Assessing Value Differences Between Urban and Rural Professionals of the Texas Department of...

Assessing Value Assessing Value DifferencesDifferences

Between Urban and Between Urban and Rural Professionals Rural Professionals

of the Texas Department of the Texas Department of Protective and of Protective and Regulatory Services Regulatory Services (TDPRS) in East Texas, (TDPRS) in East Texas, 20032003

Roger Bruce McNellie, Roger Bruce McNellie, Ph.D.,MSSW,LCSW,LMFT,LPC,DCSWPh.D.,MSSW,LCSW,LMFT,LPC,DCSW

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Purpose of StudyPurpose of Study

To determine if being raised or working in a rural vs. urban environment predicts a significant difference in scores on a values instrument, specifically the Values Scale (VS) (Donald Super & Dorothy Nevill, 1989).

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Dependent Variables:Dependent Variables:•Participant’s scores Participant’s scores

on Values Scales.on Values Scales.

Independent variables:Independent variables:•Working in rural or Working in rural or

non-rural working non-rural working environment, and.environment, and.

•Raised in an urban vs. Raised in an urban vs. rural environment.rural environment.

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Definition of Rural Vs. UrbanDefinition of Rural Vs. Urban

RURAL: Those population RURAL: Those population areas areas not designated as not designated as urban or urbanized areasurban or urbanized areas with with urban or urbanized areas urban or urbanized areas defined as a central city and defined as a central city and the surrounding densely the surrounding densely settled territory that together settled territory that together have a population of 50,000 have a population of 50,000 or more and a population or more and a population density generally exceeding density generally exceeding 1,000 people per square mile. 1,000 people per square mile.

Rural or non-metropolitan Rural or non-metropolitan referred to those geographic referred to those geographic areas 20 miles outside the areas 20 miles outside the city limits of population city limits of population centers of 50,000 or more centers of 50,000 or more people (Bureau of the Census, people (Bureau of the Census, 1990; USGAO, 1993). 1990; USGAO, 1993).

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RURAL WORK SETTING: RURAL WORK SETTING: This referred to the This referred to the location of the location of the professional’s principal professional’s principal office if it met the office if it met the definition of rural. definition of rural.

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RAISED RURAL: The RAISED RURAL: The person was raised person was raised primarily in a rural primarily in a rural setting (self report). setting (self report).

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Values Scale by Donald Super and Values Scale by Donald Super and Dorothy Nevill (1989)Dorothy Nevill (1989)

The Values Scale was created to match The Values Scale was created to match respondents to careers which reflect respondents to careers which reflect similarly held values.similarly held values.

The 21 subscales include:The 21 subscales include:• Ability Utilization,Ability Utilization,• Achievement,Achievement,• Advancement,Advancement,• Aesthetics,Aesthetics,• Altruism,Altruism,• Authority,Authority,• Autonomy,Autonomy,• Creativity,Creativity,• Economic Rewards,Economic Rewards,• Life Style,Life Style,• Personal Development,Personal Development,• Physical Activity,Physical Activity,• Prestige,Prestige,• Risk,Risk,• Social Interaction,Social Interaction,• Social Relations,Social Relations,• Variety,Variety,• Working Conditions,Working Conditions,• Cultural Identity,Cultural Identity,• Physical Prowess, Physical Prowess, and.and.• Economic SecurityEconomic Security (Super & Nevill, (Super & Nevill,

1989).1989).

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Sample QuestionSample Question

It is now or will be in the future be It is now or will be in the future be important for me to …important for me to …

Have lots of funHave lots of fun 1 1 22 3344

Do things with other people, Do things with other people, Work in a group rather than by myself,Work in a group rather than by myself, Be with other people while I work, Be with other people while I work, Have people take time to chat, Have people take time to chat, Deal with a variety of people at work.Deal with a variety of people at work.

1 means of little or no importance1 means of little or no importance

2 means of some importance2 means of some importance

3 means important3 means important

4 means very important4 means very important

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Brief Literature Review: Brief Literature Review: Support Support forfor Differences Differences

Authors (Bachrach, 1977; Authors (Bachrach, 1977; Berry & Davis, 1978; Berry & Davis, 1978; Blouch, 1982; Cowan, 1979; Blouch, 1982; Cowan, 1979; Coward et al., 1983; Flax, Coward et al., 1983; Flax, Wagenfeld, Ivens, & Weiss, Wagenfeld, Ivens, & Weiss, 1979; Kenkel, 1986; 1979; Kenkel, 1986; Putnam, 2000; Wagenfeld & Putnam, 2000; Wagenfeld & Wagenfeld, 1981; Wagenfeld, 1981; Wagenfeld, 1994) have Wagenfeld, 1994) have suggested that rural values suggested that rural values stress the importance of stress the importance of the following:the following:

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self-reliance, self-reliance,

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self-reliance, self-reliance, conservatism, conservatism,

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self-reliance, self-reliance, conservatism, conservatism, distrust of outsiders, distrust of outsiders,

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self-reliance, self-reliance, conservatism, conservatism, distrust of outsiders, distrust of outsiders, religion, religion,

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self-reliance, self-reliance, conservatism, conservatism, distrust of outsiders, distrust of outsiders, religion, religion, work, work, stronger family stronger family

orientation, orientation,

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self-reliance, self-reliance, conservatism, conservatism, distrust of outsiders, distrust of outsiders, religion, religion, work, work, stronger family orientation, stronger family orientation, individualism, and fatalism.individualism, and fatalism.

These studies conclude that These studies conclude that urban counterparts place less urban counterparts place less importance on these importance on these concepts. concepts.

