lO OOOfeet which is where most of he ArmyAviation's people fly?

We are always happy to oblige, so here it is. Fly-ing After Scuba Diving Can Be Dangerous. Are youaware that flying your plane to a day of scuba divingat the lake or seashore and then flying home in yourcivilian aircraft, all within a few hours' time can bedangerous, particularly if you have been diving todepths for any length of time? Under the increasedpressure of the water, excess nitrogen is absorbed into your system. f sufficient time has not lapsed priorto takeoff for your system to rid itself of this excessgas, you may experience the 'bends' at altitudes lessthan 10,000 feet where most Army aircraft and lightplanes fly. This is another information article andPEARL is sure it will be helpful.Dear PEARL, you have always given us the straightpoop so here is my question and I am sure othersalso would appreciate this information. Where doesone wear the hunting knife on their SRU-21IP survival vest?

PEARL has taken a long, hard look at your question and as previously stated, There is no best placenor can PEARL recommend such a place since itdepends upon the type of aircraft you are flying in andthe physical size of the individua l. The survival knifeshould be in the best location for you, and the bestplace that does not interfere with the flight controlsand a place that will ensure the knife does not comeout of its sheath during a crash. It must be readily accessible to you during a post crash situation. Can theknife be reached if you have one arm that is severelyinjured? Some aircrewmembers are wearing the survival knife on their back macho, maybe, but if itis practical then why not? At least this article will getus all thinking. At least let us be sure we mountthe knife so it remains in its sheath and so that it isreadily accessible in a crash/survival sequence. Hopethis little soul searching will do it for you.

Do you have a PEARL s photo to nominate for publicationin the Aviation Digest? Send it to Editor, U S Army AviationDigest P.O. Drawer P Ft. Rucker, L 36362.

If you have a question about personal equipment or rescue/survival gear write PEARL DARCOM ATTN: DRCPO-ALSE4300 Goodfellow Blvd. St. Louis MO 63120 or call AUTOVON 693-3307 or Commercial 314-263-3307

JULY 983 2


24/48

Mr. John HoganDirectorate of Training Developments

New EquipmentTraining Development Branch

U S Army Aviation CenterFort Rucker AL

CONSOLIDATED GLOSSARY Page 8

tissue of theeye most susceptibleregion to damageUltraviolet CorneaVisible RetinaNear-Infrared RetinaFar-Infrared Cornea

FIGURE 2: Spectral regions of laseroutputs and that part ofthe eye most susceptibleto damage.

asers are being used tan increasing rate throughout thecivilian community as well as themilitary establishments. A few ex-amples of civilian use of lasers are:construction, surgery, engraving andalignment of instruments. Althoughstill in its infancy, laser technologyhas excited the imagination of bothscientists nd the public at largebecause its possible uses are so manyand so diverse. In the military, lasertechnology is being continually ap-plied in the development of newweapon systems. Range finding,missile guidance, target designationand communication systems are justa few examples.With the widespread use of lasersin the Army, it is important foreveryone associated with them to beaware th t potential hazards existwith laser use or ,misuse. A laser isnot a toy or another light source forseeing in the dark. Serious injurycan occur to anyone unaware of thebiological effects of laser radiation.In fact, the same philosophy used in

FIGURE 1: Visible light is a narrow band in theelectromagnetic spectrum.

ultr violet ultr violet

handling a loaded gun should be ap-plied when using an activated laser.The term l ser is an acronymderived from light amplification bysimulated emission of radiation.The common denominator of alllaser systems is the emission of anunusual type of light. Light is aform of electromagnetic radiationnd represents an extremely narrow

b nd in the middle of the spectrumfigure 1 .Laser radiation results from asource of highly collimated paral-leled) extremely intense monochro-matic one color) light. Laser lightdiffers from conventional light emit-ters primarily in its ability to attainhighly coherent light. The increaseddirectional intensity of light gen-erated by a laser results in a concen-trated light beam at a considerabledistance. t is the directional inten-sity of the light th t presents bio-logical implications nd createshazards.When laser light strikes thehuman body, a portion of that light


