Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater in Vietnam_ an Overview And

7/30/2019 Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater in Vietnam_ an Overview And

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Claremont Colleges

Scholarship @ Claremont

Pomona Senior Teses Pomona Student Scholarship

5-1-2012

Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater inVietnam: An Overview and Analysis of the

Historical, Cultural, Economic, and PoliticalParameters in the Success of Various MitigationOptionsTuy M. LyPomona College

Tis Open Access Senior Tesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Pomona Student Scholarship at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been

accepted for inclusion in Pomona Senior Teses by an authorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact

[email protected].

Recommended CitationLy, Tuy M., "Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater in Vietnam: An Overview and Analysis of the Historical, Cultural, Economic,and Political Parameters in the Success of Various Mitigation Options" (2012).Pomona Senior Teses. Paper 41.hp://scholarship.claremont.edu/pomona_theses/41
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ArsenicContaminationinGroundwaterinVietnamAnOverviewandAnalysisofHistorical,

Cultural,Economic,andPoliticalParametersin

theSuccessofVariousMitigationOptions

THUYMINHLY

InpartialfulfillmentofaBachelorofArtsDegreeinEnvironmentalAnalysis,

201112academicyear,PomonaCollege,Claremont,California

READERS:ProfessorCharMiller

ProfessorCharlesTaylor


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TableofContentsAbstract.... 2

Background. 4

WhatisArsenic? 4 ToxicityofArsenicandEffectsonHumanHealth.. 4 SourcesofArsenicinGroundwater. 7

WhyVietnam?.... 11

AdditionalSourcesofArsenicinGroundwater 11 CurrentSituationofArsenicContaminationinVietnam.. 16

Economic,Political,andCulturalParametersofVietnam. 20

EconomicParameters 21 PoliticalParameters. 23 CulturalParameters 24 ParametersandIdealTreatmentofArsenicContaminationinVietnam 26

AvailableSolutionsandItsFeasibilityforVietnam.. 27

MitigationofGroundwaterforDrinkingPurposes 29 MitigationofGroundwaterforIrrigationandCrops 32

RecommendationsforActiontoRemedyArsenicContamination 34

AppendixI:SchematicsofVariousTreatmentTechnologies.. 37


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ABSTRACT

Althougharsenic isnaturallypresent in theenvironment,99%ofhumanexposure to

arsenicisthroughingestion. Throughouthistory,arsenicisknownasthekingofpoisons;itis

mutagenic,carcinogenic,andteratogenic. Eveninsmallerconcentrations,itaccumulatesinthe

bodyandtakesdecadesbeforeanyphysicalsymptomsofarsenicpoisoningshows. According

totheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),thesafeconcentrationofarsenicindrinkingwateris

10g/L. However,thislimitisoftentimesignoreduntilitisdecadestoolateandpeoplebegin

showingsymptomsofhavingbeenpoisoned.

This is thecurrentsituation forVietnam,whose legalarsenicconcentration limit is50

g/L, five times higher than the WHO guidelines. Groundwater in Vietnam was already

naturallyhigh inarsenicduetoarsenicrichsoilsreleasingarsenic intogroundwater. Then, in

thepasthalfcentury,with theuseofarsenicladenherbicidesdispersedduring theVietnam

War and subsequent industrial developments, the levels of bioavailable arsenicals has

dangerouslyspiked. Withtheproliferationofgovernmentsubsidizedshallowtubewellsinthe

past two decades, shallow groundwater has become the primary source for drinking and

irrigationwater inVietnam. This isafrighteningtrend,becausethisgroundwaterhasarsenic

concentrationsup to3050g/L,primarily in the+3and+5oxidationstates, themostreadily

availableoxidationstatesforbioaccumulation.

This thesis argues that measures must be taken immediately to remedy the high

concentrationofarsenic ingroundwater,which inVietnam istheprimaryand, insomecases,

thesolesourceofwaterfordomesticconsumptionandagriculturalproduction. Althoughthere

arenumerous technologiesavailable for treatingarsenic ingroundwater,notallof themare


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suitedforVietnam. Byanalyzingthehistorical,cultural,economic,andpoliticalparametersof

Vietnam, several optimal treatments of groundwater for drinking water emerged as most

recommended, a classification that is based on their local suitability, social acceptability,

financialfeasibility,andgovernmentalsupport. Furtherresearchonirrigationwatertreatment

isproposeddue to theneed for sustainable cropproduction, the safe ingestionof rice and

vegetables,and thecontinuedgrowthofVietnamseconomy,which isheavilydependenton

agriculture.


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BACKGROUNDWhatIsArsenic?

Arsenic isanaturalelementpresent intheatmosphere,pedosphere,hydrosphereand

biosphere. It is the twentiethmostabundantelement in theearths crust, fourteenthmost

abundantinseawater,andtwelfthmostabundantinthehumanbody. Therearefouroxidation

statesofArsenic: 3,0,+3,+5. Gaseousarsine, intheformofAsH3, ischaracteristicofthe 3

oxidation state; elemental arsenic is characteristic of the 0 oxidation state; arsenite is

characteristicofthe+3oxidationstate;andarsenateischaracteristicofthe+5oxidationstate

(Nguyen,2008). Arsenic iswatersolubleand isalmostnever in itselementalform,rather, it

forms compounds; these compounds are called arsenicals (Wang and Mai, 2004). From a

geochemicalstandpoint,arsenicalsareoftenassociatedwithsulphurousmineralsmadeupof

sulphur,iron,gold,silver,copper,antimony,nickel,andcobalt;itisdetectedinmorethan200

differentminerals(Lievremont,etal.,2009).

ToxicityofArsenicandEffectsonHumanHealthAlthougharsenic isthetwelfthmostabundantelementinthehumanbody,it ishighly

toxic in any excess amounts. Arsenic is known as the King of Poisons and is mutagenic,

carcinogenic,andteratogenic(Altug,2003). Anelementalarsenicconcentrationof48g/L is

the

lethal

dose

for

rats,

which

roughly

translates

to

125

mg

lethal

dosage

for

an

average

middleagemale (Altug,2003andAhuja,2008). This lethaldosageplacesarsenic inahighly

toxic category in toxicology and food. Its toxicity isdependentonhydrogenpotential (pH),

redoxpotential(Eh),organicmattercontent,adsorptiontosolidmatrices,andthepresenceof


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other substances, such as iron andmagnesium. Arsenic cannotbeproducedby thehuman

body;instead,99%ofhumanexposuretoarsenicisthroughingestion:70%isfromfoodand29%

isfromwater(Harte,etal.,1991). Once ingested,arseniccontinuestobioaccumulate inthebody(Nguyen,2008). Thetoxicityofarsenicalstolivingspeciesisrankedasfollowsfrommost

toxic to least: arsines, arsenites, arsenoxides, arsenates, pentavalent arsenicals, arsonium

compounds,metallic arsenic (Wang and Mai, 2004). Because arsenic in groundwater is the

main source of harm for humans, this thesis will focus on two arsenicals that are most

abundantandtoxicarseniteandarsenate. Table1modelsthesetwoarsenicals.

