BAUMEISTER, Roy F. - Meanings of Life

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Meaningsof Life

Roy F. Baumeister

THE GUILFORD PRESSNew York Lonon

! "##" T$e Gui%&or Press' Di(ision o& Gui%&or Pu)%i*ations+ In*.,- Srin/ Street+ New York+ N. Y. "00"-

'%% ri/$ts reser(e

No art o& t$is )ook may )e rerou*e+ store in a retrie(a% system+ or

transmitte+ in any &orm or )y any means+ e%e*troni*+ me*$ani*a%+ $oto*o1yin/+ mi*ro&i%min/+ re*orin/+ or ot$erwise+ wit$out written ermission &romt$e Pu)%is$er.

Printe in t$e Unite States o& 'meri*a

T$is )ook is rinte on a*i1&ree aer.

Last i/it is rint num)er2 # 3 , 4 5 6 7

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Baumeister+ Roy F.

Meanings of life8 )y Roy F. Baumeister.. *m.

In*%ues )i)%io/ra$i*a% re&eren*es an ine9.ISBN 013#34-1,471: ;*%ot$< 013#34-157"1# ;aer)a*kt$at is+ w$ene(er I noti*e t$at a si@a)%e amount o& new in&ormation$a sim%y *on&irme re(ious e(ien*e wit$out ro(iin/ anyt$in/ su)stantia%%y newor i&&erent on t$e *on*etua% %e(e%. 's I sai+ I /enera%%y rea somew$at &urt$er Austto )e sa&e+ )ut t$at was t$e &ina% sta/e+ un%ess somet$in/ new an imortant

emer/e t$en or %ater.

'sie &rom t$e ro)%em o& *o%%e*tin/ e(ien*e+ t$ere is t$e ro)%em o& $ow to resentit+ an t$e *entra% i%emma is $ow to a*$ie(e a )a%an*e )etween in1et$ *o(era/eo& a &ew main oints an &inin/s+ an more suer&i*ia% )ut )roaer *o(era/e. ' )ookon meanin/ $as to e(e%o t$e *onte9ts an im%i*ations o& t$e key toi*s it *o(ers+an in*om%ete *o(era/e wou% etra*t &rom t$e s*ienti&i* (a%ue. On t$e ot$er $an+it is ossi)%e to /o o(er)oar an make t$is a t$orou/$ )ut %a)orious%y s%ow1mo(in/work. =any &irst ra&ts o& *$aters *ontaine etai%e is*ussions o& *ertain resear*$%iteratures+ w$i*$ re(iewers uni&orm%y &e%t seeme %ike %on/ i/ressions. ' we%%1written )ook ou/$t to e(ote sa*e to ea*$ toi* in roortion to its imortan*e tot$e )ooks ar/ument )ut $ow oes one re*on*i%e t$at wis$ wit$ t$e o**asiona%

resen*e o& o@ens o& stuies an *ontro(ersia% *om%e9ities on toi*s t$at wou%seemin/%y eser(e on%y a a/e or two One so%ution $as )een to mo(e some o& t$ese%en/t$y re(iews to 'eni*es. T$at way+ e9erts an eo%e wit$ arti*u%ar

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interests *an s*rutini@e t$e e(ien*e+ w$i%e ot$ers o not $a(e to wae t$rou/$ a/ea&ter a/e o& tan/entia% materia%.

T$is )ook $as )een t$e most i&&i*u%t )ut a%so t$e most stimu%atin/ an satis&yin/resear*$ roAe*t o& my *areer+ an I am ine)te to t$e many eo%e w$o aie me

in (arious ways. I arti*u%ar%y wis$ to t$ank To Heat$erton+ Dan e/ner+ PeterSa%o(ey+ Nan*y ?antor+ an =ina Tess%er &or t$eir en*oura/ement an su//estions.Seymour ein/artens eitoria% /uian*e $as )een we%*ome an (a%ua)%e. I am/rate&u% to t$e many stuents in seminars w$o $e%e me re&ine (arious ieas. T$esuort o& ?ase estern Reser(e Uni(ersity $as )een a /reat $e%+ an mostnoti*ea)%y my re*ent eartment *$airman+ ?%e(e Gi%more+ /reat%y &a*i%itate mye&&orts on t$is )ook. I a%so )ene&ite /reat%y &rom my sa))ati*a% at t$e Uni(ersity o&Te9as+ arti*u%ar%y t$e *onta*ts wit$ Bi%% Swann an Dan Gi%)ert. ')o(e a%%+ I amee%y ine)te to t$e mu%ti&a*ete *ontri)utions o& Dianne Ti*e+ w$o $e%e ansuorte me in a%% sta/es o& t$is work an in a%% its arts.

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ContentsPART I

Basic Patterns of Life and Meaning

ONE Who Says Life Has No Meaning? 3

TWO Coming to Terms with Meaning 12

THREE The Four Needs for Meaning: An Existentia 29

Sho!!ing List

FOUR The Myth of Higher Meaning 58

PART II

Looking for Answers

FIVE Sef"#dentity and the $aue %a! 77

SIX Wor&' Wor&' Wor&' Wor& 116

SEVEN(assionate Lo)e' *omesti+ ,iss 145

EIGHT-eigion 182

PART III

Adjustment, Well-being, and Threat

NINEHa!!iness 209TEN Suffering and .nha!!iness 232

ELEVENMeanings of *eath 269

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P A R T IV

Changes in Meaning

T W E L V ELife Change: Adding and Su/tra+ting 295Meanings

T H I R T E E N Why Women 0n+e *isi&ed Sex 123

Ei!"#$% 357

A P P E N & I X A The Wor& Ethi+ 371A P P E N & I X ' The (arenthood (aradox 388

R E F E R E N ( E S 397

IN&EX X 419

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PART I

Basic Patterns

of Life and Meaning


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CHAPTER OE

!"o #ays

Life Has o Meaning$

Deserate eo%e o not oner t$e meanin/ o& %i&e. $en sur(i(a% is at stake+ w$en t$ee(ents o& ea*$ ay or ea*$ $our *arry a sense o& ur/en*y+ %i&es meanin/ is irre%e(ant. T$emeanin/ o& %i&e is a ro)%em &or eo%e w$o are not eserate+ eo%e w$o *an *ount onsur(i(a%+ *om&ort+ se*urity+ an some measure o& %easure. Deserate eo%e are immerse int$e moment+ )ut a %i&e sans many e*aes. ?onsieration o& %i&es meanin/ reCuires stein/)a*k &rom t$e moment an seein/ e(ents in a %on/1ran/e *onte9t.

E(eryone $as $ear t$at t$e e9istentia%ists sai %i&e is a)sur. T$ose )ras$ e9istentia%ists areresume to $a(e ro(en to t$eir own satis&a*tion t$at %i&e is tota%%y meanin/%ess. In &a*t+a**orin/ to t$e wi%%y e/rae (iew o& e9istentia%ism t$at is *ommon%y unerstoo+ t$ee9istentia%ists t$ink you ro)a)%y s$ou% Aust ki%% yourse%&. '&ter a%%+ int ?amus or some)oysay so

O& *ourse+ t$e orinary erson oesnt ne*essari%y a/ree wit$ t$e e9istentia%ists. Peo%e$a(ent rea%%y $ear t$e *ounterar/uments+ e9*et &rom t$eir re%i/ious %eaers+ w$oseresonses were rei*ta)%e anyway. But eo%e t$ink t$at *ounterar/uments must e9ist.S*ientists an o*tors an eo%e %ike t$at arent e9istentia%ists+ are t$ey ;Or aret$ey< Theymust know t$e reason %i&e is wort$ %i(in/. Orinary eo%e are retty sure t$at %i&emust $a(e some meanin/. T$ey are $ar ut to say w$at it is+ )ut t$eyre *on&ient its t$ere+or at %east t$ey $oe it is. Li&e *ertain%y oesnt seem a)sur>most o& t$e time+ anyway.

'*tua%%y+ t$e e9istentia%ists werent tryin/ to say t$at eo%es %i(es %a*k meanin/. It is Cuiteo)(ious t$at most eo%es %i(es are &u%% o& meanin/. Peo%e use meanin/ e(ery time t$eyseak or t$ink+ e(ery time t$ey %an or e*ie anyt$in/. T$e e9istentia%ist osition was mere%yt$at %i&e as a w$o%e oes not automati*a%%y $a(e a *ertain meanin/. Ea*$ erson a*ti(e%y*onstru*ts t$e meanin/ o& $is or $er %i&e. You mi/$t e(ote your %i&e to your *$i%ren+ to your

work+ to your re%i/ious &ait$+ or to your /aren. Su*$ *$oi*es etermine t$e meanin/ t$at your%i&e wi%% $a(e. T$e e9istentia%ists mere%y enie t$at t$ere was any u%timate+ e9terna%%yetermine meanin/+ su*$ as mi/$t )e e*ie &or you )y your /o+ your $oros*oe+ your/enes+ or your *ountry.

T$e a%%e/e a)surity o& %i&e+ t$en+ re&ers to an a)stra*t t$eory a)out %i&e

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rat$er t$an to t$e a*tua%ity o& /enuine %i&e. In rin*i%e+ %i&e is Aust *$aos+ in t$e mat$emati*a%sense o& a &ra/mente a%ternation o& attern an isorer. =eanin/ $as to )e imose on %i&eit is not )ui%t in. In ra*ti*e+ %i(es are stu&&e &u%% o& mean1in/s+ a%t$ou/$ t$ese o notne*essari%y &it to/et$er or a u into a *o$erent w$o%e. ' tyi*a% ersons %i&e is /i(en somemeanin/ )e&ore t$e erson is )orn. By t$e time t$e erson %earns to ta%k ;an t$us to use an*ommuni*ate meanin/< $e or s$e a%reay $as ro)a)%y )een assi/ne numerous meanin/s>aname+ a $ome+ a osition in t$e so*ia% $ierar*$y+ er$as a )ank a**ount or money set asie+an some %on/1ran/e %ans. =ost o& t$ese meanin/s $a(e )een esta)%is$e )y t$e arents att$is oint+ &or t$e to%er oesnt e(en know t$e wors &or a%% t$ese t$in/s+ )ut nonet$e%esst$ese meanin/s wi%% %ike%y enter into eterminin/ t$e *ourse o& t$e ersons %i&e.