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Oliver (1997) suggests Oliver (1997) suggests that there is a higher that there is a higher degree of involvement degree of involvement in volunteer in volunteer organizations for those organizations for those living in suburban or living in suburban or more rural areas vs. more rural areas vs. urbanurban areas.areas.

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Brief Literature Review: Brief Literature Review: Support for Support for NoNo Differences Differences

Cordes (1990) refutes Cordes (1990) refutes the notion that the the notion that the knowledge, attitudes, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of rural and beliefs of rural people are substantially people are substantially different from those of different from those of urban residents. urban residents.

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Cordes suggests the Cordes suggests the modernization of America modernization of America has brought the city to the has brought the city to the farm, causing a blurring of farm, causing a blurring of any differences that might any differences that might have been present during have been present during America’s frontier days. He America’s frontier days. He suggests that systems of suggests that systems of interstate highways, interstate highways, television, and other mass television, and other mass media have for the most media have for the most part ended the severe part ended the severe isolation of rural areas.isolation of rural areas.

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Melton (1983) suggests Melton (1983) suggests that the evidence in that the evidence in support of rural/urban support of rural/urban value differences is value differences is limited and anecdotal, limited and anecdotal, and that such and that such differences are more of differences are more of a legend or lore than a legend or lore than grounded in fact. grounded in fact.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: Generally supported by Generally supported by

literatureliterature

1.1. May confront life with May confront life with a more fatalistic view.a more fatalistic view.

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1.1. May confront life with a more May confront life with a more fatalistic view.fatalistic view.

2.2. Clannishness, a sense Clannishness, a sense of inferiority, and of inferiority, and mistrust of outsiders.mistrust of outsiders.

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2.2. Clannishness, a sense of inferiority, Clannishness, a sense of inferiority, and mistrust of outsiders.and mistrust of outsiders.

3.3. Less specialized Less specialized practice and more practice and more frequent exposure to frequent exposure to dual relationship dual relationship situations. situations.

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3.3. Less specialized practice and more Less specialized practice and more frequent exposure to dual frequent exposure to dual relationship situations. relationship situations.

4.4. More independent, More independent, more self-sufficient, more self-sufficient, and more extended and more extended family oriented.family oriented.

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3.3. Less specialized practice and more Less specialized practice and more frequent exposure to dual frequent exposure to dual relationship situations. relationship situations.

4.4. More independent, more self-More independent, more self-sufficient, and more extended family sufficient, and more extended family oriented.oriented.

5.5. Stronger interpersonal and Stronger interpersonal and professional relationships with close professional relationships with close ties to the community and a stronger ties to the community and a stronger reliance on informal communication.reliance on informal communication.

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Rural Characteristics: Attitude Rural Characteristics: Attitude and Lifestyle Differencesand Lifestyle Differences

1.1. Less formal decision Less formal decision making processes .making processes .

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1.1. Less formal decision making Less formal decision making processes .processes .

2.2. Less importance Less importance placed on education.placed on education.

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2.2. Less importance placed on Less importance placed on education.education.

3.3. Less satisfied with job Less satisfied with job security and their security and their opportunities for opportunities for training and career training and career advancement.advancement.

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3.3. Less satisfied with job security and Less satisfied with job security and their opportunities for training and their opportunities for training and career advancement.career advancement.

4.4. More importance on More importance on stable lifestyles, stable lifestyles, traditional values, traditional values, informal support informal support networks, and networks, and individualism. individualism.

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4.4. More importance on stable lifestyles, More importance on stable lifestyles, traditional values, informal support traditional values, informal support networks, and individualism. networks, and individualism.

5.5. More satisfied with More satisfied with their lifestyle and the their lifestyle and the friendliness of the friendliness of the community. community.

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5.5. More satisfied with their lifestyle More satisfied with their lifestyle and the friendliness of the and the friendliness of the community. community.

6.6. More satisfied with More satisfied with and positive about job.and positive about job.

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6.6. More satisfied with and positive More satisfied with and positive about job.about job.

7.7. Higher organizational Higher organizational commitment.commitment.

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7.7. Higher organizational commitment.Higher organizational commitment.

8.8. Higher position tenure.Higher position tenure.

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2.2. Less importance placed on education.Less importance placed on education.3.3. Less satisfied with job security and Less satisfied with job security and

their opportunities for training and their opportunities for training and career advancement.career advancement.


5.5. More satisfied with their lifestyle and More satisfied with their lifestyle and the friendliness of the community. the friendliness of the community.


7.7. Higher organizational commitment.Higher organizational commitment.8.8. Higher position tenure.Higher position tenure.

9.9. Higher levels of Higher levels of autonomy and decision autonomy and decision making. making.

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1.1. Less formal decision making processes Less formal decision making processes ..

2.2. Less importance placed on education.Less importance placed on education.3.3. Less satisfied with job security and Less satisfied with job security and

their opportunities for training and their opportunities for training and career advancement.career advancement.


5.5. More satisfied with their lifestyle and More satisfied with their lifestyle and the friendliness of the community. the friendliness of the community.

6.6. More satisfied with and positive about More satisfied with and positive about job.job.

7.7. Higher organizational commitment.Higher organizational commitment.8.8. Higher position tenure.Higher position tenure.9.9. Higher levels of autonomy and Higher levels of autonomy and

decision making. decision making.