Table1:StructureofArsenateandArsenite

The European Union (EU), World Health Organization (WHO), and Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) all recognize arsenic contamination asoneof the major threats to

human health, ranking it the second among top priorities in safety control (Brammer and

Ravenscroft,2009). TheWHOguidelineforsafelevelsofarsenicingestionisaconcentrationof

10g/Lindrinkingwaterandalimitof100g/Linuntreatedwaterpriortobeingprocessedfor

consumption. Themaximumsafelimitofarsenicingestionforanaveragemiddleagedmaleis

220gperday(Ahuja,etal.,2008). Thetermingestion,asusedhere,includesdrinkingwaterfromgroundwaterwells,andeatingcropsthatgrewfromarsenicinfestedirrigationwaterand

animalsthatwerefedfoodwitharsenicadditives.

Arsenate Arsenite

MW(g/mol): 138.9 122.9


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TheCancerAssessmentGroupof theEPAputsarsenic in the topcategory forcancer

causingchemicals(Harte,etal.,1991).Itisnosurprisethatatevenlowconcentrations,arsenicisresponsiblefor lung,bladder, liverandskincancers. Botharseniteandarsenate inhibitthe

energylinked functions of mitochondria in the human cell. Arsenite compounds have an

affinity to sulfhydryl groups in proteins and cause deactivation of enzymes. In addition,

arsenite is reabsorbed faster inbiological systems then arsenate. Arsenate competeswith

phosphateincellreactionsanduncouplesoxidativephosphorylationsothehighenergybonds

of adenosine triphosphate are not preserved (Bissen and Frimmel, 2003). Both of these

chemicals ultimately cause birth defects in babies by infiltrating the placenta and creating

cancers. At slightly higher concentrations, arsenic causes neurological damage, severe

gastrointestinal disorders, impairment to bone marrow function, peripheral nerve effects,

cardiovascularchanges,painfulneuritisof theupperand lower limbs,severegastrointestinal

damage,andotherneurologicalabnormalities(Nguyen,2008andHarte,etal.,1991). Whenarsenicentersthebody,itinhibitsmorethan200enzymesinhumancellsandbindstoproteins

invariousmechanisms. Forexample,itcanbindtothesulfydrylgroupsofenzymesandinduce

functional impairments,chelateorcomplexthiolgroups,serveasastructuralanalogueofthe

phosphateion,interferewiththeoxidativephosphorylationprocess,inhibitenergymetabolism

of cells, and replacephosphate in theDNAdoublehelix,partially explaining themutagenic,

carcinogenicand

teratogenic

effects.

Inthe

body,

arsines,

arsenites,

and

arsenates

undergo

rapid hydrolysis with ATP and any other highenergy bond (Lievremont, 2009 and Laparra,

2009). Reaction1showsanexampleofbondingbetweenarsenicalsandproteins.


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One common visual symptom fromapproximately tenyearsof arsenicexposure at a

concentration of 50g/L is noncancerous skin lesions pigmentation and warts, and can

develop into arsenicosis, chronic arsenic poisoning. A notable and graphic disease from

arsenicosisistheBlackfootDisease(BFD),anendemicperipheralvasculardisease.

SourcesofArsenicinGroundwaterTherearefourprimaryfatesofarsenicinsoilenvironment. Thefirstfateisthatitreacts

withandbecomesretainedbythesolidphaseofsoil. Thesecondfate isthat it isvolatilized

intotheatmospherefrombiologicaltransformation. Thethirdfate isthat it is leachedoutof

thesoilandintogroundwater. The lastfateisthatit istakenupbyplantsfromgroundwater

andgroundwateraccumulationofarsenic in topsoil (Naidu,2008). The last two fates,both

directlyaffectinggroundwater,aremostworrisomeas itgreatlyincreaseshumaningestionof

arsenic,andbothrelatetoarsenicingroundwater.

Reaction1:Proteinswithsulfurcontaining

groupsreactwitharseniteto

formproductsthatcause

biologicalmalfunction.

(WangandMai,2004)

Image1:BlackfootDiseasefromapproximately

ten years of drinking 50 g/L of

arseniccontaminatedgroundwater


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NaturalSourcesArsenicals, in varying concentrations, are natural in the environment. The arsenical

formisdependent

upon

pH,

Eh,

organic

matter

content,

adsorption

tosolid

matrices

and

the

presenceofothersubstances,suchas ironandmagnesium. Therearetwo layersofsoilthat

producestheabundanceofarsenicandaretheprimarynaturalcausesofarsenicalsinsoiland

groundwater(Berg,etal.,2006). ThesetwolevelsarethesedimentfromtheHoloceneperiodlooselyoverlayingthesedimentfromthelatePleistoceneperiod. TheHolocenesedimentlayer,

usuallywith adepthbetween20 to120meters, couldbe asdeep as 250meters. It is the

arsenic rich top layer that is more susceptible of weathering and groundwater flow. The

PleistocenesedimentlayerliesunderneaththeHolocenesediment layerand isrich inorganic

matter, has a low pH, and a lot of acid sulfate and pyrite, creating it a favorable reducing

conditiontoreleasearsenicfromtheHolocenesediment(Nguyen,2008).

Another natural source of arsenic is from the most abundant arsenical, arsenopyrite

(FeAsS). Arsenopyrite is formed under high temperature in the earths crust and has a

concentrationofabove100,000g/Lofarsenic. It isunstableunderaerobicconditions,so it

oxidizes to ironoxidesand releasesarsenic intogroundwater. Othernotablearsenicalswith

the similar chemical properties are orpiment (As2S3) and realgar (AsS) (Liang, et al., 2009).Arseniccanactaswaterinsolublemetalformingoxidesandchloridesorasnonmetalforming

acids (WangandMai,2004). Arsenicalsundergocyclesofoxidationreduction,precipitation

solubilization, and adsorptiondesorption processes alongside biological mechanisms. Some

othergeochemicalcausesofarsenic ingroundwaterand sediment include thedissolutionof

Fe(OH)3anddesorptionofarsenicunderreducingconditions,oxidativedecompositionofFeS2


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containingarsenicordesorptionofarsenicfromFE(OH)3duetodecreaseinpHunderoxidizing

condition. Thesearsenicalscanalsobeliberatedintogroundwaterwhenmicrobialdegradation,

throughoxidationor reduction,oforganicmatter reduces ferric iron into thesoluble ferrous

form, where it is readily available for plant absorption. Figure 1 shows a generalized

geochemicalcycleofarsenic.

Inalluvialordeltaicenvironments,analysisshowthatmore than70wt%ofarsenic in

groundwater isassociatedwith ironhydroxides inreducingconditionsand iseasilymobilized

underredoxconditions. (Nguyen,2008)

AnthropogenicSourcesArsenic concentrations are quickly rising due to anthropogenic sources. Smelting of

nonferrousorescreatearsenic trioxidethatescapes intotheatmosphereand thensettleson

neighboringfieldsandtowns(WangandMai,2004). Untreatedarsenicfiltersaredumpedinto


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landfills, leakingthearsenicback intothesoil,albeittodifferent locations(Hug,etal.,2008).Mineaciddrainage lowerspH,creatingevenmore favorableconditions forarsenicextraction

from sediment to groundwater and speeds up the naturalprocessreleasing arsenicals into

groundwater(Reedy,etal.,2007).Whenplantsabsorbthearseniccontaminatedgroundwater,theyretainthearsenic;whentheseplantsarefedtopoultryandlivestock,thearsenicascends

the food chain andbioaccumulates. In addition to the arsenic laden crops fed to livestock,

organicarsenicspeciesarealsoaddedasagrowthpromoterinpoultryandpigs(Naidu,2006).