E9istentia%ism is not t$e on%y moern erse*ti(e on %i&es meanin/. Some eo%e t$ink its aea issue+ %ike $%o/iston. T$inkin/ a)out %i&es meanin/ seems a use%ess+ a*aemi* e9er*ise+%ike %earnin/ an*ient Greek. Ot$er eo%e seem to worry t$at t$e meanin/ o& %i&e in(o%(es somekin o& Aoke+ o& w$i*$ t$ey &ear to )e t$e )utt. T$ey reson to any mention o& t$e issue o&%i&es meanin/ wit$ a ner(ous %au/$ an an attemt to *$an/e t$e su)Ae*t. T$ese eo%e mayo&ten &ee% (u%nera)%e re*ise%y )e*ause t$ey o not know w$at %i&es meanin/ is+ or w$et$ert$ey are e(en suose to know. ;Per$as s*ien*e $as ro(en t$at %i&e oesnt $a(e anymeanin/+ Aust as s*ien*e *%aims to $a(e isro(e so many suose%y o)so%ete re%i/ious

ieas.%an/ua/e+ in&ormation+ *ommuni*ation+ meia+sym)o%s+ institutions+ norms>er(aes our %i(es+ inee saturates t$em. T$e moern an9ietyis w$et$er a%% t$ese %itt%e )its o& meanin/ a u to somet$in/ suita)%y )i/. Li&e $as %ots o&meanin/+ )ut oes it $a(e ameanin/ Some eo%e e(en woner w$et$er a meanin/ o& %i&e isa i&&erent kin o& meanin/ &rom t$e meanin/ o& a senten*e+ a story+ or an e9erien*e.

T$ere are si/ns t$at most %i(es ont &it into a sin/%e meanin/ or story %ine. One resear*$eraske a %ar/e sam%e o& e%er%y eo%e to te%% t$e stories o& t$eir %i(es ;au&man+ "#34


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to ro(e it. O&ten t$eres not a /reat ea% to )e sai. So1an1so was an aeCuate $us)an an&at$er+ $e ai $is ta9es an ket $is %awn mowe+ $is *areer was a rotra*te e9er*ise inaerwork+ an in erson $e usua%%y wou% reson w$en soken to. One $oes t$at t$e %i&e

meant somet$in/ more+ somet$in/ /raner+ )ut its $ar to say w$at t$at mi/$t )e.

I s$a%% ar/ue t$at t$e t$reat o& eat$>an its se*ia% ur/en*y &or moem man an woman>/oes )eyon t$is sim%e *$a%%en/e. =oem %i&e o&&ers eo%e a wea%t$ o& some &orms o&meanin/+ )ut it oesnt o&&er *%ear /uian*e a)out &unamenta% (a%ues. T$is J(a%ue /a+J as Is$a%% *a%% it+ is t$e sin/%e )i//est ro)%em &or t$e moern estern ini(iua% in makin/ %i&emeanin/&u%. ' maAor art o& t$e moern resonse to t$is (a%ue /a is to e%e(ate se%&$oo ant$e *u%ti(ation o& ientity into )asi*+ *ome%%in/ (a%ues. But i& we re%y on t$e Cuest &or ientityan se%&1know%e/e to /i(e %i&e meanin/+ we make ourse%(es (u%nera)%e to eat$ in an a%mostunre*eente way. T$e se%& *omes to an en in eat$+ an it *eases to /i(e (a%ue. T$us+eat$ takes away not on%y our %i&e but also what gave it value.In *ontrast+ our an*estorstyi*a%%y rew *om&ort &rom (a%ues t$at wou% out%i(e t$em.

T$us+ t$e $i/$ (a%ue t$at eo%e toay %a*e on se%& an ientity is a mi9e )%essin/. It $e%s

&i%% t$e (a%ue /a an a%%ow eo%e to make Au/ments a)out w$at is /oo an )a+ ri/$t anwron/+ esite moem so*ietys ina)i%ity to a/ree on )roa+ uni(ersa% mora%s. But it %ea(eseo%e nake in t$e &a*e o& eat$. It is a (a%ue t$at &ai%s eo%e at one o& t$e times w$en t$eynee it t$e most.

Creating %our O&n Meaning

T$e e9istentia%ists oint was t$at t$e ini(iua% a*ti(e%y etermines t$e meanin/ o& $is or $erown %i&e. Or+ at %east+ t$at is w$at t$e erson shouldo. ;Desite t$eir *ritiCue o& *on(entiona%mora%s+ e9istentia%ists were (ery mora%isti* in t$eir own Au/ments.< T$e e9istentia% t$inkerswere Cuite aware t$at many eo%e Aust )%uner t$rou/$ %i&e oin/ w$at t$eyre to% an*on&ormin/ to w$at e(ery)oy e%se oes.

?reatin/ t$e meanin/ o& your own %i&e souns (ery ni*e as an iea%+ )ut in rea%ity it may )eimossi)%e. Li&e1meanin/s o not ori/inate &rom some mysterious we%% ee insie t$eini(iua%. =eanin/ itse%& is a*Cuire so*ia%%y+ &rom ot$er eo%e an &rom t$e *u%ture at %ar/e.Nature eCuis t$e $uman )ein/ wit$ aetites )ut not wit$ meanin/s. $ate(er meanin/s areto )e &oun insie t$e ini(iua% $a to )e ut t$ere. 't most+ t$e erson *$ooses amon/ t$emeanin/s o&&ere )y *u%ture an so*iety.

T$e e9istentia%ists re*o/ni@e t$at *reatin/ ones own meanin/ &or %i&e is an imossi)%e iea%.Usua%%y t$ey sett%e &or ur/in/ t$at eo%e )e *ons*ious o& t$e &a*t o& *$oosin/ amon/ t$e*u%tures o&&erin/s. T$e *on*et o& authenticitymeant )ein/ aware o& makin/ e*isions ana*Cuirin/ meanin/+ as oose to a**etin/ meanin/s un*riti*a%%y an automati*a%%y &romones so*ia% en(ironment ;see

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Heie//er+ ""#-, Sartre+ "#67


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aroun $untin/ an &armin/. It is ossi)%e to %i(e wit$out a /reat ea% o& meanin/>ese*ia%%yto %i(e wit$out /ran+ a)stra*t+ $i/$1%e(e% meanin/.

But *u%tures o tyi*a%%y o&&er ini(iua%s sets o& meanin/s. Some *u%tures o&&er a sin/%e set o&)e%ie&s an (a%ues t$at e(eryone more or %ess a**ets+ w$i%e ot$er *u%tures o&&er mu%ti%e+

*ometin/ sets. Eit$er way+ t$ese /ran sets o& ieas are w$ere meanin/s o& %i&e *ome &rom.T$ese sets o& ieas *an )e *a%%e ideologies.Tyi*a%%y+ t$ey e9%ain so*ia% re%ations an $istory+an t$ey res*ri)e $ow eo%e ou/$t to )e$a(e wit$ one anot$er. T$ey te%% eo%e $ow tot$ink a)out w$at t$is means or w$at t$at means. In /enera%+ t$ey say w$at a $uman )ein/ isan w$at one is for.

Indi'iduals and #ociety

Some reaers may a%reay )e a%arme to see me sayin/ t$at *u%ture Jo&&ersJ eo%e meanin/sor tries to ersuae t$em to *$oose arti*u%ar ones. T$rou/$out t$is )ook+ it wi%% )eerioi*a%%y ne*essary &or me to seak o& *u%ture an so*iety as i& t$ey were entities wit$wants an nees+ an as ne/otiatin/ wit$ ini(iua%s. O& *ourse+ su*$ usa/e is meta$ori*a%.

I unerstan so*iety as a %ar/e set o& inter*onne*te $uman )ein/s+ an *u%ture as t$e set o&ieas+ ra*ti*es+ an institutions t$at t$ey s$are. Peo%e o+ in &a*t+ %i(e in sma%% /rous t$atare asso*iate wit$ %ar/e /rous. ?u%ture is t$us a &ramework t$at a%%ows eo%e to %i(eto/et$er+ an so*iety to &un*tion an sur(i(e.

$en I ersoni&y so*iety an *u%ture an seak o& t$em as $a(in/ wants or nees+ t$ere&ore+ Iam re&errin/ to w$at a so*ia% system $as to o to &un*tion e&&e*ti(e%y an sur(i(e. To/et$er+*u%ture an so*iety &orm a system t$at $as a urose. I& t$is system %ea(es many eo%e wit$inaeCuate &oo an s$e%ter+ or i& it /i(es rise to e9*essi(e interna% *on&%i*t+ or i& it &ai%s torou*e new mem)ers to re%a*e t$ose w$o ie+ or i& it is una)%e to ea% wit$ maAor ro)%emsan *rises>t$en it wi%% &a%% aart an *ease to e9ist. In t$at sense+ t$e system JwantsJ eo%eto $a(e &oo+ an to rerou*e+ an so &ort$. =ost ini(iua%s ro)a)%y o want t$eir *u%tureto sur(i(e+ &or ini(iua%s are not usua%%y we%% o&& w$en t$eir *u%ture &a%%s aart+ an so t$e

many mem)ers o& so*iety $a(e a *ommon esire t$at t$e *u%ture sur(i(e an roser. O&*ourse+ t$eir own ini(iua% nees ten to take re*een*e+ )ut t$ey o $e% ut ressure onea*$ ot$er to *ooerate to some e/ree.