10.10.Higher reports of Higher reports of agency support.agency support.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: PrivacyPrivacy

1.1. Privacy viewed as a Privacy viewed as a premium more in premium more in urban areas.urban areas.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: PrivacyPrivacy

1.1. Privacy viewed as a premium more in urban Privacy viewed as a premium more in urban areas.areas.

2.2. The rural individual may The rural individual may view the collection of view the collection of additional relationships additional relationships and community contacts and community contacts as a desired goal in as a desired goal in overcoming feelings of overcoming feelings of isolation, and isolation, and consequently, comes to consequently, comes to the position of holding the position of holding dear all social contacts. dear all social contacts.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: Community IssuesCommunity Issues

1.1. In general, moral In general, moral precepts about social precepts about social and community and community concerns may be concerns may be relatively more relatively more important to rural important to rural people than to urban people than to urban as related to religious as related to religious influences or influences or reciprocity. reciprocity.

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1.1. In general, moral precepts about In general, moral precepts about social and community concerns may social and community concerns may be relatively more important to rural be relatively more important to rural people than to urban as related to people than to urban as related to religious influences or reciprocity. religious influences or reciprocity.

2.2. More participation in More participation in civic functions.civic functions.

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1.1. In general, moral precepts about In general, moral precepts about social and community concerns may social and community concerns may be relatively more important to rural be relatively more important to rural people than to urban as related to people than to urban as related to religious influences or reciprocity. religious influences or reciprocity.

2.2. More participation in civic functions.More participation in civic functions.

3.3. It is much clearer in a It is much clearer in a rural setting that the rural setting that the welfare of its members welfare of its members are inextricably are inextricably connected. connected.

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1.1. In general, moral precepts about social In general, moral precepts about social and community concerns may be and community concerns may be relatively more important to rural people relatively more important to rural people than to urban as related to religious than to urban as related to religious influences or reciprocity. influences or reciprocity.

2.2. More participation in civic functions.More participation in civic functions.3.3. It is much clearer in a rural setting that It is much clearer in a rural setting that

the welfare of its members are the welfare of its members are inextricably connected. inextricably connected.

4.4. Stronger social sanctions Stronger social sanctions applied to people who applied to people who don't reciprocate in don't reciprocate in helping one another or helping one another or who do not participate in who do not participate in the social life of the the social life of the community. community.

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4.4. Stronger social sanctions applied to Stronger social sanctions applied to people who don't reciprocate in helping people who don't reciprocate in helping one another or who do not participate in one another or who do not participate in the social life of the community.the social life of the community.

5.5. In an urban area, there In an urban area, there are few needs that cannot are few needs that cannot be easily met through be easily met through readily available readily available resources.resources.

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4.4. Stronger social sanctions applied to Stronger social sanctions applied to people who don't reciprocate in helping people who don't reciprocate in helping one another or who do not participate in one another or who do not participate in the social life of the community.the social life of the community.

5.5. In an urban area, there are few needs In an urban area, there are few needs that cannot be easily met through readily that cannot be easily met through readily available resources. available resources.

6.6. In a rural setting resources are In a rural setting resources are often dependent on calling upon often dependent on calling upon a neighbor, friend, or family a neighbor, friend, or family member for assistance and member for assistance and reflect a sense of quid pro quo reflect a sense of quid pro quo or reciprocity. or reciprocity.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: Race IssuesRace Issues

1.1. Rural areas often track Rural areas often track behind urban areas in behind urban areas in race relations. race relations.

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1.1. Rural areas often track behind urban Rural areas often track behind urban areas in race relations. areas in race relations.

2.2. Often the access to a Often the access to a diverse environment is diverse environment is more limited and the more limited and the level of diversity is level of diversity is more fixed or static.more fixed or static.

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1.1. Rural areas often track behind urban Rural areas often track behind urban areas in race relations. areas in race relations.

2.2. Often the access to a diverse Often the access to a diverse environment is more limited and the environment is more limited and the level of diversity is more fixed or static. level of diversity is more fixed or static.

3.3. People raised in rural People raised in rural communities tend to communities tend to know each other in know each other in certain roles that may certain roles that may remain static remain static throughout their lives.throughout their lives.

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Rural Characteristics: SalariesRural Characteristics: Salaries

1.1. Lower salaries. Lower salaries. Promotions less likely. Promotions less likely.

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1.1. Lower salaries. Promotions less likely. Lower salaries. Promotions less likely.

2.2. Limited pay/limited Limited pay/limited recruiting/limited recruiting/limited diversity in the diversity in the workforce. workforce.

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2.2. Limited pay/limited recruiting/limited Limited pay/limited recruiting/limited diversity in the workforce. diversity in the workforce.

3.3. Rural work faces Rural work faces statistical problems in statistical problems in funding. funding.

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2.2. Limited pay/limited recruiting/limited Limited pay/limited recruiting/limited diversity in the workforce. diversity in the workforce.

3.3. Rural work faces statistical problems in Rural work faces statistical problems in funding. funding.

4.4. Lower levels of Lower levels of education and education and sophistication in legal sophistication in legal and professional work.and professional work.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: Limited ResourcesLimited Resources

1.1. Social services and Social services and resources are often resources are often lacking in rural areas. lacking in rural areas.

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1.1. Social services and resources are often Social services and resources are often lacking in rural areas. lacking in rural areas.

2.2. Transportation Transportation resources limited. resources limited.

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2.2. Transportation resources limited. Transportation resources limited.

3.3. Providers must cover Providers must cover large geographic large geographic areas. areas.

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2.2. Transportation resources limited. Transportation resources limited.

3.3. Providers must cover large geographic Providers must cover large geographic areas. areas.

4.4. More costly and More costly and limited telephone limited telephone services.services.

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Rural Characteristics: Rural Characteristics: SupervisionSupervision

1.1. Limited direct Limited direct supervision. More supervision. More autonomy and autonomy and responsibility requiredresponsibility required..