Thefecalmatteroftheseaffectedlivestockisthenusedasfertilizer,resultinginspikedlevelsof

arsenicconcentrationinfarmingsoilandgroundwater(Laparra,2005).

Arsenicalswere also extensively used as herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides. Lead

arsenatewasoftenusedaspesticidesonfruitorchards,canaccumulateupto360mg/kgindry

soil(Laparra,2005). Sodiumarsenite,awidelyusedfungicidebefore2001,wastheonlyknown

fungicide available forprotecting grapevines from excoriosis (Lievremont, et al., 2009). Theextensiveusageofarsenicbasedpestcontrolresultedinasubstantialaccumulationofarsenic

insoil. Electronics,pharmaceuticals,andammunition factoriesalsorelease largeamountsof

arsenicals into the environment through waste water and disposed products that leak

arsenicalsintothegroundatdumpsites(Reedy,2007). Attimbersites,timberistreatedwitha

mixture of copper, chromium, and arsenic (CCA), and has beenmeasured to have soil with

arsenicconcentrationupto10,000g/L(Naidu,2006). Theresidencetimeofarsenicalsinsoil

isinthemagnitudeofhundredsofyears,astheyarelessinterruptedbygroundwaterflowand

canbindwithiron(hydr)oxideasseeninlayersofrocksfromthePleistoceneera(Berg,etal.,


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2006). Therefore, the accumulation of these arsenicals is dangerous and the problem is

permanent.

WHYVIETNAM?

AdditionalSourcesofArsenicinGroundwater

Inaddition to thepreviously listed global sourcesofarsenic,Vietnamhasevenmore

sources of arsenic contamination that greatly affects arsenic levels in groundwater. These

sourcesposeevenhigherdangersforallinhabitantsinVietnam.

NaturalSourcesThesoil layers inVietnam, likemostofSouthEastAsia,derive itssediments from the

Himalayas washed down to the Mekong and Red River deltas from rainfall. The resulting

arsenic rich sediment is absorbed to neoformed iron oxides (Jessen, 2009). In addition,

Vietnamssoil isconducive to thenaturalreleaseofarsenic intogroundwater. Ithasa thick

Holocene period sediment layer of up to 50 meters deep with the overlying Pleistocene

sedimentcomposingofacidsulfateandpyrite,creatingareducingenvironmentforarsenicals

toreleaseintothegroundwater. IntheMekongDelta,thereisalsoarseniousshalethatrelease

arsenicalsintothegroundwateraswell(Nguyen,2008).

AnthropogenicSourcesTheVietnamWarIn addition to thesenatural causes, theVietnamWars OperationRanchHand also

greatlycontributedtothearseniccontaminationcrisisinVietnam. OperationRanchHandwas

aUnitedStatesmilitaryprojectforaerialsprayingofherbicidesinsouthernVietnam. Thegoal


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wastoclearoutcropsandfoliagetoachieveenhancedsecurity,improvemilitaryintelligence,

reducecoverforenemyresistance,increaseavailabilityoftroopsusedforcombatandreduce

UnitedStatespersonnelcasualties(DepartmentoftheArmy,1971).

Between the first test in Kontum base in southern Vietnam in August 10, 1961 and

October 1971, multiple chemicals were shipped to and sprayed over Vietnam (Young and

Gegigani,1988andNakamura,2007). Onemajorchemicalusedforalltenyearsofthewarwas

AgentBlue;65%ofAgentBlueusedwasshippedtothe20thOrdinanceStorageDepotinSaigon,

andtheother35%wasshippedtothe551thOrdinanceStorageDepotinDaNang. AgentBlue

primarily targeted crops,especiallycerealsandgrains (Departmentof theArmy,1971). The

chemicalwasaeriallysprayedbyjetsandsince it isadesiccant, itdriedplants,andprepared

theareasformasscropburning(Young,1982).


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Tomakethingsworse,theDepartmentofArmysFieldManual:TacticalEmploymentof

HerbicidesrecommendedthatthedrumscontainingAgentBlueweretobewashedoutwith

waterand left for thesoil toabsorb. Within those tenyears, landdamage fromAgentBlue

totaledtwomillionhectaresinsouthernVietnam,primarilynearSaigonandDaNang,withover

fiftyonethousandhectaresofforestdefoliatedatleastfourtimesandtwentyseventhousand

hectaresofmangrovecompletelydestroyed(Pham,1995).

TheAnsulCompanyproducedAgentBlue,labeledasPhytar560G. Theproductconsists

of 4.7% cacodylic acid (hydroxydimethyarsine oxide), 26.4% sodium cacodylate (sodium

dimethylarsinicacid),3.4%surfactant,5.5%sodiumchloride,0.5%antifoamagent,and59.5%

water(Kotchmar,etal.,1970). Thusarsenicalscompose31.1%ofAgentBlue,15.4%ofwhichiselementalarsenic, intheformof+5oxidationstatearsenical. Thismeansthat4.8%ofAgent

Blue is an arsenical with similar properties to arsenate. This also means it reacts and

bioaccumulatesjust likearsenate. Figure2below is thechemicalstructureofCacodylicAcid

andSodiumCacodylate.


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AstudydonebyWatson,etal., in1976demonstrated that lifeexpectanciesofnontargetedanimalsfromAgentBluewerereducedto lessthantenpercentoftheunexposedpopulation.

ThelethalconcentrationofAgentBlueforratsis3.5g/L.

TheHERBScollection,themostthoroughdatarepositoryofherbicideusageduringthe

Vietnam War, documented that 4,712,920 liters of Agent Blue were sprayed in Southern

Vietnam(YoungandGegigani,1988andNakamura,2007). Thismeansthatthetotalamountof

arsenicalsprayedontocrop landswas235,820.2 liters. Itwasdocumented that in theearly

1980s,soldierswithprolongedexposuretoAgentBluedevelopedagarlicodorintheirbreath;

this isoneof thecommonnoticeable symptomofarsenicpoisoning (Worden,2010). Later,

researchshowsthatthehumanliverabsorbs40%ofthecacodylicacidintothebody(Hearing

intheVeteransAffairsHouseofRepresentatives,1980);thehighbioaccumulationofarsenicals

inthebodyandextremeaddictionofarsenicalsisdetrimentaltocropsandhumanhealth.

SodangerouswastheuseofAgentBluethatOperationRanchHandreceivedlittletono

publicity. PresidentKennedys JointChiefofStaff stated thatcaremustbe taken toassure

that the United States does not become the target for charges of employing chemical or

biologicalwarfare. InternationalrepercussionsagainsttheUnitedStatescouldbemostserious.

(Nakamura, 2007). So, when the program was first introduced, it was known as the Khai

QuangProgram,asouthernVietnameseprogramthatrequestedthehelpofAmericatoclear

out foliageandmake thebattlefieldmorevisible. AgentBluemissionsrequiredmembers to

wearcivilianclothing,flyaircraftswithoutUSAFmarkings,andstipulatedthat,ifcaptured,the

USgovernmentwouldnotacknowledgethecrewasmembersoftheUSMilitary. Therewere

no warnings to the soldiers handling Agent Blue, who were primarily Vietnamese, against


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drinking from the rivers where Agent Blue was sprayed. (Young and Gegigani, 1988 and

Nakamura,2007). AgentBlueisalsoknowntodeterioratethebinswhichheldthemandbreak

downtobioavailableformswithinthreemonths,infiltratingthegroundwaterandenteringthe

food chain with ease. Thus, the secrecy surrounding the use of Agent Blue meant no

Vietnamese civiliansormilitarypersonnelknew,orknow today,about thecontaminationor

inherenthealthhazardsofthechemicalsthattheywereprolificallyusing(Nakamura,2007).