T$us+ *u%ture an so*iety &orm a system t$at is set u to eretuate itse%& an to maintain a*ertain %e(e% o& e&&i*ien*y+ interna% $armony+ an &%e9i)i%ity. ?ou% t$ere )e a *u%ture an so*ietywit$out t$ose /oa%s Per$as+ )ut it wou% ro)a)%y not %ast %on/. '%% e9istin/ so*ieties*ontinue to e9ist re*ise%y )e*ause t$ey o &in ways o& a*$ie(in/ t$ose /oa%s.

T$ese /oa%s are not ne*essari%y t$e same as t$ose o& t$e ini(iua% mem)er o& so*iety. Peo%ewant to )e $ay+ )ut so*iety *an sur(i(e as %on/ as t$ey are

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minima%%y *ontent+ an &urt$er in*reases in $ainess are not imortant. Peo%e may wantemotiona%%y intense e9erien*es+ no(e%ty+ e9*itement+ an so &ort$+ w$ereas so*iety as a w$o%eis main%y *on*erne t$at t$ey re*ei(e enou/$ &oo an s$e%ter so as not to ro*k t$e )oat+ ant$at t$ey rou*e new mem)ers w$o wi%% take t$eir %a*es as u%y so*ia%i@e *iti@ens. So*iety$as many ro%es t$at nee to )e &i%%e+ e(en i& ini(iua%s ont want to &i%% t$em. So*iety maye(en nee eo%e to sa*ri&i*e t$eir %i(es+ w$i*$ eo%e may )e Cuite re%u*tant to o. '/ain+ a%%o& t$is is not to im%y t$at so*iety is some kin o& %i(in/ t$in/ wit$ &ee%in/s an wis$es. It is asystem t$at $as *ertain reCuirements in orer to &un*tion e&&e*ti(e%y.

'n w$at oes t$is $a(e to o wit$ meanin/s o& %i&e T$e wis$ &or a %i&es meanin/ is a *on*erno& ini(iua%s. So*iety *an &un*tion e&&e*ti(e%y w$et$er eo%e &in t$eir %i(es ri*$ wit$ meanin/or not. But so*iety *an use t$e ini(iua%s nee &or meanin/ to its own a(anta/e. Bytea*$in/ eo%e to interret t$eir %i(es in *ertain ways+ so*iety *an steer t$em into ro%es t$atnee to )e &i%%e an *an re(ent ersona% issatis&a*tions &rom e(e%oin/ into so*ia%ro)%ems.

'%t$ou/$ a %i&es meanin/ is Cuintessentia%%y ersona% an ini(iua%+ meanin/ itse%& is&unamenta%%y so*ia%. it$out *u%ture>in*%uin/ %an/ua/e+ (a%ue+ an interersona%re%ations$is>%i&e *ou% not $a(e mu*$ in t$e way o& meanin/. Peo%e /et t$eir meanin/s o&

%i&e &rom *u%ture+ an e(en i& t$ey are a%%owe to *$oose+ t$ey are nonet$e%ess eenent ont$e *u%ture an so*iety to /i(e t$em t$e array o& otions.

T$ere&ore+ it makes no sense to try to maintain a stri*t searation )etween ersona% meanin/san so*ia% meanin/s o& %i&e. Ea*$ ini(iua% &orms a meanin/ o& $is or $er %i&e out o& t$ein/reients+ an wit$ t$e means+ t$at so*iety an *u%ture o&&er. ' meanin/ o& %i&e *an )e*onsiere as t$e out*ome o& a ne/otiation )etween t$e ini(iua% an t$e so*ia% system. Or+to ut it anot$er way+ meanin/s o& %i&e may )e *reate )y ini(iua% eo%e+ )ut eo%e aret$emse%(es rou*ts o& so*iety.

'%t$ou/$ t$is )ooks rimary *on*ern is wit$ w$at %i&e means to t$e ini(iua% w$o %i(es it+ it isa%so ne*essary to kee in min t$at so*iety may ut its own interretation on it. $at Hit%ers%i&e means to us toay+ &or e9am%e+ is a%most sure%y (ery i&&erent &rom w$at it meant to 'o%&

$imse%& w$i%e $e was %i(in/ it. He saw $imse%& as a $ero an a sa(ior+ not a (i%%ain an aestroyer. In most *ases t$ere is ro)a)%y a rat$er $i/$ a/reement )etween $ow eo%e seet$eir own %i(es an $ow so*iety sees t$em. Sti%%+ t$ere is room &or is*rean*y+ an it wi%% )ene*essary to kee t$at in min.

Plan of t"e Boo(

How oes one aroa*$ t$e ro)%em o& t$e meanin/ o& %i&e Di&&erent &ie%s take i&&erentaroa*$es. ' t$eo%o/ian mi/$t seek to eri(e an answer &rom &i9e rin*i%es. ' $i%oso$ermi/$t ana%y@e t$e *on*ets. 'n artist mi/$t seek to

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*ommuni*ate a *om%ete+ ersona%+ ini(iua% (iew o& %i&es meanin/. '%% o& t$ese aroa*$es$a(e merit+ )ut t$is )ook wi%% use t$e aroa*$ o& so*ia% s*ien*e. T$at means %ookin/ &or)roa+ /enera% atterns an ro*esses t$at a%y to %ar/e /rous o& eo%e+ as we%% asassem)%in/ some sort o& &a*tua% e(ien*e to test an e(a%uate t$e /enera% ieas.

For so*ia% s*ien*e+ t$en+ t$e ro)%em is2 How oes one /et e(ien*e+ e(en ata+ a)out t$emeanin/ o& %i&e 't &irst /%an*e+ t$ere seems to )e %itt%e to use. T$ere are o& *ourse a%most noe9erimenta% stuies ea%in/ wit$ %i&es meanin/+ an t$ere are (ery &ew Cuestionnaire stuiesor sur(eys ea%in/ ire*t%y wit$ t$e ro)%em. On t$e ot$er $an+ i& t$e toi* is )roa%yunerstoo in terms o& $ow eo%e &in+ *reate+ an use )roa t$emes o& meanin/ in t$eir%i(es+ suen%y one &ins a su)stantia% amount o& in&ormation a(ai%a)%e. Resear*$ on %o(e+ onwork+ on re%i/ion+ on sui*ie+ on arent$oo+ an many ot$er toi*s )e*omes re%e(ant. T$erin*ia% i&&i*u%ty )e*omes not one o& &inin/ enou/$ re%e(ant materia%+ )ut rat$er o& e*iin/w$at otentia%%y re%e(ant materia% to e9*%ue so as to kee t$e roAe*t own to a mana/ea)%esi@e.

=ost o& t$is )ook wi%% )e e(ote to re(iewin/ %ar/e /rous o& &a*ts in orer to s$e %i/$t ont$e maAor ro*esses in(o%(in/ meanin/ in %i&e. It wi%% e9amine w$at so*ia% s*ien*e $as %earnea)out t$e toi*s re%e(ant to makin/ sense o& %i&e. Ea*$ time a Cuestion arises+ t$e resonse

wi%% )e to *onsier w$at sort o& in&ormation mi/$t ro(ie an answer. For t$is reason+ too+some reaers may )e surrise to &in t$at some o& t$eir &a(orite t$eorists $a(e )een /i(ens$ort s$ri&t. T$is )ook was esi/ne to u%% to/et$er t$e re%e(ant e(ien*e+ an so it re(iews&a*ts+ not t$eories. i%%iam ames+ or Si/mun Freu+ or any ot$er t$inker may $a(e $asome wise re&%e*tions a)out %i&es meanin/ an urose+ )ut t$ose re&%e*tions are not our*on*ern $ere+ e9*et inso&ar as t$ey are %inke to &a*tua% e(ien*e.

T$e ne9t *$ater wi%% e9%ain t$e )asi* assumtions an *on*ets re%atin/ to t$e nature o&meanin/. ?$aters T$ree an Four wi%% e9%ain t$e *ore ieas to )e use t$rou/$out t$e )ook+in*%uin/ e&initions o& t$e nees &or meanin/.

On*e t$ese &ounations $a(e )een %ai+ it is time to turn to t$e omains &rom w$i*$ eo%ea*tua%%y o raw mu*$ o& t$e meanin/ &or t$eir %i(es. ?$ater Fi(e e9amines w$at &orm t$e

ro)%em o& %i&es meanin/ takes in moem estern so*iety+ wit$ se*ia% em$asis on t$e (a%ue/a an on t$e attemte e%e(ation o& se%&$oo into an o(erriin/+ )asi* (a%ue. e wi%%*onsier work+ %o(e an &ami%y+ an re%i/ion. '&ter t$at+ some )roa issues o& aAustment to%i&e wi%% )e *onsiere2 su&&erin/+ $ainess+ an t$e ro)%em o& eat$. T$e &ina% se*tion ea%swit$ t$e issue o& *$an/es in meanin/s o& %i&e. ?$ater Twe%(e wi%% e9amine a (ariety o&ini(iua% *$an/es+ su*$ as i(or*e an re%i/ious *on(ersion. ?$ater T$irteen wi%% take a %ookat a maAor *o%%e*ti(e *$an/e in %i&es meanin/+ )ase on *onsierin/ $ow women $a(e )eena)%e to *onstru*t t$eir %i(es in *$an/in/ $istori*a% *ir*umstan*es.