25/48

absorbed by the body tissues.of theradiation, the absorbed energy canause injury. This article does notddress the technical aspects ofasers but is intended to create anwareness of their capability to

ause injury.Laser hazards can be categorizednto four groups: Radiation. Corneal or retinalburns or both), depending uponength figure 2), can ocor lenticular opacities cata

of radiation. Skin burns canacute exposure to a highof optical radiation. At some

skin cancer) may Chemical. Laser induced reacrelease hazardous particlesgaseous fumes. Electrical. Lethal electricalshock) hazards may be present,

particularly with high-poweredsystems. Secondary These includecryogenic coolants, excessive noise,x-radiation from faulty high voltagepower supplies, explosions from optical pumps and fire hazards.Since the eye is designed in anatural environment to collect andconcentrate light on the retina, itshould come as no surprise that itis the most sensitive organ of thehuman body to laser radiation. Certain wavelength ranges in the visible

and near-infrared part of the spectrum are transmitted through theocular media and focused on the

im gespoton retin

retina. Although lasers can behazardous to any part of the body,this article discusses only eyehazards because they can occur atmuch lower power levels.The structure of the eye figure 3allows parallel rays of light to befocused to a very small area on theretina. Certain parts of the eye aremore sensitive to impairment fromlaser beams than other partsbecause of their ability to absorblight in a given spectral region. Thisis shown in figure 4. Notice that theshort-ultraviolet region is absorbedby the cornea and does not penetrate to the more sensitive retina.

corne

p r llel r yslensFIGURE : Focusing o parallel rays in the eye

Safety azards


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short ultr violetandfar infr redlong ultr violet

FIGURE 4: Light rays and the human eye.

A Shortultraviolet and farinfrared lightrays are absorbed at the cornea.B Longultraviolet light rays are absorbedat the cornea and the lens.

near infr redandvisible l ightC Nearinfrared and visible light rays arerefracted at the cornea and lens andabsorbed at the retina.

The visible spectrum and nearinfrared are transmitted by the optical components of the eye with little loss. This radiation is thenrefracted by the eye to a spot on theretina. Such focusing can cause intensities high enough to damage theretina.

This, however, is not the normalsituation, and lasers that powerfulshould have sufficient safeguards toavoid this type injury. However,there is a proliferation of low-powerlasers on the market today, andsome of these can even be built athome. A nominal 2-milliwatt laserbeam can be focused by the eyecomponents to a spot on the retinasmaller than a blood cell. This concentrated energy can cause damageto the retina. o avoid this type injury , lasers should be handled withextreme caution at all times.

Laser beams can be reflected byseveral objects such as a mirror ora flat chrome piece. This is calledspecular reflection (figure 6)Smooth, flat surfaces like this wilonly change the direction of thebeam and not the characteristics othe beam itself. f the reflected beamenters the eye, the hazard is almosthe same as direct intrabeamviewing.Another less serious hazard is di ffused reflections (figure 7) . A diffuse reflector is a rough reflectingsurface, such as a piece of paperthat reflects light randomly in aldirections and does not maintain theinternal order of a light beam. Eachsurface element of a diffuse reflector acts essentially like a tiny mirror. The random construction of thesurface elements causes light to bereflected in all directions. The irradiance, therefore, is reduced considerably because only a small fraction of the original laser beamenergy enters the eye, and it is distributed over a larger area of theretina. Viewing diffused reflectionsis generally a serious problem onlywith high-powered lasers.

This article's approach is centeredon lasers that are not considered eyesafe. You the reader should respecand develop safe practices aroundthese type lasers.Eye-safe lasers are generally lowpowered and operate outside thvisible and near-infrared regionsEye-safe lasers are now being usedin the Army in various roles. Anyunfounded fear about this type lase

Although near-infrared is focusedto some extent on the retina, otherparts of the eye absorb some of theradiation and can suffer damage.The far-infrared, like the shortultraviolet, will affect only the cornea because of its ability to absorbat these wavelengths. Although farinfrared is absorbed at the surfaceof the eye, some middle-infraredpenetrates deeper and can causeglass blower's cataract. This typeof cataract is believed to be due toa chronic exposure to infraredradiation.

FIGURE 5: Intrabeam viewing onditions

Viewing laser beams. Intrabeamviewing is the most dangerous to anobserver (figure 5). f the power output is high enough, the eyeball canexplode during intrabeam viewing.