5555


1.1. Limited direct supervision. More Limited direct supervision. More autonomy and responsibility required.autonomy and responsibility required.

2.2. Responsible for a Responsible for a broader range of broader range of services.services.

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1.1. Limited direct supervision. More Limited direct supervision. More autonomy and responsibility required.autonomy and responsibility required.

2.2. Responsible for a broader range of Responsible for a broader range of services.services.

3.3. Generic or generalist Generic or generalist approach to case work approach to case work more often required. more often required. Lack of or less Lack of or less specialization.specialization.

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Rural Characteristics: Sources of Rural Characteristics: Sources of Unique ValuesUnique Values

1.1. Outgrowth of family Outgrowth of family constellations settling constellations settling in same geographic in same geographic area.area.

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1.1. Outgrowth of family constellations Outgrowth of family constellations settling in same geographic area.settling in same geographic area.

2.2. Family becomes the Family becomes the central point of the central point of the community.community.

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2.2. Family becomes the central point of Family becomes the central point of the community.the community.

3.3. At the point that a At the point that a family begins to place family begins to place increasing value on increasing value on privacy, then the value privacy, then the value of contacts outside the of contacts outside the family begin to fall off. family begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors The family’s behaviors begin to reflect values begin to reflect values that place personal that place personal privacy higher than privacy higher than before and the value before and the value placed on social capital placed on social capital may be diminished.may be diminished.

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3.3. At the point that a family begins to At the point that a family begins to place increasing value on privacy, place increasing value on privacy, then the value of contacts outside then the value of contacts outside the family begin to fall off. The the family begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to reflect family’s behaviors begin to reflect values that place personal privacy values that place personal privacy higher than before and the value higher than before and the value placed on social capital may be placed on social capital may be diminished.diminished.

4.4. Isolation reduces social Isolation reduces social controls. Greater controls. Greater autonomy of the autonomy of the family. family.

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3.3. At the point that a family begins to At the point that a family begins to place increasing value on privacy, place increasing value on privacy, then the value of contacts outside then the value of contacts outside the family begin to fall off. The the family begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to reflect family’s behaviors begin to reflect values that place personal privacy values that place personal privacy higher than before and the value higher than before and the value placed on social capital may be placed on social capital may be diminished.diminished.

4.4. Isolation reduces social controls. Isolation reduces social controls. Greater autonomy of the family. Greater autonomy of the family.

5.5. Family’s business Family’s business intensely private.intensely private.. .

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2.2. Family becomes the central point of the Family becomes the central point of the community.community.

3.3. At the point that a family begins to place At the point that a family begins to place increasing value on privacy, then the increasing value on privacy, then the value of contacts outside the family begin value of contacts outside the family begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to reflect values that place personal privacy reflect values that place personal privacy higher than before and the value placed higher than before and the value placed on social capital may be diminished.on social capital may be diminished.

4.4. Isolation reduces social controls. Greater Isolation reduces social controls. Greater autonomy of the family. autonomy of the family.

5.5. Family’s business intensely private.Family’s business intensely private.

6.6. Individuals are Individuals are responsible for responsible for themselves and they themselves and they should not expect or look should not expect or look for help. for help.

7.7. People are blamed for needing help.People are blamed for needing help.

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2.2. Family becomes the central point of the Family becomes the central point of the community.community.

3.3. At the point that a family begins to At the point that a family begins to place increasing value on privacy, then place increasing value on privacy, then the value of contacts outside the family the value of contacts outside the family begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to fall off. The family’s behaviors begin to reflect values that place begin to reflect values that place personal privacy higher than before personal privacy higher than before and the value placed on social capital and the value placed on social capital may be diminished.may be diminished.

4.4. Isolation reduces social controls. Isolation reduces social controls. Greater autonomy of the family. Greater autonomy of the family.

5.5. Family’s business intensely private.Family’s business intensely private.6.6. Individuals are responsible for Individuals are responsible for

themselves and they should not expect themselves and they should not expect or look for help. or look for help.

7.7. People are blamed for People are blamed for needing help.needing help.

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Focus of StudyFocus of StudySocial CapitalSocial Capital

From the literature, many From the literature, many of the possible differences of the possible differences between rural and urban between rural and urban groups are related to the groups are related to the concept of Social Capital.concept of Social Capital.

Social Capital refers to the Social Capital refers to the level of good will, level of good will, fellowship, sympathy, and fellowship, sympathy, and social intercourse among social intercourse among the individuals and families the individuals and families who make up a social unit.who make up a social unit.

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Focus of StudyFocus of StudySocial CapitalSocial Capital

In the study, Social Capital In the study, Social Capital was assumed to be was assumed to be reflected by the reflected by the combination of the Values combination of the Values Scales:Scales: Altruism Altruism, , Social Social InteractionInteraction, and , and Social Social RelationsRelations. Scale items 15, . Scale items 15, 16, 37, and 99 from these 16, 37, and 99 from these three scales were recoded three scales were recoded for order of direction in for order of direction in developing the Social developing the Social Capital Scale.Capital Scale.

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HypothesisHypothesis

That rural professionals That rural professionals were expected to score were expected to score higher than urban higher than urban professionals on a professionals on a Social Capital scale Social Capital scale defined as the defined as the combination of the combination of the Values Scales Values Scales AltruismAltruism, , Social InteractionSocial Interaction, and , and Social RelationsSocial Relations. .

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Related hypothesesRelated hypotheses

•That working rural That working rural professionals were professionals were expected to score higher expected to score higher on each of the twenty-one on each of the twenty-one scales than working urban scales than working urban professionals.professionals.