Be*ause t$is )ook raws on se(era% i&&erent &ie%s+ it is ne*essary to try to )e as *%ear asossi)%e in resentin/ ea*$ oint. For e9erts an ot$er so$isti

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*ate reaers+ t$e resu%t may )e t$at o**asiona%%y t$in/s are resente in too t$orou/$ ore%ementary a &as$ion. T$ere oes not seem to )e any way to a(oi t$at+ wit$out assumin/t$at e(ery reaer is an e9ert in ea*$ &ie%. Interis*i%inary work emans t$at one makeunusua% e&&orts at *%arity. FreCuent se*tion an *$ater summaries $a(e )een in*%ue tomake t$is work more easi%y a**essi)%e an to ena)%e reaers to ski a$ea w$en ne*essary.

Conclusion and #u))ary

Human %i(es are norma%%y &u%% o& meanin/. Lan/ua/e+ &or e9am%e+ is mae o& meanin/+ anmost eo%e use %an/ua/e in near%y e(eryt$in/ t$ey o. On t$e ot$er $an+ t$ere is no reasont$at a%% t$e etai%s o& a %i&e must &it into one sin/%e meanin/. Few eo%e *an te%% a %i&e storyt$at en*omasses e(ery sin/%e a*t or e9erien*e.

T$e meanin/s t$at &i%% moern %i(es+ t$ere&ore+ are &ra/ments. Ea*$ %i&e may $a(e se(era%t$emes or story %ines+ as we%% as numerous e(ents t$at )ear no arti*u%ar re%ation to any%astin/ t$eme. Iea%%y+ a meanin/ o& %i&e wou% )e a sin/%e interretation t$at *an en*omasse(eryt$in/+ )ut t$ere is no reason to t$ink t$at t$is iea% is o&ten &u%&i%%e. Inee+ somee(ien*e su//ests t$at it is not.

?u%ture resents t$e ini(iua% wit$ a )roa *onte9t in w$i*$ %i(es may &in meanin/. =any*u%tures o&&er mu%ti%e ieo%o/ies+ so t$at t$e erson ens u $a(in/ to *$oose )e%ie&s an(a%ues &rom a ran/e o& otions. ' *u%ture *ontains one or more ieo%o/ies+ w$i*$ *an )ere/are as systems t$at ena)%e eo%e to make sense o& arti*u%ar e(ents )y re%atin/ t$em to)roa+ /enera% attitues+ sta)%e *auses+ traits+ an so &ort$.

T$e a)sen*e o& a )roa+ /enera%+ inte/rate $i%oso$y o& %i&e or uni&ie %i&e story is not amaAor o)sta*%e to su**ess&u% %i(in/. 'arent%y eo%e o not nee to $a(e a%% t$eir u%timate$i%oso$i*a% or re%i/ious Cuestions reso%(e+ nor o t$ey nee to &ee% t$at e(ery a*t in t$eir%i&e is art o& a *o$erent w$o%e. T$ey o+ $owe(er+ seem to nee %i&e to make sense in ot$erways. One *entra% aim o& t$is )ook wi%% )e to e9amine t$ese needs for meaning>t$at is+ t$eways in w$i*$ eo%e o seem to reCuire t$eir %i(es to make sense. T$e ne9t two *$aters wi%%

take a mu*$ *%oser %ook at t$e nature o& meanin/ an eo%es nees &or se*i&i* kins o&meanin/s.

ote1) O* +"$,%. "/+% S,,% %,+% % !%! "* %i%/i!i *", i%!*. H%i%##%, /

" "%, i%i%! ,%%+% i)

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CHAPTER T!O

Co)ing to

Ter)s &it" Meaning

Be&ore /ettin/ into t$e issue o& $ow eo%e &in meanin/ in t$eir %i(es+ it is ne*essaryto *%ari&y some essentia% *on*ets an e9%ain $ow t$ey wi%% )e use. T$is *$aterwi%% arti*u%ate t$e )asi* *on*ets neee to is*uss t$e meanin/s o& %i&e. Reality, life,meaning,an se(era% re%ate *on*ets wi%% )e t$e main &o*us.

O)(ious%y+ one *ou% easi%y )e*ome %ost in a)struse meta$ysi*a% ar/uments a)outt$e nature o& rea%ity an simi%ar Cuestions. Su*$ ar/uments+ a%t$ou/$ unou)te%y&as*inatin/+ are not my urose $ere. It is not ne*essary to ro(e t$at my a**ount ismore *orre*t t$an any ot$er ossi)%e one. It is ne*essary+ $owe(er+ t$at aut$or anreaer unerstan t$e same t$in/s w$en essentia% terms are use. T$is *$ater wi%%t$ere&ore ro(ie a &ramework &or unerstanin/ $ow t$ese terms an ieas wi%% )euse in su)seCuent *$aters.

!"at Is Reality$

Rea%ity *an )e sorte into two )roa *ate/ories+ *orresonin/ rou/$%y to nature an*u%ture+ or er$as to t$e &o*us o& t$e natura% s*ien*es an t$at o& t$e so*ia%s*ien*es. T$e &irst *ate/ory *an )e es*ri)e as $ysi*a% matter. Trees+ ro*ks+ ta)%es+water+ winows+ o/s+ e%e*tri*ity+ an ot$er $ysi*a% t$in/s are rea%. =ost eo%etoay a**et on &ait$ t$at t$e $ysi*a% wor% is mae u o& atoms an mo%e*u%es an&o%%ows *ertain natura% %aws. For resent uroses+ t$ere is no nee to Cuestion t$eseassumtions.

T$e se*on *ate/ory is meanin/. ' %ater ortion o& t$is *$ater wi%% )e e(ote to

e9aminin/ t$e nature o& meanin/ in some etai%. For now+ it is su&&i*ient to e9%ainw$y meanin/ s$ou% )e *onsiere a *ate/ory o& rea%ity. Two ar/uments are neeeto a**om%is$ t$is /oa%2 &irst+ t$at meanin/ is rea%+ an se*on+ t$at meanin/ is nott$e same as $ysi*a% matter.

It is $ar to isute t$at meanin/ is rea%. =eanin/s *%ear%y $a(e e&&e*ts on $ysi*a%matter. 's . I. T$omas wrote+ JI& men e&ine situations as rea%+ t$ey are rea% int$eir *onseCuen*esJ ;T$omas+ "#-3+ . 5,- t$is %ine $as )een attri)ute to a (arietyo& ot$er t$inkers as we%%+ su*$ as ?. S. Peir*e.


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on t$e )asis o& meanin/s+ an t$ese a*tions rou*e $ysi*a% *onseCuen*es. I& somet$in/rou*es $ysi*a% *onseCuen*es+ it is rea%.

Bui%in/s+ &or e9am%e+ o not *ome into )ein/ )y t$e mere *on&%uen*e o& natura% &or*es.Bui%in/s e9ist as meanin/s ;su*$ as ieas in t$e ar*$ite*ts min< )e&ore t$ey e9ist as

$ysi*a% t$in/s. B%uerints+ *ontra*ts+ @onin/ restri*tions+ )ui%in/ *oes+ an ot$er meanin/s%ay a (ita% ro%e in t$e *reation o& a )ui%in/.

So mu*$ &or t$e &irst oint+ name%y t$at meanin/ is rea%. T$e se*on oint is t$at meanin/ isnot t$e same t$in/ as $ysi*a% rea%ity. T$is+ too+ s$ou% )e easi%y aarent. Lan/ua/e is notmae u o& atoms an mo%e*u%es. It is ossi)%e to es*ri)e a )ook in terms o& its $ysi*a%roerties+ su*$ as t$e *$emi*a% *omosition o& t$e aer an t$e num)er o& sma%% inksCui//%es on t$e a/es. But su*$ a es*rition wou% *om%ete%y miss t$e oint o& w$at a )ookis.

Likewise+ sy*$o%o/y on*e )rie&%y $oe to e9%ain a%% $uman )e$a(ior in ure%y $ysi*a% terms>as a matter o& stimu%us an resonse+ o& $ysi*a% en(ironment an mus*%e mo(ement.'%t$ou/$ t$is (iew ro(ie a $e%&u% start+ near%y a%% sy*$o%o/ists re*o/ni@e t$e nee toin*%ue attri)utions+ attitues+ an ot$er non$ysi*a% e%ements to &urnis$ an aeCuate o&

$uman )e$a(ior. For an e9treme e9am%e+ try to ima/ine a $istory o& 'meri*a written ure%y interms o& mus*%e mo(ements+ or an e9%anation o& Bu$ism in terms o& atoms an mo%e*u%es;*&. ?o%%in/woo+ "#64 Ger/en M Ger/en+ "#33


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may re*ee %i&e+ su*$ as w$en a *ou%e makes a *ons*ious e*ision to rerou*e. But %i&e isCuite *aa)%e o& o**urrin/ wit$out any $e% &rom meanin/. =eanin/ *an )e suerimose on%i&e+ )ut %i&e *an e9ist wit$out meanin/.

Se(era% roerties o& %i&e eser(e mention. First+ %i&e entai%s unity. Ea*$ %i(in/ t$in/ marks o&& a

)ounary )etween itse%& an its surrounin/s. $at a&&e*ts one art o& a %i(in/ t$in/ wi%% tento a&&e*t t$e w$o%e t$in/. I& you ste own $ar one someones toe+ &or e9am%e+ t$e rest o&t$e )oy is %ike%y to mo(e. I& you water t$e roots o& a %ant+ t$e %ea(es wi%% /row.