24

laser corneaD ._..............t. ...................... : : : : : : : ~ :.. : .......... .-.......................................................................................................:. t .y.-.,.-.. ----- ..... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ : : : v .: .........._... -- mWlaser retInabeam

U.S. ARMY AVIATION DIGEST


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mirror ~l ser direct be mD .. ---.-. ,............................................................................. ............. ........................................... .~ < i : : : : : : : : : : : :~ : : : : : : : : ~

~ : : : a -~ ~ ~ V : : : ~ v:::. ,..,....FIGU RE 6: Specular reflection.

iffusel 8f1ector .\...D w. : ~ ; ; ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ; }............. .... ... ...... ... . . . :::: : :;;:?f; : ~ : : : : i : ~

~ : : i t : : : ; :a

could inhibit a soldier's performance during training exercises. Forexample, MILES is a system thatsubstitutes low-power, eye-safe lasersfor live rounds of ammunition during field exercises at the NationalTraining Center.Eye protection. Personnel whoseassignments require exposure tolaser beams must be furnishedsuitable laser safety goggles. Thesegoggles are designed to protectagainst the wavelength of the laserbeing used and are of sufficient optical density for the hazard. Lensesalso may be curved to reduce

JULY 1983

: : : : : : ~ : ~ ~ .:'~ : : : ; : : ~ ~... . : : : : . ~ ...

; : ~ : .. .

FIGURE 7: Diffused reflection.

specular reflection hazards.Safety procedures The followingprocedures should be used aroundall lasers, regardless of their outputpower. Avoid looking directly into anylaser beam or at its reflection. Remove all unnecessaryspecular (shiny) reflective surfaces from the work area. Operate lasers only in welldefined areas with controlledaccess and only under thedirect supervision of a personwho knows the hazardsinvolved.

Post the area with appropriatesigns to alert people passingthrough the area that a poten-tial hazard exists. ' Ensure the laser system is inaccessible to unauthorizedpersonnel. Report any accident im-mediately to the responsiblemedical authority.Additional information on lasersafety may be obtained from theLaser-Microwave Division, U.S.

rmy Environmental HygieneAgency, Aberdeen Proving Ground,MD2101O.

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J;SERS have many applications for the battlefieldsof the future and may profoundly change thetactics required to wage war successfully. Thelaser can be used to identify the exact range to any visible target designate which target a smart weaponshould destroy and blind or destroy a target by itself.

In the minds of most people lasers create an imageof a tight needle beam of light that can be seen as itshoots from the weapon to the target which instantlydisappears in a gigantic violent explosion. f the targetis a person he or she simply fades away because noone cares to watch a body explode. These images areperpetuated by Hollywood and television writersbecause they are more spectacular than real-life effectsand the audience can readily tell that a laser has beenused.In truth however many lasers with a mili tary usecannot be seen because they do not operate in the visible light spectrum. You never know that they are being used unless you are the target or you have specialdetection gear. f you could see a laser beam in useyou might be surprised at its size. While the diameterof a laser beam may start out small by the time thebeam reaches a target 3 km away it may cover an areathe size of a basketball. The beam is strongest near thecenter but the beam does diverge.The effect a laser has on a target is also much different than the Hollywood image and depends uponthe amount of energy striking the target over a relativelength of time. These effects can range from temporaryblindness or sunburned skin at mild energy levels tomelting metal at very high energy levels. Typical effects

Captain P) Dale L RadtkeThreat Branch

Directorate of Combat DevelopmentsU S Army Aviation Center

Fort Rucker AL

at moderate energy levels would include permanentblindness igniting military clothing and paint char-ring skin melting Plexiglas and wires and glazing optical devices. Spectacular explosions would probablynever occur unless a high-energy beam makes contactwith a fuel cell or possibly a missile warhead.

It is ironic that the easiest damaging effect to obtain with a laser blinding is also the most personallyterrifying. Like a sunburn the pain associated withlaser damage to the eyes may not be felt until long afterthe damage has been done. Because many battlefieldlasers are not visible the first indication you receivethat your eyes have been damaged may be blurred vision or total blackout. You will not know if you aretemporarily or permanently blinded; only that you cannot see. The shock of this realization can bedevastating especially to pilots all of whom rely heavilyon their eyes. In a hovering helicopter the combination of unexpected blindness and shock or panic willprove to be deadly.