•That those raised in rural That those raised in rural areas were expected to areas were expected to score higher on the score higher on the twenty-one scales than twenty-one scales than those raised in urban those raised in urban areas. areas.

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Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale AltruismAltruism

• Item 5. Help people with problems, Item 5. Help people with problems, • Item 26. Be involved in work in which the Item 26. Be involved in work in which the

goal is helping people, goal is helping people, • Item 47. Work in a way that makes the Item 47. Work in a way that makes the

world a better place, world a better place, • Item 68. Improve the welfare and the Item 68. Improve the welfare and the

peace of the world, and peace of the world, and • Item 89. Do work which improves things Item 89. Do work which improves things

for other people. for other people.

Social InteractionSocial Interaction• Item 15. Do things with other people, Item 15. Do things with other people, * * • Item 36. Work in a group rather than by Item 36. Work in a group rather than by

myself,myself,• Item 57. Be with other people while I work, Item 57. Be with other people while I work,

• Item 78. Have people take time to chat, Item 78. Have people take time to chat,

and and • Item 99. Deal with a variety of people at Item 99. Deal with a variety of people at

work. work. * *

Social Relations.Social Relations.• Item 16. Be with friends, Item 16. Be with friends, **• Item 37. Do things with people I like, Item 37. Do things with people I like, **• Item 58. Be with my kind of people,Item 58. Be with my kind of people,• Item 79. Have a job where I can easily Item 79. Have a job where I can easily

make friends, and.make friends, and.• Item 100. Work where there are friendly Item 100. Work where there are friendly

people. (Super & Nevill, 1989). people. (Super & Nevill, 1989). ((** recoded for direction) recoded for direction)

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Statistical Analyses UsedStatistical Analyses Used

Descriptive statistics were Descriptive statistics were collected on the demographic collected on the demographic information to profile the rural information to profile the rural and urban groups of and urban groups of professionals. professionals.

T-tests were used to assess the T-tests were used to assess the differences in the value scores differences in the value scores for the urban and rural for the urban and rural professional groups. professional groups.

Spearman correlation analyses Spearman correlation analyses of the individual items and the of the individual items and the Values Scales were used to Values Scales were used to determine a set of value traits determine a set of value traits that distinguish between rural that distinguish between rural and urban participants and their and urban participants and their demographics. demographics.

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DemographicsDemographics

Females comprised 80% Females comprised 80% of the sample. of the sample.

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Females comprised 80% of Females comprised 80% of the sample. the sample.

The average age was 42 The average age was 42 years with a fairly even years with a fairly even distribution between distribution between those in their thirties, those in their thirties, forties, and fifties. forties, and fifties.

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Females comprised 80% of Females comprised 80% of the sample. the sample.

The average age was 42 The average age was 42 years with a fairly even years with a fairly even distribution between those distribution between those in their thirties, forties, and in their thirties, forties, and fifties. fifties.

Over 60% had only a Over 60% had only a Bachelors degree with Bachelors degree with nearly 20% holding at nearly 20% holding at least one graduate least one graduate degree. degree.

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Females comprised 80% of the Females comprised 80% of the sample. sample.

The average age was 42 years The average age was 42 years with a fairly even distribution with a fairly even distribution between those in their thirties, between those in their thirties, forties, and fifties. forties, and fifties.

Over 60% had only a Bachelors Over 60% had only a Bachelors degree with nearly 20% holding degree with nearly 20% holding at least one graduate degree. at least one graduate degree.

Over 65 percent were Over 65 percent were married.married.

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Females comprised 80% of the sample. Females comprised 80% of the sample.

The average age was 42 years with a The average age was 42 years with a fairly even distribution between those fairly even distribution between those in their thirties, forties, and fifties. in their thirties, forties, and fifties.

Over 60% had only a Bachelors degree Over 60% had only a Bachelors degree with nearly 20% holding at least one with nearly 20% holding at least one graduate degree. graduate degree.

Over 65 percent were married. Over 65 percent were married.

About half reported About half reported working in a rural area working in a rural area (55%). (55%).

Sixty percent reported Sixty percent reported being raised in a rural being raised in a rural environment. See Table environment. See Table 2. 2.

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Table 2: Sample Frequencies, N = 238Table 2: Sample Frequencies, N = 238Sample Aspects Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

Gender Males 46 19.3 19.3

Females 192 80.7 100.0

Age by Decade

Twenties 37 15.5 15.5

Thirties 58 24.4 39.9

Forties 74 31.1 71.0

Fifties 60 25.2 96.2

Sixties 9 3.8 100.0

Educational Level

Bachelors Degree 150 63.0 63.0

Some Graduate Work 42 17.6 80.7

Graduate Degree 46 19.3 100.0

Marital Status Single 42 17.6 17.6

Married 155 65.1 82.8

Widowed 3 1.3 84.0

Divorced 38 16.0 100.0

Working Environment

Urban 106 44.5 44.5

Rural 132 55.5 100.0

Where Raised Rural 143 60.1 60.1

Urban 95 39.9 100.0

Total N 238 100 100

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Findings:Findings:Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale and and Working in a Rural AreaWorking in a Rural Area

A two-tailed independent A two-tailed independent samples t-test using alpha samples t-test using alpha level .01 indicated a level .01 indicated a significant difference significant difference between the values of the between the values of the Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale for for those working in a rural those working in a rural area (area (MM = 38.13, = 38.13, SDSD = 3.88) = 3.88) vs. in an urban area (vs. in an urban area (MM = = 39.93, 39.93, SDSD = 3.44) = 3.44), t, t(236) = (236) = -3.75, -3.75, pp = .00. = .00. The The Social Social CapitalCapital scale scores were scale scores were negatively related to negatively related to working in a rural area (working in a rural area (rr = = -.24, -.24, pp < .01). See Table 3. < .01). See Table 3.