Se*on+ %i&e is a ro*ess in(o%(in/ *$an/e. Ea*$ or/anism /rows+ aats+ renews itse%&+ an*$an/es in ot$er ways. T$e re%ent%ess *$an/e o& %i(in/ t$in/s &orms a stark *ontrast to t$esta)i%ity o& meanin/s. 's a resu%t+ imosin/ meanin/ on %i&e o&ten in(o%(es a ro)%em o&sta)i%ity (ersus *$an/e. To imose meanin/ on %i&e>as w$en one t$inks+ ta%ks+ or tries tounerstan somet$in/>is to a%y sta)%e *on*ets to *$an/in/ $enomena.

T$ir+ %i&e is )oune in time. Ea*$ %i&e )e/ins at a se*i&i* oint in time an ens at anot$er.Be*ause %i&e in(o%(es unity an ro*ess+ t$ere is %itt%e am)i/uity a)out its )e/innin/ an en.T$e /ray area )etween %i&e an eat$ is (ery sma%% most eo%e are eit$er Cuite e&inite%ya%i(e or Cuite e&inite%y ea.

Fourt$+ %i(in/ t$in/s $a(e (arious )ui%t1in nees an wants+ w$i*$ may )e *a%%e natura%moti(ations. T$ese moti(ations in*%ue t$e nees &or o9y/en+ water+ &oo+ an s%ee+ as we%%as t$e esire &or %easure an se9+ an t$e a(ersion to ain an inAury. T$ey may a%so in*%ue*uriosity+ t$e esire &or so*ia% *onta*t wit$ ot$ers+ an t$e wis$ &or a sta)%e an se*ureen(ironment. T$ere aears to )e an in*%ination to seek out *ertain arousa% states an a(oiot$ers in $uman )ein/s+ t$is takes t$e &orm o& t$e Cuest &or ositi(e emotions an t$eattemt to a(oi un%easant emotions.

In t$e a)sen*e o& meanin/+ t$ese natura% moti(ations are t$e on%y &a*tors t$at in&%uen*e)e$a(ior. ' meanin/%ess %i&e is %i(e &rom ay to ay or e(en &rom moment to moment2maintainin/ sur(i(a%+ sear*$in/ &or &oo+ seekin/ %easure an nouris$ment+ a(oiin/is*om&ort. =eanin/&u% %i(es $a(e t$e same atterns an moti(ations. =eanin/ oes not

/uarantee t$at eo%e wi%% /i(e u t$e ursuit o& %easure or %a*e t$emse%(es at risk o& inAury;a%t$ou/$ sometimes t$at is inee t$e out*ome


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to/et$er+ an %an/ua/e imro(es *ommuni*ation an t$us /reat%y e9ans t$e ossi)i%ities &orinterersona% re%ations$is an intera*tions. =eanin/ is+ amon/ ot$er t$in/s+ a too% &or)e%on/in/ness.

Dea%in/ wit$ t$e en(ironment is a er(asi(e *on*ern o& %i(in/ t$in/s. Or/anisms are )etter o&&

i& t$ey are a)%e to rei*t an *$an/e e9terna% e(ents an i& t$ey are a)%e to *$an/et$emse%(es to &it in. One imortant rin*i%e a)out *oin/ wit$ t$e en(ironment $as )een%a)e%e t$e aatation1%e(e% $enomenon ;He%son+ "#46


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Some eo%e suose t$at a meanin/ o& %i&e must )e o& an entire%y i&&erent kin o& meanin/&rom t$e meanin/ o& a senten*e. "To )e sure+ t$ere are some i&&eren*es+ most nota)%y t$at asenten*e tyi*a%%y $as t$e so%e urose an &un*tion o& *on(eyin/ meanin/ an t$us *ou% note9ist wit$out meanin/+ w$ereas %i&e *an e9ist wit$out meanin/. But to su//est t$e e9isten*e o&rai*a%%y i&&erent kins o& meanin/ *an )e an/erous%y mis%eain/. T$e meanin/ o& a %i&e ist$e same kin o& meanin/ as t$e meanin/ o& a senten*e in se(era% imortant rese*ts2 $a(in/t$e arts &it to/et$er into a *o$erent attern+ )ein/ *aa)%e o& )ein/ unerstoo )y ot$ers+&ittin/ into a )roaer *onte9t+ an in(okin/ im%i*it assumtions s$are )y ot$er mem)ers o&t$e *u%ture. By t$e same token+ a meanin/%ess %i&e an a meanin/%ess senten*e may s$are*ommon &eatures o& is*onne*te *$aos+ interna% *ontrai*tion+ or &ai%ure to &it *onte9t. Fort$ese reasons+ %et us ro*ee on t$e assumtion t$at meanin/s o& %i&e in(o%(e /enuinemeanin/ rat$er t$an some e9oti*+ e9istentia% su)stan*e. =eanin/s o& %i&e are a se*ia% usa/e o&meanin/+ not a se*ia% kin o& meanin/.

's note ear%ier+ meanin/ is not *omose o& atoms an mo%e*u%es. T$e En/%is$ %an/ua/e+ &ore9am%e+ is not a $ysi*a% or materia% t$in/. It oes not $a(e a mass+ a satia% %o*ation+ or a*$emi*a% *omosition. Rat$er+ meanin/ re&ers to *on*ets an sym)o%s+ to re%ations$is anistin*tions+ an to s$are unerstanin/s. T$e s$arin/ is imortant )e*ause %an/ua/e isessentia%%y so*ia% t$at is+ %an/ua/e reCuires at %east two eo%e usin/ wors in t$e same way.

Lan/ua/e entai%s t$at eo%e $a(e *ertain meanin/s in common.

T$e sim%est+ most )asi* )ui%in/ )%o*ks o& meanin/ are asso*iation an istin*tion. T$at is+meanin/ asso*iates some t$in/s wit$ ea*$ ot$er an istin/uis$es t$em &rom ot$er t$in/s.T$e *on*et o& Jtree+J &or e9am%e+ *reates an asso*iation amon/ a %ot o& ta%% ie*es o& %i(in/woo+ an t$e *on*et istin/uis$es t$em &rom t$e rest o& t$e o)Ae*ts in t$e wor%. T$is%imite usa/e o& meanin/ *an )e use )y one erson or one or/anism a%one+ ro(ie it isinte%%i/ent enou/$ to re*o/ni@e atterns an reson to t$em. In ot$er wors+ t$ese e%ementso& meanin/ o not $a(e to )e e9resse in %an/ua/e+ or s$are.

I& meanin/ is essentia%%y a matter o& *onne*tin/ t$in/s+ t$en it is ne*essary to kee in mint$at t$e *onne*tions *an )e *onne*te too. Broa *onte9ts or $i/$ %e(e%s o& meanin/ aree&ine )y many *onne*tions+ in*%uin/ *onne*tions o& *%usters o& ot$er t$in/s t$at are*onne*te. T$e /ro*ery )usiness+ &or e9am%e+ in(o%(es many tyes o& %ants an anima%s)ein/ *ar(e u an a*ka/e in stanar yet ini(iua%%y i&&erent ways an t$en transorteto *ertain %a*es+ w$ere many i&&erent eo%e *ome to )uy t$em+ o&ten /uie )y written %istsor remem)ere *on(ersations. Ea*$ /ro*ery %ist an ea*$ *$e*kin/ a**ount is itse%& a )un%e o&*onne*te meanin/s+ an t$e /ro*ery )usiness en*omasses t$em a%%.

Per$as t$e )est (isua% meta$or &or meanin/ is t$e we). ' we) )e/ins wit$ a stran*onne*tin/ two oints+ an t$en ot$er strans *onne*t ot$er oints+ t$e strans are *onne*teto one anot$er+ an so &ort$. T$e *onne*tions

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&orm (arie an *om%e9 atterns. E(entua%%y t$e we)s %ink to/et$er e(eryt$in/ in t$e atti*+a%t$ou/$ some *onne*tions are mu*$ *%oser an stron/er t$an ot$ers.

Be*ause o& t$eir sim%i*ity+ asso*iation an istin*tion may )e t$e &irst e%ements o& meanin/ toaear. T$ere is %itt%e ou)t t$at ot$er se*ies+ in*%uin/ ones wit$ &air%y %imite inte%%i/en*e+

*an %earn asso*iations an istin*tions. Lower anima%s *an Cui*k%y %earn to asso*iate *ertainstimu%i wit$ &oo or ain+ an t$ey *an reson to i&&erent si/na%s i&&erent%y. T$ese sim%ee%ements o& meanin/ are not t$e se*ia% reser(e o& our own se*ies. Human )ein/s ont$a(e a monoo%y on meanin/+ at %east not in terms o& asso*iation an istin*tion.

'arent%y+ $owe(er+ %ower anima%s %a*k t$e inte%%i/en*e to make mu*$ use o& t$e )roaerossi)i%ities o& meanin/. Do/s *an %earn a set o& names o& t$in/s an a set o& a*tion*ommans+ )ut t$ey $a(e i&&i*u%ty *om)inin/ more t$an one or two ieas in a sin/%e t$ou/$t.?onseCuent%y+ we s$a%% not soon see o/s writin/ no(e%s or so%(in/ a%/e)ra ro)%ems. T$eiruse o& meanin/ *an )e *omare to we)s t$at $a(e on%y one or two strans+ rat$er t$an manyinter*onne*te ones.