OtherAnthropogenicSources

Althoughit isalargesource,AgentBluewasnottheonlysourceofhuman introduced

arsenicals intoVietnamsgroundwater. Sincethe late1900s,Vietnamese farmershaveused

arsenicals such as monosodium methane arsenate (MSMA), disodium methane arsenate

(DSMA),andcacodylicacidaspestcontrolforcropsinruralareas. Theseadditionsofarsenic

intofoodsourcesresultedinaninevitableuptakeofarsenicinplants,animals,andeventually,

humans.

Urbanareashavealsoseenanincreaseinarsenicuseinthepastthreedecades. Inthe

city,withthemassmovementtowardcitylifeinthepastdecade,slumsdumptheirrefuseinto

nearbyrivers(NguyenandLeaf,1996). Theserefuseflowsintotheriverandaredepositedin

thealluvialdeltastheMekongandRedRiverDeltascreatinganorganicreducingcondition

thatpromotesthereleaseofarsenicalsintheHoloceneEralayertogroundwater. Althoughthe

releaseofarsenicfromtheHoloceneperiodisnatural,theexponentialincreaseinthisrelease

isduetohumancausation,creatinganevenheavierconcentrationofarsenicingroundwater.

Itisthisgroundwaterthatis,then,usedinwellextractionsforirrigationanddrinkingwater.


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drilledintotheundergroundaquifersandthelowerendisfittedwithastrainerandapumpto

liftwater to the top for irrigation (Sonou,1996).Figure4 showsaschematicofhowshallow

tubewellirrigationworks.

In theMekong Delta, thirtyfivemillionpeople rely on groundwater as theirprimary

source of drinking water and approximately 17 million people rely on it for agricultural

production. IntheRedRiverarea,thereisanestimated10millionpeoplewhodependonitto

irrigatetheirfieldsandtofilltheirwellswithwater(Jessen,2009andNguyen,2008)and65%of

thesewellsexceedtheWHOlimitof50g/L,whichisalreadyconsideredfivetimestoounsafe

foringestionbytheWHOguidelines(WinkelandPham,2011). Forbothrivers,waterdemand

is above one million m3/day in 2010, and approximately 90% of the groundwater that is

abstractedisusedforirrigationviatubewellwatertransport(BrammerandRavenscroft,2009,

CastanoandSanz,2009,andHoang,etal.,2010). InthecaseofHanoi,neartheRedRiverDelta,theabstractionofgroundwater for irrigationhas lead toagroundwater leveldecreaseof10

metersto20metersbelowsealevelinwells,causingsubsidence.


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Theextensiveuseofgroundwaterforcropsanddrinkingwaterisahugeissuebecause

these tworiversystemshaveextremelyhighconcentrationsofarseniteandarsenate. In the

RedRiverValley,arseniclevelsinseveralgroundwaterwellsexceed3050g/Landaverageat

430g/L(Nguyen,2008). IntheMekongDelta,morethan40%oftubewellshadgreaterthan

100 g/L of arsenic, with a range up to 1610 g/L (Hug, 2008 and Nguyen, 2008). These

concentrationsareatlevelsmorethan300%higherthansafelimitsasdeterminedbyWHO. In

addition to this arsenic contaminated irrigation water, farmers apply over 20,000 tons of

arsenical pesticides annually without protective eyewear, shoes or masks, creating an even

higherexposuretothepoisonousarsenic(Pham,1995).

Vietnam has a population of approximately 90 million people. For the 22% of

Vietnamese living incities,50%ofwho reside inSaigon,Hanoi,andHaiPhong,safedrinking

waterisalsoamajorproblem(Pham,1995). InSaigonalone,129outof329waterproduction

companies failed to reach required standards on water quality and fiftythree of those

companies were forced to close. Most private producers in Hanoi also failed to meet

regulationsonenvironmentalsanitation. (LookatVietnam,2009). Thismeansthatmillionsof

peoplearedrinkingwaterbelieving it tobe safe,even though it isnot. Overonemillionof

thesepeoplearecurrentlysufferingfromchronicarsenicpoisoning(Berg,2002).

Thesedangerouslevelsofcontaminationnotonlymanifestingroundwateranddrinking

water, but are also evident in Vietnamese foodstuffs, where different plants have different

sensitivity toarsenic from itsphytotoxicity levels. Someplantswithhighphytotoxicity levels

arebeans,soybeans,rice,spinach,peas,greenbeans,otherlegumes,onions,cucumbers,and

alfalfa (Naidu, 2006). Unfortunately, rice, one of the most arsenicabsorbent crops, is the


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principleirrigatedcropinVietnam,andservesasthestaplediet,alongsidefishandvegetables.

In the flooded rice paddies, the anaerobic conditions favor arsenic in the form of arsenite

(Brammer,2009). Arseniteingroundwaterandsedimentisthemostreadilyavailableformof

arsenicaltoplantroots,wherebioaccumulationgoesfromrootstostem,leaf,andlastly,grain

(BrammerandRavencroft,2009). According to theWorldHealthOrganization, thesafe limit

forasixtykilogramadultwhoconsumesabout450gramsofricewithaconcentrationof .11

g/Larsenicadayandwhodrinks4litersofwaterwithaconcentrationof10g/Lofarsenica

day ingests130gofarsenicdaily. Thismeansthattheprovisionaltolerableweeklyintake is

15 g of arsenic a week per kilogram of body weight (Agusa, et al., 2009). This numberdrasticallymultiplieswhentheallowedarsenicconcentrationofsafedrinkingwaterinVietnam

is50g/L,not the10g/L limit from theWHO guidelines. On topof the toohigh limitof

arsenic,actualconcentrationofarsenic inriceanddrinkingwatermorethan tripleseven the

Vietnameseunsafe limits. InSouthEastAsia,arsenicconcentrations in raw ricegrainswere

measuredupto1.8g/Land in localgroundwaterconcentrationsreached4,700g/L. When

cooked,thericehadarsenicconcentrationsupto4.21g/L. Thismeantthatover92%ofthe

populationhaddaily intakeofarsenicestimatedwellover theguidelinevalues (Agusa,etal.,2009). Theaverageconcentrationofarsenicalsinvegetableswas2.38g/L. Fishandpoultry

thatconsumeplant feedaccumulatearsenicaswell,andmaintainahigherconcentrationof

arsenicthan

invegetables

(Zavala,

2008).

Being

the

top

ofthe

food

chain,

the

bioaccumulation

in the rice,vegetables, andmeat inhumans isdetrimental. In2009,Agusa, et al. collectedhumanhairinthesuburbsofHanoi,andmeasuredaconcentrationupto2.77g/Lofarsenic.