7777

Findings:Findings:Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale and and Working in a Rural AreaWorking in a Rural Area

Implication: High values given to Implication: High values given to Altruism, Social Interaction, aAltruism, Social Interaction, andnd Social Relations Social Relations as reflected by as reflected by the the Social CapitalSocial Capital scale were less scale were less likely to be associated with likely to be associated with working in a rural area. working in a rural area.

The strength of this relationship, The strength of this relationship, with with tt(236) = -3.75, (236) = -3.75, pp = .00 and = .00 and with N1 = 106 and N2 = 132, is with N1 = 106 and N2 = 132, is represented by Omega squared represented by Omega squared or or w² = (t² - 1)/(t² + n1 + n2 – 1) w² = (t² - 1)/(t² + n1 + n2 – 1) = .05. This means 5% of the total = .05. This means 5% of the total variance in the variance in the Social Capital Social Capital Scale Scale can be accounted for by can be accounted for by the difference in the two group’s the difference in the two group’s values. values.

7878

Table 3: Correlations Between Social Table 3: Correlations Between Social Capital Scale and Capital Scale and Working Environment Working Environment

and Where Raised.and Where Raised.

WORKNG = Working EnvironmentWORKNG = Working Environment RAIRUR = Where RaisedRAIRUR = Where Raised S24 = S24 = Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale Score Score

Correlations between Working Environment and Where Raised and the Social Capital Scale Rural = 1; Urban =

0

1.000 .426** -.241**

. .000 .000

238 238 238

.426** 1.000 -.161*

.000 . .013

238 238 238

-.241** -.161* 1.000

.000 .013 .

238 238 238

Correlation Coefficient

Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Working

Environ-

ment

Raised

Rural

Social

Capital

Scale

Spearman's rho

WORKNG RAIRUR S24

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).**.

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).*.

7979

Findings:Findings:Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale and Being and Being

Raised in a Rural AreaRaised in a Rural Area

A t-test indicated a A t-test indicated a significant difference on significant difference on the the Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale for for those raised in a rural area those raised in a rural area ((MM = 38.47, = 38.47, SDSD = 4.03) vs. = 4.03) vs. those raised in an urban those raised in an urban area (area (MM = 39.63, = 39.63, SDSD = = 3.31)3.31), t, t(236) = - 2.34, (236) = - 2.34, pp = .02.= .02. Being Raised in Rural Being Raised in Rural Environment showed a Environment showed a negative correlation to the negative correlation to the Social CapitalSocial Capital scale ( scale (rr = = -.16, -.16, pp < .05). See Table 3. < .05). See Table 3.

8080

Findings:Findings:Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale and Being and Being

Raised in a Rural AreaRaised in a Rural Area

Implication: High values given Implication: High values given to to Altruism, Social Interaction, Altruism, Social Interaction, aandnd Social Relations Social Relations as reflected as reflected by the by the Social CapitalSocial Capital scale were scale were less likely to be associated with less likely to be associated with being raised in a rural area. being raised in a rural area.

The strength or power of this The strength or power of this relationship with relationship with tt(236) = -2.34, (236) = -2.34, pp = .02, and with N1 = 95 and = .02, and with N1 = 95 and N2 =143, is represented by N2 =143, is represented by Omega squared Omega squared w² = (t² - 1)/(t² w² = (t² - 1)/(t² + n1 + n2 – 1), + n1 + n2 – 1), or or w² w² = .02. This = .02. This means only 2% of the total means only 2% of the total variance in the variance in the Social Capital Social Capital Scale Scale can be accounted for by can be accounted for by the difference in the two the difference in the two group’s values.group’s values.

8181

Table 3: Correlations Between Social Table 3: Correlations Between Social Capital Scale and Capital Scale and Working Environment Working Environment

and Where Raised.and Where Raised.

WORKNG = Working EnvironmentWORKNG = Working Environment RAIRUR = Where RaisedRAIRUR = Where Raised S24 = S24 = Social Capital ScaleSocial Capital Scale Score Score

Correlations between Working Environment and Where Raised and the Social Capital Scale Rural = 1; Urban = 0

1.000 .426** -.241**

. .000 .000

238 238 238

.426** 1.000 -.161*

.000 . .013

238 238 238

-.241** -.161* 1.000

.000 .013 .

238 238 238


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Working

Environ-

ment

Raised

Rural

Social

Capital

Scale

Spearman's rho

WORKNG RAIRUR S24

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).**.

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).*.

8282

Working EnvironmentWorking Environment

Working in a rural area Working in a rural area was inversely related to was inversely related to the Values Scale the Values Scale Economic SecurityEconomic Security ( (rr = = -.15, -.15, pp < .05) < .05)..

8383

Where RaisedWhere Raised

Being raised in a rural Being raised in a rural area was negatively area was negatively related to related to Ability Ability UtilizationUtilization ( (rr = -.13, = -.13, pp < .05). < .05).

8484

Items Positively Related to Items Positively Related to Working in an Urban Working in an Urban Environment .Environment .