'sso*iation an istin*tion make sym)o%s ossi)%e. In sym)o%i@ation+ one t$in/ *omes to stan&or somet$in/ e%se. T$e se%& *an )e sym)o%i@e )y ones name+ ones Pors*$e+ ones ye%%ow

Par*$eesi marker+ or ones sty%e o& work+ amon/ ot$er t$in/s. Sym)o%i@ation tyi*a%%y &or/es a*onne*tion )etween somet$in/ tri(ia% an emty>a soun+ a stri o& *o%ore *%ot$+ a mark>an somet$in/ *om%e9 an imortant ;*&. Po%anyi M Pros*$+ "#,5su*$ assenten*es+ ara/ra$s+ see*$es+ )ooks+ rat$er t$an sin/%e wors>t$at ena)%e meanin/ toi%%uminate an trans&orm t$e wor%.

*unctions of Meaning

To are*iate t$e nature o& meanin/+ it is $e%&u% to *onsier )rie&%y w$at meanin/ is &or anw$y we $a(e it. T$e uses o& meanin/ *an )e reu*e to two (ery )roa *ate/ories. T$e &irst isto is*ern atterns in t$e en(ironment. T$e se*on is to *ontro% onese%&+ in*%uin/ re/u%atin/ones interna% states.

's note ear%ier+ %i&e is a series o& e&&orts to aat to t$e en(ironment. To sur(i(e an roser+t$e or/anism must &in a way to %i(e in some kin o& $armony wit$ its surrounin/s. T$istyi*a%%y in(o%(es some *om)ination o&

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*$an/in/ t$e en(ironment to &it t$e se%& an *$an/in/ onese%& to &it into t$e en(ironment ;*&.Rot$)aum+ eis@+ M Snyer+ "#3-t$e )asi* )ui%in/ )%o*ks o& meanin/.

=eanin/ may t$us $a(e )e/un wit$ re*o/ni@in/ si/na%s an atterns in t$e en(ironment. it$$uman inte%%i/en*e+ t$e uses o& meanin/ &or aatin/ to t$e en(ironment /o &ar )eyon t$at.One *an store *om%e9 know%e/e a)out a %ar/e num)er o& *om%i*ate en(ironmenta%atterns+ an t$is know%e/e ena)%es one to *ontro% t$em. In a/ri*u%ture+ &or e9am%e+ one/oes )eyon re*o/ni@in/ $ow to &in &oo2 One %earns $ow to /row it. now%e/e a)out t$eseatterns *an )e e9resse in %an/ua/e+ s$are wit$ ot$ers+ asse on+ imro(e an re&ine.T$e a**umu%ation o& meanin/&u% know%e/e makes it ossi)%e &or e%a)orate te*$no%o/ies toe(e%o. Soon e(ery)oy $as a mi*rowa(e o(en an a ?R. it$out t$e a**umu%ation o&

know%e/e+ e(ery /eneration wou% $a(e to start o(er wit$ in(entin/ t$e w$ee% an %earnin/ tomake &ire.

By reresentin/+ *ate/ori@in/+ an storin/ in&ormation+ meanin/ ena)%es an inte%%i/entor/anism to master t$e $ysi*a% en(ironment mu*$ )etter t$an *ou% ot$erwise )e ossi)%e.T$e inte%%i/ent uses o& meanin/ /o )eyon t$e $ysi*a% en(ironment+ $owe(er. T$e sameossi)i%ities a%y to t$e so*ia% en(ironment. 'n inte%%i/ent *reature *an &ormu%ate+ or/ani@e+en*oe+ an retrie(e meanin/&u% in&ormation a)out ot$er mem)ers o& its /rou an se*ies.'n+ inee+ eo%e e(ote a (ery $i/$ er*enta/e o& t$eir menta% a*ti(ity to ot$er eo%e. Byre*o/ni@in/ atterns ;su*$ as ersona%ity traits< in t$e )e$a(ior o& ot$ers+ )y %earnin/ $owot$ers reson to (arious ossi)%e a*tions+ t$e ini(iua% *an /et a%on/ mu*$ )etter wit$ot$ers. 'n+ o& *ourse+ *ommuni*ation is a usa/e o& meanin/ t$at enormous%y e9ans t$eossi)i%ities &or intera*tin/ wit$ ones so*ia% wor%.

T$e se*on imension o& aatation in(o%(es *ontro%%in/ onese%&. T$is in*%ues re/u%atin/ ones)e$a(ior so as to reson e&&e*ti(e%y to t$e en(ironment. it$out meanin/+ )e$a(ior is /uie)y imu%se an instin*t. =eanin/ ena)%es eo%e to make e*isions )ase on *onsierin/otions+ *onsu%tin/ (a%ues+ an re&errin/ to %on/1ran/e %ans an $ierar*$ies o& /oa%s.Reso%utions+ o)%i/ations+ am)itions+ romises+ an many ot$er meanin/&u% &a*tors *anetermine $ow a erson a*ts. =eanin/ t$us %i)erates t$e $uman )ein/ &rom t$e resentsituation. It a%%ows )e$a(ior to )e /uie )y many &a*tors )eyon t$e immeiate en(ironment.

Nor is a*tion t$e on%y ase*t o& se%&1re/u%ation. ' (ita%%y imortant issue is affect regulation.;Is$a%% &o%%ow t$e sy*$o%o/i*a% *on(ention o& usin/ t$e term affectto re&er to t$e %easant orun%easant ase*t o& emotion. T$ere are many emotions+ )ut t$ey *an )e sorte sim%y intoositi(e an ne/ati(e a&&e*t.emotion wou% )e reu*e to

%easant or un%easant sensations o& )oi%y arousa%. 's S*$a*$ter &oun+ arousa% &ee%s Cuitei&&erent eenin/ on w$et$er it is renere meanin/&u% or not. =oreo(er+ many su)t%ei&&eren*es in emotion are )ase on meanin/&u% istin*tions.

Furt$ermore+ meanin/s *ause emotions+ as is s$own )y t$e &a*t t$at eo%e *an $a(e a stron/emotiona% rea*tion w$i%e reain/ a )ook or %etter. Emotions *an reson+ a**orin/ to t$eirown ru%es an rationa%ity+ to *om%e9 meanin/s an im%i*ations ;e./.+ Ho*$s*$i%+ "#37


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network o& ieas an re%ations$is. T$e ana%o/y to a we) is at+ &or t$e essen*e o& a we) isnot t$e ini(iua% strans )ut t$e &a*t o& t$eir *onne*teness an attern.

To are*iate t$e stru*ture ase*t o& meanin/+ it is use&u% to *onsier t$e num)er system asan e9am%e. Num)ers o not e9ist )y t$emse%(es+ ini(iua%%y+ )ut rat$er in re%ation to t$e

)roaer *onte9t o& a%% num)ers an t$eir re%ations$is. Try to ima/ine a time w$en eo%e $ais*o(ere on%y one num)er+ su*$ as 74. '%% ta%%ies+ *a%*u%ations+ an ot$er Cuanti&i*ationswou% in(o%(e on%y t$e num)er 74. Su*$ a system wou% o)(ious%y )e a)sur. T$e num)er 74*an on%y $a(e its meanin/ as art o& a network o& many num)ers+ w$i*$ $a(e (ariousre%ations$i ;e./.+ #9674


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es*ri)e in *on*rete+ immeiate terms+ su*$ as mo(in/ ones arms or at (ariousintermeiate %e(e%s+ su*$ as workin/ or at $i/$+ %on/1term %e(e%s+ su*$ as arti*iatin/ in t$e$istory o& t$e wor% ;a%%a*$er M e/ner+ "#35+ "#3,t$at is+ strie o& e%a)orate interretations.

In an imortant sense+ $i/$er %e(e%s o& meanin/s re&er to *onte9ts &or t$e %ower %e(e%s. To%a*e somet$in/ in a *onte9t is to interret it at a $i/$er %e(e%. In *ontrast+ to take somet$in/out o& *onte9t is to &o*us narrow%y on it an to eri(e it o& some o& its )roaer meanin/.

Le(e%s o& meanin/ are Cuite imortant &or unerstanin/ meanin/s o& %i&e. It may )eimossi)%e &or a $uman )ein/ to %i(e &or a &ew ays wit$out usin/ any meanin/ at a%%+ orwit$out imosin/ some interretations on e(ents an on $is or $er own a*ti(ities. Dai%y+ s$ort1term )e$a(iors are &u%% o& meanin/. ' %i&e+ $owe(er+ is a mu*$ )roaer time &rame+ an it isCuite ossi)%e to %i(e wit$out a meanin/ t$at en*omasses a%% o& it. Emiri*a%%y+ eo%es %i(esare &u%% o& re%ati(e%y s$ort1term roAe*ts an stri(in/s ;e./.+ Emmons+ "#34 Litt%e+ "#33 Pa%ysM Litt%e+ "#37er$as ese*ia%%y i& some

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t$in/ is not workin/ an one seeks to &in t$e sour*e o& t$e ro)%em ;e./.+ ?ar(er M S*$eier+"#3"+ "#3-


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or $erse%& &or some re*ent *atastro$e an wants to )%ot out meanin/&u% t$ou/$t )e*ause o& a%%t$e istressin/ im%i*ations t$at *ome to min. T$e i&&i*u%ty o& remainin/ menta%%y num) mayri(e su*$ an ini(iua% to ru/ or a%*o$o% a)use or e(en to a sui*ie attemt ;see Baumeister+"##0a+ )+ "##"


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)y any tennis %ayer+ ma%e or &ema%e+ in $istory


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a*t o& %earnin/ or re*o/ni@in/+ )e*ause many o%iti*a% an re%i/ious &i/ures $a(e trie to te%%eo%e t$at t$ats $ow t$in/s are. In *ontrast+ t$e meanin/ o& someones %i&e may we%% $a(e to)e *reate )y an a*ti(e ro*ess o& interretation+ in w$i*$ t$e ini(iua% *$ooses an*u%ti(ates *ertain meanin/s+ tyi*a%%y a%terin/ $is or $er *ourse o& a*tion to suit t$ose *$osenmeanin/s.