An individual does not have to look in the directionof a laser to receive its blinding effects. In October 1981a police helicopter flying near Los Angeles was inadvertently exposed to an argon laser. Even thoughonly one pilot was looking in the direction of the laserboth pilots were blinded because of reflections off thePlexiglas and dash. Luckily for them they had sufficient altitude and one pilot regained his vision afterabout 20 seconds.

Lasers that operate in the visible portion of the lightspectrum usually damage the retina of the eye and thatdamage may be temporary at lower energy levels or ex-

CONSOLIDA TE GLOSSARY Page 826 u s RMY AVIATION DIGEST


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FIGURE 1: Propagation characteristics for 1 second exposure time using a 200 kilowatt pulsed carbondioxide high energy laser.Range (km)1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0

Beam Diameter (cm) 12 28 49 68FI uence (j/cm2)* 1,000 200 57.5 24.7 /cm 2:joule(s) per centimeter squared

FIGURE 2: Biological effects from a 1second exposure to a high energy laser.

Effect FluenceRequiredCutting with C02 laser surgical knifeImmediate charring of skin tissueImmediate blistering

80,000 j/cm220 j/cm2

7.8 j/cm28 j/cm2Permanent corneal scarring

posure for short durations. However, lasers that operatein the ultraviolet or infrared spectrum damage the cor-nea and that damage is usually permanent. Moreenergy, or a longer dwell time on target, is required todamage the cornea. Lasers operating in the visible lightspectrum are often referred to as n b nd (to the humaneye lasers, while all others are out of band lasers.

Laser range finders can greatly increase the probabili-ty of achieving first round hit capabilities for tanks,helicopters and artillery. t the same time, LRFs havethe capability to damage an individual s eyes. The ex-tent of damage from a currently fielded LRF can varyfrom possible permanent blindness at 500 meters totemporary blindness at 2 km. For an individual look-ing through any type of magnifying optics, the effectsand ranges are greatly increased. Laser designators usemore power than most LRFs, creating more damageto eyes out to even greater distances.A laser weapon is capable of obtaining a hard killor a soft kill, with a hard kill being the actual destruc-tion of the target, such as shooting down a helicopter.A soft kill would be damaging the optics or gunner seyes causing a mission abort. The maximum range forobtaining a soft kill is usually much greater than thehard kill effective range. Once a laser weapon systemacquires a target by radar or visual means, it can be

JULY 1983

kept on target automatically by tracking the reflectionof the laser, if equipped with hot spot trackingcapabilities.

To better understand the devastating effects apostulated high energy laser might have, refer to figures1 and 2. This information is derived from a LettermanArmy Institute of Research study (no such weaponsystem currently exists) of a carbon dioxide laserweapon system and includes considerations of bloom,jitter and turbulence. Notice in figure 1 that the beamdiameter at 3 km is about 1 foot. t 6 km, the beamdiameter is well over 2 feet and 24.7 j/cm2 are receivedby the target each second. From figure 2, only 8 j/cm2are required for the blinding.The many military uses for lasers and their possibleeffects on rotary wing aircraft will require a great manychanges in helicopter tactics for the future. The pur-pose of this article has been to arm you with theknowledge of these effects, and to stimulate thoughton what changes will be required. G

.Why Me? - The Threat Officer, April 1983 page

35 item number 4 should have read: DEP CDRUSACACDA, ATTN: ATZL-CAT-T; AUTOVON552-3366

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C O N S O L I D T E D G L O S S R YAAMAA Army Aviation Missi on DOD Department of Defense NASA National AeronauticsArea Analysis DOES Directorate of Evalua- and Spaceac alternate current tion and Administration

ACAP Advanced Composite Standardization NASP National AirspaceAirframe Program EER enlisted evaluation System PlanACT air cavalry troop report NATO North tlantic Treaty

ADOCS Advanced Digital/Op- FAA Federal Aviation Organ zat ontical Control System Admin stration NBC nuclear, biolog ical andAHC attack helicopte r

FAC flight activity category chemicalcompany FAAO field artillery aerial NCO noncommissioned