InotherSouthEastAsiancountrieswithcomparableconcentrationofarsenic ingroundwater


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andsimilardiets,ZavalaandDuxburyfound164g/Lofarsenicinurinesamples. Agusa,etal.,concludesthattherewasapositivesignificantcorrelationbetweeninorganicarsenicintakeand

humanurine. Italsoprovedthattheconcentrationishigherinchildrenthanadults,especially

formales. Inbothofthesestudies,theconcentrationofarsenicretainedbythehumanbodyis

muchhigher than theWHO safe limitsandboth studiesconcluded that there isa significant

positivecorrelationbetweenarsenicconcentrationingroundwaterandurine.

Physicalsymptomsofarsenicpoisoningtakesoveradecadetobecomeapparent;inthe

caseofVietnam,ithastakenthirtyyearsfromwhenthepopularinstallationoftubewellsand

irrigation systemsbecamepopularmethodsof securingwater in1980s for the symptoms to

show. Althoughthereisabaseofnaturalarseniccontaminationingroundwaterduetonatural

geochemical sources, the primary source of the contamination problem for Vietnam is

anthropogenic. Thisspikeofarsenicingroundwatermustbequicklyremedied,especiallysince

itaffectsalargeportionofthepopulation.

Economic,Political,andCulturalParametersofVietnamToprescribeaneffectiveandsuccessfultreatmentofarseniccontaminationinVietnam,

many different factors must be taken into consideration. These factors include Vietnams

economy,Communistpoliticalstate,andculture. Thus,theoptimaltreatmentsmustfitwithin

thefeasibilityandboundariesofeachparameter.


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21

EconomicParametersIn1986,theSixthPartyCongressinitiatedaneconomicreformcallediMi,known

inthe

United

States

asRenovations

(Nguyen

and

Leaf,

1996).

This

economic

reform

shifted

Vietnamseconomy fromacentrallyplannedeconomytoonethat ismarketoriented,witha

focuson foreign investment. Since then,Vietnamand theUnitedStateshavecreatedmany

pacts tokeepa strong importexport relation. In2001, theBilateralTradeAgreement (BTA)

was created, and expanded Vietnams export from USD $2.91 billion in 2002 to USD $17.9

billion in2010. InDecember2006, theUnitedStatesgrantedVietnamunconditionalNormal

TradeRelations (NTR) status,and in2007, theUnited States signedaTrade and Investment

FrameworkAgreement (TIFA)withVietnam. Since2008, theUnitedStatesandVietnamare

negotiating a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT). After the new economic measures were

implemented, Vietnams economy boomed, becoming one of the worlds fastest growing

economies,withanaverage8%GrossDomesticProduct(GDP)growthfrom1990to1997;and

6.78%totheendof2010. VietnamscurrentGDPisUSD$102billion. Percapitaincomerose

fromUSD$220in1994toUSD$1,168in2010.

Theneweconomycreatedanewurbanlandscape. TheRenovationsreforminitiated

anewtypeofhousing,calledPopularHousing.Thesepopularhousingarebuiltinunfavorable

physicallocations overoldgraveyardsanddumpsters,andnexttopollutedcanals. Thus,they

become segregated slums for low socioeconomic families. Because these families lack the

incomeandresourcestobuycleanwater,theyusethewaterfromthecanaltobatheanddrink.

Mostof them alsouse the canals as adumping ground for their refuse. (Nguyenand Leaf,

1996). ThesePopularHousingareusuallylocatedinlargecitiesneartheMekongandRedRiver


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22

Deltas,thusthecanalwaterleadstothemaindeltasandcreateahighlyorganicenvironment

for release of arsenic. In addition to using these canals as a sewage pipes, 95% of the

inhabitants drink groundwater from wells that are drilled right next to the canals. The

groundwater ishighlypolluted,creatinganaerobicconditions favorable for releasearsenic to

groundwater. Due to their economic circumstances, inhabitants cannot buy purified water

because theybarelymakehalf the incomeneeded fordaily sustenance. In theseareas, the

governmentmusttake intoaccount thephysicalhousingsegregationcausedbytheeconomy

andtheconditionsoftheurbanpoortoprovidesubsidiesforsafedrinkingwatertoPopular

Housinginhabitants.

ThenewtreatieswiththeUSalsocreateda large impactonagriculture inruralareas.

60%ofVietnamslaborforceisinagriculture,andthus,ruralunemploymentremainedlow,at

2.27%in2010(Barker,2004andU.S. DepartmentofState,2011). Thisisapproximatelyhalfof

the unemployment rate of urban cities in Vietnam. This is not surprising; in 1989, 42% of

Vietnams exports are from agriculture. Even in 2010, afterheavy industrialization and the

introductionofastrongtextileindustrybecamemoreprominent,21%ofVietnamsexportsare

stillfromagriculture. Together,VietnamsexportstotaledUSD$17.9billionbytheendof2010,

meaning that USD $3.76 billion in exports was from agriculture, mostly in rice and coffee

exports. Currently,Vietnamisthesecondlargestinternationalexporterofrice,exportingover

31,394 tonsper year (Nguyen andPopkin,2003). The strong impactof riceasanexport in

Vietnam is detrimental to global human health. Since the irrigation water for rice paddies

createsalargebioaccumulationofarsenic,anyriceexportedfromVietnamwouldhaveunsafe

levelsofarsenicforingestion. FromanexportandGDPstandpoint,Vietnamseconomyheavily


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23

reliesonrice. Rice iscurrentlyaccumulatingextremeamountsofarsenic fromgroundwater.

Thus,theneedforimmediatetreatmentofarseniccontaminatedgroundwatertoachievesafe

arsenic levels in rice isdire toboth the survivalofVietnamseconomyandallwhoeat that

exportedrice.

PoliticalParametersTheCommunistPartystilldominatesVietnamsgovernment. Thepoliticalstructureof

thenationincludesthreebranches. Theexecutivebranchincludesthepresident,whoservesas

theheadof stateand thechairof theNationalDefenseandSecurityCouncil;and theprime

minister,whoheads theCabinetofMinistryandCommissions. The legislativebranch is the

NationalAssembly,madeupof493representatives,ledprimarilybythepeopleandservesthe

people. Inthisbranch,thereisaPartyCongress,headedbyaPolitburo,theGeneralSecretary.

This congress determines the governmental policies and its implementation. The judicial

branchincludestheSupremePeoplesCourtandtheProsecutorialSupremePeoplesProcuracy

(U.S. DepartmentofState,2011).

Thegovernmenthasestablishedthatwatermanagementinagricultureisanimportant

nationalissue. TheVietnameseWaterLawof1999andtheNationalWaterResourcesCouncil

ofJune2000establishedbasinlevelcommitteestooverseethemanagementandallocationof

water intheRedRiverDelta,MekongDelta,andtheDongNaibasin. InNovember2002,the

Ministry of National Resources and Environment (MONRE) was established with part of its

missiontooverseeusageanddevelopmentofwaterresources(Mai,2003). Despiteallthese


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24

committees,thegovernmentdoesnotactuallyhaveastrong impact inagriculture. Annually,

thegovernmentonlyspends0.1%ofitsUSD$102billionGDPonresearchanddevelopmentin

agricultural water management (Barker, 2004). This is much less than the 5% spent for

developedcountriesand1% formanyotherdeveloping countrieswithmuch lowerGPD. In

additionto the lackofresearchanddevelopment,thegovernmentalsohas indirecttaxes for

industrialprotection thatoftentimescreateahugeburdenontheagriculturesector(Barker,

2004). The agriculture sector is receiving governmental support that isproportionallymuch

less than its contribution to the Vietnamese economy. For a country of over 6% annual

economicgrowthtobespending0.1%oftheamountofGDPonresearchanddevelopmentfor

itsprimaryexportisbothunsustainableandaneconomicblunder.Vietnamesecitizensneedto

pushformorespendinginagriculturalirrigationandqualityresearchanddevelopment.