' arti*u%ar%y imortant ase*t o& interretation is evaluation.E(a%uation may o&ten )e amatter o& &ormin/ some *on*etion o& $ow t$in/s are an t$en *omarin/ t$is *on*etiona/ainst stanars. To interret somet$in/+ we re%ate it to t$in/s we a%reay know anunerstan. Interretin/ a )i%% may re(ea%+ &or e9am%e+ t$at you are )ein/ o(er*$ar/e t$einterretation %eas to an e(a%uation t$at t$at is terri)%e. Fi/urin/ out t$e meanin/ o& a %i&emay o&ten in*%ue usin/ stanars to e(a%uate w$et$er t$e %i&e is /oo or )a. In arti*u%ar+t$e a*ti(e *onstru*tion o& a %i&e is /uie )y (a%ues a)out w$at are /oo an )a ways tosen ones %i&e.

T$e *onstru*ti(e nature o& interretation raises issues o& am)i/uity an mu%ti%einterretations. 's Heie//er ; "#56< ar/ue+ e(ery *ir*umstan*e *an suort se(era%otentia% interretations. Or+ to ut it *rue%y+ rea%ity is in$erent%y am)i/uous. Interretin/somet$in/+ unerstanin/ it+ is t$ere&ore a matter o& sett%in/ on one o& t$e se(era% ossi)%e

interretations. Heie//er unerstoo t$e $uman a*ti(ity o& thin!ingas mo(in/ amon/ t$eseossi)i%ities. T$is+ o& *ourse+ is a %imite (iew o& t$inkin/+ )ut it oes em$asi@e one (eryimortant &eature o& t$ou/$t2 name%y+ ea%in/ wit$ t$e ossi)i%ity o& mu%ti%e meanin/s.'rri(in/ at an interretation is not a%ways sim%e or strai/$t&orwar it may )e a matter o&&inin/ ways to *$oose amon/ t$e many ossi)%e meanin/s t$at *ou% a%y.

T$is oes not mean t$at any *ir*umstan*e *an suort any ar)itrary interretation. T$ere are*onstraints an %imits. ' re %ant may )e a wee+ a /aren &%ower+ a messa/e o& %o(e+ or ane9ression o& /ratitue+ )ut it is notan automo)i%e or a )ow%in/ s*ore. '%ie to %i&e+ t$eim%i*ation is t$at ea*$ %i&e *an $a(e se(era% ossi)%e meanin/s+ )ut ot$er ossi)i%ities aree9*%ue. Ri*$ar Ni9ons %i&e *an )e interrete as a story o& rut$%ess am)ition+ o& mis/uietrust+ o& e9ert o%iti*a% /amesmans$i+ o& unrin*i%e *$ar%atanry+ o& maturin/statesmans$i+ o& es*a%atin/ aranoia+ or o& se(era% ot$er ossi)%e t$emes. But it was not astory o& re%i/ious mysti*ism or saint$oo+ o& s*ienti&i* is*o(ery+ o& e(ote inte%%e*tua% %a)or+o& ru/ ai*tion+ or o& en%ess /oo $umor. T$e matter is more *om%e9 wit$ a %i&e t$at is inits ear%y or mi%e sta/es+ &or mu*$ is sti%% une*ie an many interretations are ossi)%e.E(en so+ it is ear%y in %i&e t$at many ossi)%e interretations are ru%e out. By a/e "0+ &ore9am%e+ it is o&ten Cuite o)(ious t$at t$e erson wi%% not )e a )asket)a%% star or )a%%erina.

#ocial #yste)s and Meaning

Ini(iua%s o not+ o& *ourse+ $a(e to *reate meanin/ a%% )y t$emse%(es. T$ey a*Cuire%an/ua/e+ know%e/e+ attitues+ /uie%ines &or emotion an rationa%

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t$inkin/+ an (a%ue Au/ments &rom t$eir so*iety. In s$ort+ meanin/ is owne )y t$e *u%turean so*iety an asse a%on/ to ea*$ new mem)er.

'n imortant set o& *u%tura% meanin/s is t$at o& ieo%o/ies. By ieo%o/y+ I unerstan a )roaset o& ieas t$at in*%ue ones te%%in/ eo%e $ow to interret t$e e(ents o& t$eir %i(es an $ow

to make (a%ue Au/ments. T$at is+ ieo%o/ies are sy*$o%o/i*a% systems+ a%t$ou/$ t$ey areo&ten mistaken &or mere%y %o/i*a% systems. Ieo%o/ies su**ee )e*ause t$ey $e% eo%e %i(et$eir %i(es+ not )e*ause t$ey are %o/i*a%%y e%e/ant ;e./.+ &ree o& interna% *ontrai*tion


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a)out. Be&ore t$ere were eo%e+ t$e set o& num)ers sim%y e9iste as a set o& ossi)%et$ou/$ts+ wit$ no re%ation to anyt$in/ in t$e $ysi*a% wor%.

=eanin/ enters into t$e $ysi*a% wor% w$en inte%%i/ent *reatures use it. Possi)%e t$ou/$tst$en *an )e*ome a*tua% t$ou/$ts an *an in&%uen*e e*isions+ t$ere)y mo(in/ atoms an

mo%e*u%es. =eanin/s t$us een on $uman mins in orer to $a(e any $ysi*a% ima*t ont$e wor%.

T$is Cuestion mi/$t )e re%e/ate to a steri%e+ a)stra*t e)ate+ )ut it is o& some *onseCuen*e inis*ussin/ meanin/s o& %i&e. ?%ear%y+ one %o*us o& t$e meanin/ o& someones %i&e is in t$atersons own min. Peo%e wi%% a*t on t$e )asis o& $ow t$ey interret t$eir own %i(es+*ir*umstan*es+ an a*ti(ities.

T$ere is+ $owe(er+ t$e Cuestion o& w$et$er a %i&e mi/$t $a(e meanin/ wit$out t$e ersonknowin/ it. T$is a%so raises t$e issue o& w$et$er t$e %i(es o& %ants an anima%s *an $a(emeanin/ e(en i& t$ey %a*k t$e inte%%i/en*e to unerstan it.

It is reai%y aarent t$at ot$er eo%e mi/$t see a meanin/ in someones %i&e t$at t$e

ini(iua% $imse%& or $erse%& mi/$t not see. Likewise+ %ants an anima%s may )e meanin/&u% toeo%e wit$out rea%i@in/ it &or e9am%e+ *ros )ein/ /rown &or ro&it $a(e meanin/ &or t$eirowners an )uyers+ )ut it is un%ike%y t$at t$e *ros t$emse%(es know t$at t$ese arti*u%armeanin/s *ause t$em to )e %ante an *u%ti(ate.

' more e9treme t$eory wou% su//est+ $owe(er+ t$at eo%es %i(es $a(e meanin/s wit$outany $uman )ein/ knowin/ w$at t$ese are. Usua%%y su*$ a t$eory wi%% ostu%ate somesuernatura% &or*e or )ein/. For e9am%e+ eo%e mi/$t suose t$at Go $as %a*e us $ere&or a reason+ a%t$ou/$ none o& us knows w$at it is. T$is kin o& )e%ie& is i&&i*u%t to e(a%uate asa s*ienti&i* $yot$esis. It is not+ t$ere&ore+ re%e(ant to t$is in(esti/ation+ e9*et &or one t$in/2Peo%es belief t$at %i&e may $a(e a meanin/ t$at no one knows is Cuite re%e(ant animortant. But t$ere a/ain we return to t$e issue o& w$at is a*tua%%y in eo%es mins.

T$e &o*us o& t$is )ook+ t$ere&ore+ wi%% )e on t$e meanin/s eo%e &in an *onstru*t &or t$eir

own %i(es an &or t$e %i(es o& ot$ers. =eanin/s o& %i&e+ as a toi* o& stuy in t$e so*ia% s*ien*es+e9ist in eo%es mins+ as we%% as in t$e so*ia% stru*tures an institutions eo%e *reate.

Conclusion and #u))ary

' meanin/ o& %i&e is a rou*t t$at *om)ines two i&&erent kins o& t$in/s. It takes meanin/an suerimoses it on %i&e. Li&e is a &orm o& $ysi*a% rea%ity+ mae u o& atoms an mo%e*u%es+&o%%owin/ natura% %aws an )io%o/i*a% ro*esses+ an so &ort$. =eanin/+ in *ontrast+ is not arto& t$e $ysi*a% wor%+ at %east in t$e sense t$at meanin/ oes not *onsist o& atoms anmo%e*u%es.

=eanin/ re&ers to ieas t$at *onne*t t$in/s to/et$er. =eanin/ )e/ins wit$ sim%e asso*iation

an istin*tion+ )ut in inte%%i/ent *reatures ;su*$ as our

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se*ies< t$ere are /reat ossi)i%ities &or *om%e9 uses o& meanin/. T$ere are networks o&re%ations$is+ )roa an mu%ti%e *onte9ts+ an (arious %e(e%s o& meanin/. 'ny e(ent>oranyt$in/ at a%%>*an suort i&&erent meanin/s eenin/ on *onte9ts+ %e(e%s+ anre%ations$is. =oreo(er+ *u%ture tea*$es eo%e to t$ink in terms o& stanars+ w$i*$ are ieaso& $ow t$in/s *ou% )e. Human t$inkin/ is more t$an Aust seein/ w$at $aens it a%soin(o%(es e(a%uatin/ w$at $aens in re%ation to ot$er ossi)i%ities.