Item 11. Develop as a person.Item 11. Develop as a person. Item 21. Be where employment Item 21. Be where employment

is regular and secure.is regular and secure. Item 52. Work at what I want to Item 52. Work at what I want to

when I want to.when I want to. Item 58. Be with my kind of Item 58. Be with my kind of

people.people. Item 63. Have a secure position.Item 63. Have a secure position. Item 68. Improve the welfare Item 68. Improve the welfare

and peace of the world.and peace of the world. Item 102. Have a comfortable Item 102. Have a comfortable

temperature at work.temperature at work.

8585

Items Related positively to Items Related positively to Those Raised in an Urban Those Raised in an Urban Area: .Area: .

Item 18. Have good space Item 18. Have good space and light in which to work.and light in which to work.

Item 22. Do work that takes Item 22. Do work that takes advantage of my abilities.advantage of my abilities.

Item 28. Make my own Item 28. Make my own decisions at work.decisions at work.

Item 58. Be with my kind of Item 58. Be with my kind of people.people.

Item 104. Carry heavy loads.Item 104. Carry heavy loads.

8686

Analysis of Findings:Analysis of Findings:

Hypothesis SupportedHypothesis Supported

The relationships The relationships between work between work environment and where environment and where one was raised and one was raised and several of the Values several of the Values Scales were significant Scales were significant along with several along with several demographic aspects of demographic aspects of the group. the group.

8787


Hypothesis SupportedHypothesis Supported

The relationships between work The relationships between work environment and where one was raised environment and where one was raised and several of the Values Scales were and several of the Values Scales were significant along with several demographic significant along with several demographic aspects of the group. aspects of the group.

The The Social CapitalSocial Capital scale scale showed a significant showed a significant relationship with both relationship with both working environment working environment and where raised. and where raised.

8888


Hypothesis SupportedHypothesis Supported The relationships between work environment and The relationships between work environment and

where one was raised and several of the Values where one was raised and several of the Values Scales were significant along with several Scales were significant along with several demographic aspects of the group. demographic aspects of the group.

The The Social CapitalSocial Capital scale showed a significant scale showed a significant relationship with both working environment and relationship with both working environment and where raised. where raised.

Differences were found, even Differences were found, even though they were weak and though they were weak and in a direction different that in a direction different that what was supposed. The what was supposed. The inverse relationship that was inverse relationship that was noted in the study is counter noted in the study is counter to the direction noted in the to the direction noted in the hypothesis of the study and hypothesis of the study and to some of the literature that to some of the literature that suggests that there are no suggests that there are no differences between the two differences between the two groups. groups.

8989

Social CapitalSocial Capital ScaleScale Profile ProfileWorking in an urban area is associated Working in an urban area is associated

with higher values on the following with higher values on the following list of value items:list of value items:

Altruism:Altruism: Item 5. Help people with problemsItem 5. Help people with problems. . Item 26. Be involved in work in which Item 26. Be involved in work in which

the goal is helping people. the goal is helping people. Item 47. Work in a way that makes the Item 47. Work in a way that makes the

world a better place. world a better place. Item 68. Improve the welfare and Item 68. Improve the welfare and

peace of the world. peace of the world. Item 89. Do work which improves Item 89. Do work which improves

things for other people. things for other people. Social Interaction: Social Interaction: Item 36. Work in a group rather than Item 36. Work in a group rather than

by myself. by myself. Item 57. Be with other people while I Item 57. Be with other people while I

work. work. Item 78. Have people take time to Item 78. Have people take time to

chat. chat. Social Relations:Social Relations: Item 58. Be with my kind of people. Item 58. Be with my kind of people. Item 79. Have a job where I can easily Item 79. Have a job where I can easily

make friends. make friends. Item 100. Work where there are Item 100. Work where there are

friendly people (Super & Nevill, 1989). friendly people (Super & Nevill, 1989).

9090

Social CapitalSocial Capital ScaleScale Profile Profile

Working in an urban area Working in an urban area is associated with lower is associated with lower values on the following values on the following list of value statements:list of value statements:

Social Interaction:Social Interaction: Item 15. Do things with Item 15. Do things with

other people. other people. Item 99. Deal with a Item 99. Deal with a

variety of people at variety of people at work. work.

Social Relations:Social Relations: Item 16. Be with Item 16. Be with

friends. friends. Item 37. do things with Item 37. do things with

people I like. (Super & people I like. (Super & Nevill, 1989). Nevill, 1989).

9191

Social CapitalSocial Capital ScaleScale Profile Profile ApplicationsApplications

Anticipate the needs of Anticipate the needs of the groups as they the groups as they participate in training participate in training or in improving or in improving supervisor-supervisee supervisor-supervisee relationships. relationships.

9292


Anticipate the needs of the Anticipate the needs of the groups as they participate in groups as they participate in training or in improving training or in improving supervisor-supervisee supervisor-supervisee relationships. relationships.

Insight into what may Insight into what may best motivate staff. best motivate staff.

9393


Anticipate the needs of the groups Anticipate the needs of the groups as they participate in training or as they participate in training or in improving supervisor-in improving supervisor-supervisee relationships. supervisee relationships.

Insight into what may best Insight into what may best motivate staff. motivate staff.

Promoting more Promoting more interchange between the interchange between the group members and group members and focusing on joint focusing on joint exercises that promote exercises that promote increased closeness and increased closeness and sharing of professional sharing of professional and personal information. and personal information.

9494

Working Rural ItemsWorking Rural Items and and ApplicationsApplications

Values profile associated Values profile associated with working in a rural with working in a rural area.area.

Higher values on Higher values on developing as a person,developing as a person,

Being where employment is Being where employment is regular and secure,regular and secure,

Working where and when Working where and when they want to,they want to,

Being with their kind of Being with their kind of people,people,

Having a secure position, Having a secure position, and.and.