CulturalParametersCurrently,Vietnamhasapopulationofapproximately90millionpeoplewithanannual

populationgrowthrateof1.077%;ofthepopulation,94%isliterate(U.S. DepartmentofState,

2011). Approximately68.4millionpeople livenearagriculture landand13.7millionofthose

people live in Hanoi and Saigon (Le, 2009). This means that awareness of the arsenic

contamination issue couldbe spread throughpamphlets andother textmedia,especially in

congregatedcitieslikeHanoiandSaigon.

Over12millionhectaresof land inVietnam iscultivated. Despite thevastexpanseof

agriculturalland,individualfarmsinVietnamaresmall,averagingtwoandhalfacreseach(U.S.


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25

DepartmentofState,2011). Theprimarysourceof irrigation for thesefarms, in the last two

decades, isthroughpumpingofshallowgroundwaternear theRedRiverandMekongDeltas.

Belowisatablethatshowsadrasticincreaseofpumpsbetween1991and1999.

Table2:NumberofpumpsbyregioninVietnam(Barker,2004)Region 1991(inthousands) 1999(inthousands) 19911999(%/yr)

RedRiverDelta 12.11 25.99 10.02

Northeast 4.68 57.88 36.96

Northwest 0.08 .49 25.23

NorthCentralCoast 4.11 9.66 11.29

SouthCentralCoast 8.83 38.41 20.17

CentralHighlands 4.50 44.96 33.34

NortheastSouth 76.16 258.22 16.49

MekongRiverDelta 92.83 357.72 18.37

WholeCountry 203.29 793.33 18.58

In2002,thegovernmentalsodecidedthatthewaterbelongstothepeople,andthus,

thepeoplehave therighttoexploitoruseresourcesasneededwithoutregulationorquality

control(Barker,2004). Thismeansthatpeopledonotknowifthewatertheyareusingissafe,

sotheydonotknowthedangerofarseniccontamination intheirwateranddonotpressthe

governmenttoremedytheissue.


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26

Thesefarms,withtheirunregulatedwateruse,providedtherapideconomicgrowthfor

Vietnam. However,therapidgrowthisincongruentwiththehighmalnutritionintheruralpoor

inVietnam. Vietnamsrateofmalnourishedchildrenis46%,whichisalmostdoublethatofthe

worldaverageandovertwiceashighastheEastAsiancountriesaverage(NguyenandPopkin,

2003). With such conditions, Vietnam is a country that still needs a lot of development,

management,andregulationofitsresources.

ParametersandIdealTreatmentofArsenicContaminationinVietnamVietnamsparametersareveryunique. Inthecountry,themajorityofthepopulation

congregatesaroundagricultural landnearrivers,primarily theMekongandRedRiverDeltas.

Thesetwodeltasareveryhighinarsenicconcentration. Evenso,theyserveasthemainsource

ofwater,bothfordrinkingandirrigation,fortheinhabitants.

Itisacountrywithextremelyhigheconomicgrowthinthelasttwodecades,yetthereis

asharpdistinctionbetweentherichestandpoorestquintile,categorizedasmakinganannual

incomeof less thanUSD$58.17, less thanhalf theminimumannual incomeofUSD$156 to

makeendsmeetinVietnam(LaoDong,2000). Thepoorestquintileonlyaccountedfor5.6%of

totalincomewhilethetop20%accountedfor49.3%oftotalincomein2006(OxfordAnalytica,

2008). Standardoflivingfortheruralpoorisalsolackingbehindotherdevelopingnations. In

addition to this, the government is spending 0.1% ofGDP on research anddevelopment of

irrigation water. This means that there is barely any money being spent on ensuring that


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27

groundwaterusedfordrinkingandirrigationisatasafelevel;andnoneisspentoneducating

thecitizenry.

AvailableSolutions

and

Its

Feasibility

for

Vietnam

Arsenicalsingroundwateraffecthealthintwomainways. First,itisusedastheprimary

sourceofdrinkingwater,wherethewaterisdirectlyingested. Thesecondpathwayisthrough

acropanimalmanfoodchain,wherethecropsareirrigatedwithcontaminatedgroundwater;

cropsabsorbthearsenicals,and itgoesupthefoodchaintowhenhumanseatthearsenical

ladenfood. Thefirststepinmitigationwouldbetorecordcurrentconcentrationsofarsenicin

groundwateratvariouskeylocationsnearvillagesandfarmssurroundingtheMekongandRed

RiverDeltas. Thereareseveralmethodstomeasureconcentrationofarsenicingroundwater.

Theyaredividedintotwocategories:onsiteandinlabmethods. Quick, affordable, and

accurateonsiteanalysis isusuallypreferablebecause ittakes less timeanddoesnotrequire

largecostly initial investments in laboratoriesorspace for those laboratories. However,care

mustbe taken inchoosingasuitablemethod. Accurateand reliable results require that the

instruments limitofdetectionbe tenfold lower than thecritical thresholdvalueofconcern

(Ahuja, et al., 2008). For example, using an instrument to measure at least10 g/L arsenicwouldrequireaninstrumentslimitofdetectiontobe1g/L. Twofavorableoptionsare:

ColorimetricPrincipleforOnSiteFieldTestingKit:thismethodreducesarseniteorarsenate toarsinegasunderacidicconditionswith theadditionofzincpowerand

measures the intensityof colorused forquantificationof arsenic in groundwater

within a few hours. Photo 2 shows a colorimetric testing kit with the scale


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28

concentrationsbycoloringofthetestingpaper. Thecostofthekitvariesdepending

onthespecifickitslimitofdetection,rangingfromUSD$18to$150per100tests.

(Ahuja,etal.,2008). Electroanalysis: This low runningcost method also employs reducing or oxidizing

arsenicspeciestomeasureconcentrationofdifferentspeciesofarsenicinthewater.

Themethodtakesapproximatelyanhourandhasamuchlowerdetectionlimitthan

theColorimetricTestingKit. Itonlyrequiresananoliteramount for testing,but is

lesssensitivethanthecolorimetricprinciple(Naidu,2006).

Image3:Colorimetrictestingkit

Forlaboratorymethodsofarsenicdetection,themostcostefficient,accurateandquick

methodofanalysisemploysHighPerformanceLiquidChromatography (HPLC). Thismachine

analyzesdirectwatersamples,requiringnoderivatizationsteps. It isalsoeasilycoupledwith

othermachines toprovideaccurate resultsand speciationofarsenic ingroundwater (Naidu,

2006).