AHD attack helicopte r observation officerdetachment FM field manual NCOIC noncommissioned of-ficer in chargeAIR CAY DET air cavalry detachment FM frequency modulated NOE nap-of-the-earthALSE aviation life support GOVequipment governor NOTAR no tail rotorGPS Global Position/Preci -AM amplitude modulated sion System NSN national stock numberAMOC Aircraft Maintenance GSAD general support aviation NVA North Vietnamese ArmyOfficer Course detachment NVG night vision goggles

AAPRSO Army Aviation Person- HAl Helicopter Association OER officer evaluation reportnel Requirements for InternationalSustained Operations PIC pilot in commandHEL high energy laserAPRT Army physica l report POM program objectivetest HHD headquarters and head- memorandumAR Army regulation quarters detachment RAM reliability, availabilityHLH heavy lift helicopter and maintainabilityARNG Army National Guard HP horsepower R D research andARRADCOM U.S . Army) Armament HPH developmentResearch and high performanceDevelopment helicopter rpm revolutions per minuteCommand HODA Headquarters , Depart- SAVIM survivabilit y and

ARTEP Army Training and ment of the Army vulnerability improve-Evaluation Program lAW in accordance with ment modificationASI additional skill identifier IFR instrument flight rules SB supply bulletin

ATC air traffic control IP instructor pilot SOT skill qualification testATL Applied Technology IRR Individual Ready SUST BN susta inment batta lionLaboratory Reserve TAMC transportation aircraft

ATM aircrew training manual ITR integrated technology maintenanceATK HEL DET attack helicopter rotor

companydetachment km kilometer

TAMD transportat ion aircraftmaintenanceAVLABs Aviation Materiel j/cm2 joule(s) per centimeter detachmentLaboratories squared TC training circular

AVRADCOM U.S. Army) Aviation laser light amplification byResearch and simulated emission TG task groupDevelopment LES leave and earnings TM training manualCommand statement TOC tactical operationsBN battalion LHX Light Helicopter Family center

CAP Composite Aircraft loran long-range navigation TOE tables of organizationProgram LRF laser rangefinders and equipmentCAS3 Combined Arms and TRADOC U .S. Army) TrainingServices Staff School MCW modulated con- and Doctrinetinuous wave CommandCBAA Cavalry Brigade (AirAttack) MFO Multinational Force and TRECOM Transportation andCDR commander Observers Engineer Command

CEWI MHC medium helicopter TSARCOM U.S. Army) Troop Sup-combat electronic war-fare and intelligence company port and AviationMHz megahertz Materiel ReadinessCGSC Command and General CommandStaff College MILPERCEN Military PersonnelCenter USAASO U.S. Army Aeronauticalcm centimeter mm millimeter Services OfficeCMF career management USAF United States Air Forcefield MMS mast-mounted sightCSAC combat support avia- MOPP mission oriented protec- USN

United States Navytion company tion posture UTTAS utility tactical transport

CTA common table of MTDE Major Turboshaftaircraft system

allowances Demonstrator WALC Worldwide AviationEngine Logistics ConferenceDA Department of the Army NAR National Airspace WSPS Wire Strike ProtectionDAC division aviation Review Systemcompany NAS National Airspace YG year groupdc direct current SystemDIV division


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ersonnel ChangesMilitary Personnel Center has announced major personnel changes which should be of interest to all Officer Personnel Management Directorate managed officers. Major Chris Sieving, Aviation Plans and Prorams Branch, will be reassigned to Germany this

month; he will be replaced by Major Tom Stewart whowill arrive from the Command and General Staff College. Captain David Schock has arrived after a tourin the 25th Infantry Division and will become theSpecialty Code 15 captains overseas assignment officer He replaces Major Vic Sathre who was reassignedo Korea in June.dditional Skill Identifier Code 8As part of an ongoing effort to identify critical

sk llsleducational background within our officerorps, MILPERCEN recently added the ASI code 6Hto the records of 460 officers . ASI 6H designateseronautical engineers. t was added to the record ofach officer who has completed either an under

or graduate level degree in the disciplines ofither aeronautical or aerospace engineering. No officer will be assigned to a position requiringeronautical engineering skills based solely uponossession of this AS . The ASI is used as a tool,rimarily by personnel managers, to aid in the overall

match the right officer to the right posiion. Further information is available from MajoreLoach, AUTOVON 221-8156.