Having a comfortable Having a comfortable temperature at work.temperature at work.

9595

Raised Rural ScaleRaised Rural Scale Profile and Profile and ApplicationsApplications

Values profile associated Values profile associated with being raised rural.with being raised rural.

Good space and light in Good space and light in which to work,which to work,

Doing work that takes Doing work that takes advantage of their abilities,advantage of their abilities,

Making their own decisions Making their own decisions at work,at work,

Being with ‘my’ kind of Being with ‘my’ kind of people, and.people, and.

Carrying heavy loads.Carrying heavy loads.

9696

Ad-hoc Analysis:Ad-hoc Analysis:Those Raised in Urban AreasThose Raised in Urban Areas

For those raised in an urban For those raised in an urban environment there was a environment there was a significant negative significant negative relationship with working in a relationship with working in a rural environment (rural environment (rr = -.21, = -.21, pp < .05) and < .05) and Economic Security.Economic Security.

For those raised in an urban For those raised in an urban area there were negative area there were negative relationships between age and relationships between age and the Values Scales of the Values Scales of AdvancementAdvancement ( (rr = -.23, = -.23, pp < .05)< .05) and Social Relations and Social Relations ( (rr = -.22, = -.22, pp < .05). < .05).

There was a positive There was a positive relationship between Age and relationship between Age and AltruismAltruism ( (rr = .30, = .30, pp < .01) for < .01) for those raised in urban areas. those raised in urban areas.

9797

Limitations of StudyLimitations of Study

Relatively small and unique Relatively small and unique study sample. study sample.

The Values Scale (Super & The Values Scale (Super & Nevill, 1989) was originally Nevill, 1989) was originally intended as a tool for intended as a tool for counselors to use in assisting counselors to use in assisting others in determining career others in determining career interests. Though it appears to interests. Though it appears to track values well, its approach track values well, its approach may not effectively measure may not effectively measure differences among this specific differences among this specific population. population.

The ambiguous definition of the The ambiguous definition of the term rural.term rural.

9898

Recommendations and Recommendations and Directions for Future ResearchDirections for Future Research

Common set of terms that differentiate Common set of terms that differentiate between rural vs. urban is needed. between rural vs. urban is needed.

Replication of study with general Replication of study with general population of the same area. population of the same area.

Replication of study in different parts of Replication of study in different parts of the nation. the nation.

A similar study examining differences in A similar study examining differences in values among different ethnic and racial values among different ethnic and racial groups in rural and urban areas.groups in rural and urban areas.

Finally, comparative studies of groups of Finally, comparative studies of groups of individuals having closely matched individuals having closely matched demographics including gender, race, demographics including gender, race, educational level, size of town, specific educational level, size of town, specific jobs, and marital status would be helpful to jobs, and marital status would be helpful to see if the issues of rural or urban life might see if the issues of rural or urban life might have more significance if other factors have more significance if other factors were controlled. were controlled.

9999

100100

GrandsonGrandson

101101

mcnellie.com/values.rtfmcnellie.com/values.rtf

mcnellie.com/apafinal.pptmcnellie.com/apafinal.ppt

http://www.projectbelize.orghttp://www.projectbelize.org

GrandsonGrandson

102102

Spearman CorrelationSpearman Correlation

Spearman's rho is a measure of the linear Spearman's rho is a measure of the linear relationship between two variables. The relationship between two variables. The Spearman Spearman rhorho is a product-moment is a product-moment correlation coefficient, much like the correlation coefficient, much like the Pearson r. It differs from Pearson’s Pearson r. It differs from Pearson’s correlation in that the computations are correlation in that the computations are done after the numbers are converted to done after the numbers are converted to ranks. Spearman ranks. Spearman rhorho is used when is used when participants are ranked on both variables. participants are ranked on both variables.

Spearman's rho can be computed with the Spearman's rho can be computed with the formula for Pearson's r using ranked data. formula for Pearson's r using ranked data. Spearman's rho is called a rank-Spearman's rho is called a rank-randomization test.randomization test.

The Spearman Rho correlation provides the The Spearman Rho correlation provides the magnitude and direction of the association magnitude and direction of the association between two variables that are on an between two variables that are on an interval or ratio scale. interval or ratio scale.

103103

Spearman Correlation CalculationSpearman Correlation Calculation

Calculation of Rho is done by ranking the Calculation of Rho is done by ranking the pairs.pairs.

Six and one are constants.Six and one are constants.D is the difference between the two ranks D is the difference between the two ranks squared. N is the number of participants.squared. N is the number of participants.

104104

T-test CalculationT-test Calculation

M1 is the mean of the group with the higher meanM1 is the mean of the group with the higher meanM2 is the mean of the group with the lower meanM2 is the mean of the group with the lower mean

SDM is the standard error of the difference between SDM is the standard error of the difference between meansmeansN1 is the number of cases in group 1N1 is the number of cases in group 1N2 is the number of cases in group 2N2 is the number of cases in group 2s1 is the standard deviation of group 1, which will s1 is the standard deviation of group 1, which will then be squaredthen be squareds2 is the standard deviation of group 2, which will s2 is the standard deviation of group 2, which will then be squaredthen be squared

105105

T-test Calculation T-test Calculation ContinuedContinued

The valueThe value t t is called the observed value of is called the observed value of tt. To compute significance, the degrees of . To compute significance, the degrees of freedom Df= N1+N2-2 is compared to the freedom Df= N1+N2-2 is compared to the t t value against a table of standard values to value against a table of standard values to determine the level of significance.determine the level of significance.

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Assessing Value Differences Between Urban and Rural Professionals of the Texas Department of...

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