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29

MitigationofGroundwaterforDrinkingPurposesIt is impractical to filterwater forboth irrigation anddrinkingpurposes to the same

standard,

especially

because

it

requires

too

much

investment,

cost

of

maintenance,

and

engineering. Up until today, most research has been focused on treating groundwater for

drinkingpurposes. Vietnam, too,hasbeendirecting itseffortstotreatdrinkingwater. Eight

major wellfields are operated by water treatment facilities, processing half a million cubic

metersaday. Urbanwatertreatmentplantsexclusivelyexploitloweraquifersbetweenthirty

andseventymetersdeepwhileprivatetubewellspredominantlypumpfromtheupperaquifer

at twelve to fortyfivemetersdeep. Unfortunately, themitigationeffortsof thesetreatment

plants still leave water at arsenic concentrations up to 91 g/L, almost double Vietnams

standardsandmore thannine timeshigher than theWHOguidelines (Naidu,2006). A large

portionoftheprobleminaoneforallsolutionisthatthesoilcompositionandconcentrationof

arsenicisdifferentatdifferentlocations,andthesolutionmustbecustomizedper locationto

besttreatthewater. Therefore,moreresearchmustbedonetohelpmitigategroundwater.

Luckily,therehasbeenalotofinternationalresearchcompletedonarsenicmitigations

that targetdifferent concentrationsofarsenic. These treatments range from local attempts

thatare fairlyaffordable toextremelyefficientbutcostlymachinery. Mostof themitigation

methods, however, only apply to drinking water, as it is too expensive to use on the large

amountneededfor irrigationwater;therefore, itwillbe the focusof thissection. Below isa

chartcomparingseveralsuccessfulandfinanciallyfeasiblemitigationoptionsforVietnam.


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30

Table3:ArsenicTreatmentsofGroundwaterforDrinkingWater(Naidu,etal.,2006andAjuha,2008)

Technology Advantages Disadvantages Cost(USD)AlcanEnhancedActivatedAlumina:based

onadsorption

process

HighAsremovalefficiency

Moreknownincommunity

Availabletobothcommunityand

householdlevel

NochemicaladditionProvides>3600L/12

hoursfor>100families

pHsensitivehighpossibilityofmedia

gettingfouledor

cloggedbyprecipitated

iron

regenerationofsaturatedaluminais

requiredoncecolumnis

totallysaturated

activatedaluminaefficiencydecreases

afterregeneration

Communityunit:$170+$220forfilter(upto

80,000L)

HouseholdUnitfor5peoplewithfilter:$34

for11,000L

Replacementfilterforhouseholdunit:$14

per11,000L

Annualcost/personforcommunityunit:$3.03

Annualcost/personforhouseholdfilter:$3.40

ThreeKolshiPitcherFilter(akaSonoThreeKolshiFilter):basedon

indigenous

filtrationprocess


Moreknowninthecommunity

Produces40L/12hrsFilterusessand,iron

fillings,charcoaland

brickchipsallfound

locally

Canbemanufacturedatthecommunitylevel

Filtermediarequiresregularcleaningto

preventbacteriological

contamination

Maygetcloggedifexcessironispresentin

thefeedwater

Unit:$6.00ReplacementofKolshi

includingironfillings

andcoarsesand:$1.10

Annualcost/person:$2.08iffilteris

replacedeverythree

months

SONOFilter HighAsremovalefficiencyforwaterup

to300g/L[As]

Decentlyknowninthecommunity

Allfiltermaterialsarelocal

Filterlastsupto5yearsSpentmaterialisnon

toxic

Produces80L/day,enoughforafamilyof5

Notassuccessfulwithextremelyhigh

concentrationsof

arsenic

Regularcleaningisrequiredtoprevent

bacteriological

contamination

Unitwithfilter:$40Filterreplacement:

$40per5years

AnnualCost/person:$1.60

CommunityBasedWellheadArsenicRemovalUnit

HighAsRemovalEfficiencyupto500

g/L[As]

Availableatcommunitylevel

Serves1,000peopleforupto2years

Filterrequiressomechemicaladditions

duringregenerativeand

newmediaprocesses

Usedfiltercreatesasolidarsenicladen

sludgethatneedstobe

Unitcostwithfilter:$1,276fortwoyears

Regenerationfiltercost:$638

Annualcost/person:$0.64


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Adsorptionmediumfromexhaustedunits

canberegenerated

storedonacoarsesand

filter. Peoplemustbe

encouragedto

regeneratethefilters

insteadofdisposing

themtokeepwastetoa

minimum

StevensInstituteTechnology:

basedon

coagulation,filtra

tion,and

adsorption

process



Produces169L/12hours(adequatefor25

people)

Chemicaladditionrequired

Maynotremoveadequatelywhen[As]is

above500g/L

Sandbagusedforfiltrationmustbe

washedtwiceaweekto

preventcloggingbyflocs

Structureisnotrobust

Installationcost:$35Chemicalcost:$3.50Annualcost/person:

$1.82ifchemicalis

replacedonceevery

fourmonths

ShaplaAsremovalfilter:ahouseholdfilter

usingironcoated

brickdustasan

adsorption

medium



Allfiltermaterialsarelocal

Regularcleaningoffiltermaterialisessentialto

preventbacteriological

contamination

Isslowertoproducewater

Unitcostwithmedia:$6.50

1kgofreplacementmedia:$1.72

Annualcost/person:$1.99ifuses2kgof

replacementmedia

annually

PondSandFilter(PSF) Popularsourceforcoastareaswithapermanent

yearroundpond

Producesenoughwaterfor50families,

dependingonpondsize

Canremovepathogensaswell

LocallytrainedmasoncanconstructPSF

Needtobenearpermanentpond

Pondmustbefreefromcattlebathingandfishcultureusingchemical

fertilizers

Needsalocallytrainedcaretaker

Installationcost:$400500

Initialcost/person:$1.60

Annualmaintenancecostafterfirst

year/person:$0.40

RainwaterHarvestingSystem(RWHS)

Waterqualityisverygood

Effectiveforcommunitiesnear

coastalareaswithsalinityproblems

Suitablefortinroofhouses;alternative

arrangementscanbe

madebyusing

polytheneorthick

clothestocollectwater

Shortageofwaterindryseason

Mineralfreewatermaytastedifferentinitially

andproduceamineraldeficiencyamong

malnourishedpeople

Catchmentareaandstoragetankneedstobe

keptcleanforwater

standards

3,200Ltank:$150500Learthentank:$10Investment

cost/person:$2.00for

500Ltankand$4.36for3,200Ltank


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32

Haspotentialtobeacceptedbycommunity

DugWells UsuallyAssafeWellacceptedby

community

Sanitaryprotecteddugwells(sealingthewelltopwithairtight

concreteslabandwater

drawnbyinstallationof

manuallyoperatedhand

pump,anairentrypipe

isinstalledand

connectedwithwell

rings)is

microbiologicallysafe

Produceswaterfor30families

Cannotbeinstalledalloverthecountry,only

suitableforcertainareas

withspecific

soil

conditions

Cannotbeinstalledallthroughtheyear;dry

seasonespeciallyprior

tomonsoonisidealtime

forconstruction

Installationcost:$300500

Investmentcost/person:

$2.00

$3.33

DeepTubewells Assafeuptodate(whenwatertableisstillhigh

enoughthatarsenicstill

primarilycongregateson

topsoillayer)

Wellacceptedinthecommunity

Watercanbeabstractedusingamanually

operatedhandpump

Canproducewaterfor50families

Deepaquifercannotexistalloverthecountry

PotentialtobeaffectedwithAsifnotinstalled

correctlyorifareahasa

lowwatertable

Installationcost:$750Investmentcost/

person:$3.00

*AppendixIshowschematicsforeachofthesetreatmentmethods.