CAS 3 ChangesCompletion of the Combined Arms and ServicesStaff School is not mandatory for Year Group 1976captains as was r p o r t ~ in this column in May. CAS3is mandatory for all captains in YG 1977 andsubsequent.

So-revised prerequisites are as follows: Be in YG 1977 or subsequent Be an advanced course graduate and not haveentered 10th year active federal commissionedservice. Successfully complete Phase I and the comprehensive examination.Officers in YGs 1977 and 1978 who have availabili-

JULY 983

ty dates between now and April 1984 should contacttheir professional development officers to discussCAS 3 programing.Evaluation Reports to Contain Additional DataThe Officer and Enlisted Evaluation ReportingSystems were changed 1 May 1983 to include ArmyPhysical Readiness Test performance andheight/weight data on OERs, EERs and most serviceschool academic evaluation reports.The change is made as part of the Army's continuing emphasis on physical fitness and weight control.Further, it reflects selection board desire to be able tocheck soldiers' compliance with physical fitness andweight standards.

APRT performance data will be entered as PASS,FAIL or PROFILE and the date of the most recentAPRT or date the profile was awarded.Height and weight expressed in inches and pounds(example 71/185 will be entered on the evaluationform as of the last rated day covered by that report.The height/weight data will be followed by the wordYES or NO to indicate the individual's compliancewith the standards of AR 600-9, Army Weight Control Program which became effective 15 April 1983.The rater will be required to make narrative comments for APRT entries of FAIL or PROFILE andfor height/weight entries with a NO indicating a weightthat exceeds the standards of AR 600-9. The purposeof these comments is to explain progress in a weightcontrol program, ability to perform assigned dutieswith a PROFILE entry or medical exception toregulatory requirements.The permanent change to the applicable regulationswas distributed to the field during April 1983. Evaluation reports will no longer be accepted without APRTand height/weight data entries.In another recent change affecting OERs, theminimum period for complete-the-record OERs hasbeen extended to require 180 calendar days in the sameduty position under the same rater. This changebecame effective with an immediate action changepublished 17 December 1982, and applied to allcomplete-the-record OERs submitted for 15 December1982. e z

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REPORTINGFINALLate News From ArmyAviation Activities

FROM JAPANAwards of Excellence. During a ceremony atCamp lama's Rankin Army Airfield recently, theU.S. Army Aviation Detachment, Japan waspresented two Department of the Army AccidentPrevention Awards of Excellence plaques.The awards covered 3-year periods betweenJuly 1976 to June 1979 and July 1979 to June1982. In addition, the detachment has a previousaward indicating an accident-free era from July1970 through June 1976, making a total of 12years of accident-free flying.

For one of the smallest aviation units in theArmy our pilots fly about twice as many hoursas aviators in other Army Aviation units;' commented CW4 Earle C. Irwin, flight safety officer.The safety record is very impressive:'The Camp lama aviation unit maintains a7-day, 24-hour operation that includes more than50 aviation personnel who support the missionof transporting individuals on medical evacuationflights, emergency medical evacuation flights,U.S. Army, Navy and Air Force personnel in Japanand dignitaries that visit Camp lamaFROM GERMANYMr. Perfect. Sergeant Glen Swartz got thenickname Mr. Perfect from the troops he supervises. He laughs at the title, saying nobody isperfect. That might be true, but it sure seems he'sa lot closer to perfection than most.Sergeant Swartz, NCOIC of the 59th Air Traffic Control Battalion's communications and electronics section, was recently inducted into theSGT Morales Club. You don't need to be perfectto make the club, but you've got to be doingsomething right.The SGT Morales Club is an organization comprised of NCOs who've consistently demonstrated leadership traits, professionalism and genuine regard for the welfare of their subordinatesin keeping with the standards of SGT Morales, a

3

fictitious name for a real-life NCO.What that means in simpler terms is that inductees must supervise at least three troops, doit well, and maintain a real interest in their training, welfare and morale.Sergeant Swartz exhibited all those traits, andafter being recommended for induction into theclub went through several selection boardswhich all agreed he was top-notch enough toearn a place in the elite 1,200-member SGTMorales Club.(Richard Saunders, PAO, 5th Signal Command)FROM WASHINGTONSinai Rotation. About 800 soldiers of the 2dBattalion, 327th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division

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Army Aviation Digest - Jul 1983

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