MitigationofGroundwaterforIrrigationandCropsTherehasbeen littleresearchdonetofilter irrigationwater,especiallysincethere isa

largeamountofwatertohandle. Muchmoreemphasismustbeplacedonresearchingviable

andsustainablemethodsofmitigatingirrigationwatertocontrolarsenicintakeofcrops,andby

the food chain, animals and man through food. One mitigation effort is the use of

hyperaccumulator plants,primarilybreak ferns (Pteris vittata),ornamental arum indry soils


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33

andgreenandbluealgaeinricepaddies,toabsorbarsenicintopsoils. Thesefernsandarum

can takeup toseveralyears inputofarsenic ingroundwaterwhile thealgaealsoserveasa

fertilizertothesoil(Ahuja,2008andBrammer,2009). Thesecatchplantsareusuallyplanted

asa short term catch cropbefore rice isplanted. However, there isno safemethodyet to

disposetheseferns(Brammer,2009). Asecondmethod,perhapsamoredesperateandquick

method,istoremovethetentofifteencentimetersoftopsoil,wherearsenicaccumulationis

worst,andthenaddmanureorcompost,orgrowjuteordeeprootinglegumestorestoresoil

fertility. Again, the problem lies in this method in that there is no place to relocate the

contaminatedtopsoil(Brammer,2009).

Adifferentapproachtothearsenicincropsdilemmaistoalterthewayfoodiscooked.

Forexample,peelingvegetables,wherelargepercentageofthearsenicresides,beforecooking,

or parboiling arsenic contaminated rice with an excess of water to reduce the arsenic

concentration inthericeandvegetables lowersconsumptionofarsenicbyathird(Brammer,

2009). For farmerswhocanafford it,growingcereals,whichabsorb lessarsenic, in thedry

season,andgrowriceduringrainyseason,wherelessarseniccontaminatedgroundwaterneeds

tobeusedasirrigationinthepaddyfields,isalsoafeasibleoption(Brammer,2009).

The current mitigation methods employed in Vietnam today to purify irrigation are

simplynotenough;theyareonlytemporarymeasurestodelayarsenicpoisoning. Theremoved

topsoilisnotdisposedveryfarawayandinrainyseason,thearsenicwillsimplyleachbackto

groundwaterinthefields. Thesecropscouldhavesuchhighlevelofarsenicthatpeelingthem

or parboiling them would still leave double or triple the amount of recommended arsenic


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34

intake. More researchmustbedone toprovide sustainable longterm solutions tomitigate

arsenicinirrigationwater.

RecommendationsforActiontoRemedyArsenicContaminationThe combat against arsenic contamination in groundwater inVietnam requiresmore

than technologyandavailable treatmentoptions. It requiresagreatereffort toeducate the

citizens,extensive research to customize thebest treatmentoptions foreach troubled area,

andmultiplechangesinlawsandgovernmentimplementation.

Firstly,thereisalargeresearchgapthatmustbefulfilledtosuccessfullymitigatearsenic

ingroundwater inVietnam forcropproduction. Thismeans findingmanagementoptions to

preventandmitigatearseniccontaminationofagriculturallands,conductingmoreresearchon

theexactrisksofarsenicinwaterandfodderoflivestockandotherfoodproductstofindoutat

what concentration is actually safe for livestock to consume, and figuring out what crop

rotationisbestatdifferentareastoabsorbaslittlearsenicaspossible.

Secondly, there needs to be a country wide measure of arsenic concentrations in

drinkingwaterineverytownandeverycity. Theseconcentrationsofarsenic,matchedupwith

theaverageincomeandlivingstyleofthesurroundingpopulation,mustbetakenintoaccount

in picking a customized drinking and cooking water treatment method suitable for the said

population. ThisprojectcanbetakenonbytheVietnamesegovernment,UNICEF,theWorld

HealthOrganization,oracombinationofall,but itmustbedoneassoonaspossibleandas


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35

quicklyaspossibletoprovideasuccessfularsenicmitigationprocessthatwillbefinanciallyand

culturallyacceptedbythepopulation.

Third,

the

government

needs

to

place

emphasis

on

educating

the

population

of

the

dangersofarsenicingroundwaterneartheirhomes,intheirdrinkingwater,andthroughtheir

skinastheywadethroughthepaddyfieldstotendtheircrops. Thiswillencompassagencies

suchastheNationalWaterResourcesCouncilpublishingpamphlets,fliers,andputtingnotices

ontheirwebsitestoalertresidentsthattheyshouldtakeactionoracceptthenewmitigation

effortsintheirtowntofiltertheirdrinkingandcookingwater. Theyshouldbeinformedonwhy

itisimportanttopaytheextracostforsafewater. Theextracostprimarilyappliestotherural

areas,sincetheydonothaveaccesstoprepurifiedbottledwater. Fortheurbanpopulation,

informationonbottledwatercompaniesandtheirstandardsshouldbepublishedtothepublic.

Finally, theVietnamesegovernmentmustchange the legal safearsenicconcentration

fromthecurrent50g/Lto10g/L. Asresearchshows,consumingwaterataconcentrationof

50 g/L is still too high for human health. To accompany this change would be for the

governmenttochangeitsprioritytoenforcingtheimplementationoflawsviaagenciesandto

subsidizewaterpurificationsystemsinareaswherethepopulationcannotaffordtodoso. The

governmentmustalsovehementlyenforcethequalitystandardsonwaterbottlingcompanies

andotherwaterfiltrationcompanies,asthepopulationisfalselybelievingthatthewaterthey

purchaseissafefordrinking. Thiscouldbeaccomplishedbyrequiringthecompaniestoplacea

qualitysealontheirbottlesandhaveannualreviewsfromthegovernment.


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36

Althoughtheabovestepsare listedsequentiallytoshowthedifferentareasthatneed

attention, allof thismusthappen simultaneously. Theproblemhas reached a criticalpoint

wherewaitingaroundfortheresearchtobedone,forthelawstochangeandagenciestobe

setupforimplementation,andeducatingthepublicofthedangeroneafteranotherisnotfast

enough,powerfulenough,orsuccessfulenough. This isacrisis that impactseveryperson in

VietnamandevenpeoplewhoeatthericefromVietnam. Actionmustbetakenimmediatelyto

mitigatefurtherarsenicpoisoninginVietnam.


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37

AppendixI:SchematicsofVariousTreatmentTechnologies(SambouandWilson,2008)Alcan

Enhanced

Activated

Alumina

Filter

ThreeKolshi

PitcherFilter


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38

SONOFilter

Community

Based

Wellhead

Arsenic

Removal

Unit


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39

Stevens

Institute

Technology

Arsenic

Removal

Unit

Shapla

Arsenic

Removal

Filter


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40

PondSand

Filter(PSF)

Rainwater

Harvesting

System

(RWHS)

DugWells


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41

DeepTube

Wells


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42

AcknowledgementsIwouldespecially like togivegratitude toProfessorCharMillerandProfessorCharles

Taylorfor

helping

me

each

through

each

step

ofmy

thesis.

Iam

thankful

tomy

mother,

who

helpedmelocaterelevantsourcesofinformationinVietnameseliterature,somethingIdidnot

knowwheretobeginlooking. IwouldalsoliketogivethankstoWinstonWongforsupporting

methroughmyfrustration,excitement,andtimespentonmythesis.


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