=eanin/ ro)a)%y e(e%oe to ser(e two main &un*tions. One is %earnin/2 =eanin/ ena)%eseo%e to is*ern atterns in t$e wor% aroun t$em an so to rei*t w$at mi/$t $aen. T$eot$er is se%&1*ontro%2 Peo%e use meanin/ to $e% make e*isions+ to /uie t$eir a*tions+ an tore/u%ate t$eir emotiona% states.

=eanin/ is imose on t$e wor% in sma%% )its an *$unks+ a%t$ou/$ /raua%%y t$ese are )ui%tu into %ar/e systems. ?u%tures o&&er )roa systems o& )e%ie&s an (a%ues t$at te%% eo%e $owto t$ink. T$ese systems ;ieo%o/ies< o&&er )roa &rameworks t$at $e% eo%e make sense o&e(ents an t$at ro(ie t$e *onte9ts wit$in w$i*$ %i(es &in meanin/.

ote". I $a(e en*ountere t$is istin*tion in in&orma% *on(ersation rat$er t$an in u)%is$e

works. I in*%ue it $ere not )e*ause it is an imortant (iew )ut rat$er )e*ause itreresents a ossi)%e mis*on*etion.

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CHAPTER THREE

T"e *our

eeds for MeaningAn E+istential #"o,,ing List

Two eu*ate i*torian /ent%emen were wa%kin/ own Re/ent Street. One o& t$em wase9%ainin/ $is *on*%usions a)out t$e ori/ins o& t$e wor% an its u%timate &ate. T$e ot$erisa/ree wit$ $im )ut was unwi%%in/ to assert any &irm *on*%usions o& $is own. Fina%%y t$e &irstturne to t$e se*on an sai+ wit$ some e9aseration+ JYou surelymust $a(e a t$eory o& t$euni(erseJ ;Hou/$ton+ "#5,+ . "06


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T$e &our nees *an t$us )e re/are as a kin o& *$e*k%ist &or %i&es meanin/. ' ersonsmeanin/ o& %i&e is t$e sum o& ways $e or s$e $as o& satis&yin/ t$ese nees &or meanin/. Inaition+ t$e %ist *an )e use to ana%y@e an e(a%uate t$e (arious meanin/s o& %i&e t$at eo%e$a(e.

T"e Conce,t of eedBe&ore takin/ a *%ose %ook at ea*$ o& t$e &our nees+ it is ne*essary to e9%ain w$at is meant)y need.T$e *on*et o& nee si/ni&ies t$at eo%e are moti(ate to &in ways o& o)tainin/*ertain t$in/s>in t$is *ase+ t$ey are moti(ate to &in *ertain tyes o& answers ore9%anations. Some e(e%omenta% sy*$o%o/ists $a(e *on*%ue t$at *$i%ren $a(e an innatenee to a*Cuire an use meanin/&u% t$ou/$t+ w$i*$ is re&%e*te in *$i%rens a//ressi(ea*Cuisition o& %an/ua/e ;e./.+ a/an+ "#3"


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ersuae to a**et instea some ot$er+ er$as more nouris$in/ &oo. T$e inter*$an/ea)i%ityo& sour*es o& satis&a*tion is nonaarent.

it$ rese*t to t$e nees &or meanin/ in %i&e+ t$e im%i*ation is t$at any sort o& meanin/ t$atanswers t$e )asi* reCuirements wi%% o>)ut+ a/ain+ t$e ini(iua% may not rea%i@e t$is. In a

sense+ one re%i/ion may )e Aust as /oo as anot$er+ &rom t$e erse*ti(e o& &i%%in/ t$e nees&or meanin/. T$is &a*t wou% ro)a)%y strike t$e e(out )e%ie(er as %ui*rous. Few re%i/ionsrea%%y re/ar t$eir *ometitors as eCua%%y (ia)%e a%ternati(es. Psy*$o%o/i*a%%y+ $owe(er+ it isne*essary to start wit$ t$e assumtion t$at re%i/ious )e%ie&s are %ar/e%y inter*$an/ea)%e+un%ess it *an )e s$own t$at some re%i/ions are %ess e&&e*ti(e t$an ot$ers at satis&yin/ t$osenees.

T$e e9am%e o& re%i/ion )rin/s u one more issue. It is *%ear t$at re%i/ion is an imortantsour*e o& meanin/ in %i&e &or many eo%e+ an near%y a%% known so*ieties $a(e re%i/ious &ait$s.But it is a%so *%ear t$at many eo%e o sur(i(e an %i(e meanin/&u% %i(es wit$ %itt%e or nore%i/ion. T$us+ not e(eryone nees re%i/ious meanin/. Nees &or meanin/ must )e uni(ersa%+or as *%ose to uni(ersa% as t$in/s are in t$e so*ia% s*ien*es. Re%i/ion oes e&&e*ti(e%y ro(iemeanin/ in %i&e+ )ut aarent%y eo%e *an /et t$ose same tyes o& meanin/ e%sew$ere. 'nee &or a *ertain kin o& meanin/ im%ies t$at eo%e are (ery re%u*tant to o wit$out it.

T$ere&ore+ e(en t$ou/$ re%i/ious )e%ie&s may satis&y some eo%es nees &or meanin/+ we*annot ostu%ate a nee &or re%i/ion as one o& t$e )asi* nees &or meanin/.

T$ere is inee e(ien*e o& su)stitution an inter*$an/ea)i%ity wit$ rese*t to meanin/ in %i&e.For e9am%e+ women w$o /i(e u t$eir *areers w$en t$ey $a(e a *$i% o&ten initia%%y inten toreturn to work+ )ut many *ome to &in a /reat ea% o& meanin/ in *$i% *are instea+ an sot$eir esire to return to work &aes ;Ho*k+ Gne@a+ M =*Brie+ "#36


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M u%ka+ "#3"


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in/ $is *ountry %i(e a meanin/%ess %i&e sim%y )e*ause t$e war was not won w$i%e $e wasa%i(e.

T$e nee &or urose may we%% $a(e a )asis in natura% moti(ations. ' /reat ea% o& anima%)e$a(ior is es*ri)e as /oa%1ire*te. Inee+ it is i&&i*u%t to es*ri)e it any ot$er way. 's B.

F. Skinner mae *%ear+ anima% )e$a(ior is a &un*tion o& its *onseCuen*es+ an anima%s wi%%in*rease or e*rease t$e &reCuen*y o& *ertain a*ts eenin/ on w$et$er ast *onseCuen*es o&t$ese a*ts $a(e )een %easant or un%easant.

=ost t$eorists )a%k at sayin/ t$at t$e anima% is aware o& t$e /oa%. Skinner $imse%& o)Ae*te tote%eo%o/i*a% e9%anations &or anima% )e$a(ior. T$e rat oesnt ress t$e )ar in t$e Skinner )o9in orer to o)tain &oo+ )e*ause t$e rat *ant *on*etua%i@e t$at t$e )ar ress wi%% )rin/ &oo.Rats resuma)%y *ant t$ink to t$at e9tent. Human )ein/s+ $owe(er+ can t$ink. T$ey *an*on*etua%i@e t$e ossi)%e out*omes o& t$eir a*tions+ an so $uman )e$a(ior is Cuite *%ear%y/uie )y ieas a)out /oa%s an out*omes. Peo%e enro%% in *o%%e/e+ &or e9am%e+ o&ten wit$some *%ear iea o& t$e ositi(e )ene&its t$at a *o%%e/e eu*ation wi%% $e% t$em rea*$.

In s$ort+ t$ere may we%% )e some /oa%1orientation in$erent in t$e )e$a(ior o& many %oweranima%s. T$e $uman use o& meanin/ /reat%y in*reases t$is /oa%orientation+ )e*ause meanin/

is a ower&u% too% &or *ontro%%in/ ones )e$a(ior. =eanin/ ena)%es t$e erson to or/ani@e*urrent )e$a(iors aroun t$e /oa% state.

's a nee &or meanin/+ urose in(o%(es at %east t$ree t$in/s. First+ t$e /oa% or state isima/ine an *on*etua%i@e. Se*on+ *urrent )e$a(ior otions are ana%y@e an e(a%uatea**orin/ to w$et$er t$ey wi%% $e% )rin/ a)out t$is esire /oa% state. T$ir+ t$e ersonmakes *$oi*es so as to a*$ie(e t$e /oa%.

Present e(ents an a*ti(ities t$us o)tain meanin/ )y )ein/ *onne*te to ossi)%e &uturee(ents. =eanin/ ena)%es t$e erson to see )eyon t$e immeiate situation an to interrett$e resent situation in re%ation to an iea ;o& a &uture e(ent or stateotions su*$ as eu*ation+ ski%%strainin/+ an makin/ *onta*ts wit$ eo%e in t$e *$osen &ie%. T$ir+ t$ey must make e*isionsas to w$at sort o& rearation wi%% )est $e% t$em rea*$ t$e /oa%.

Puroses *an )e sorte into two )roa *ate/ories2 name%y+ /oa%s an &u%&i%%ments. T$ese*orreson rou/$%y to t$e istin*tion )etween e9trinsi* an intrinsi* moti(ations ;e./.+ De*i MRyan+ "#35 Leer M Greene+ "#,3


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Goa%s+ as e9trinsi* uroses+ are *on*ets o& esire+ ossi)%e &uture *ir*umstan*es. T$ese aretyi*a%%y e9terna% to t$e ini(iua%. Present a*ti(ities are or/ani@e so as to )rin/ a)out t$ese/oa%s. T$e a*ti(ities t$emse%(es are not ne*essari%y re/are as esira)%e+ an o&ten t$ey may)e un%easant ;a/ain+ %ike us$in/ t$e %awn mower


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&u%&i%%e+ in t$e sense o& )ein/ en%ess%y $ay an &ee%in/ t$ey $a(e rea*$e a%% t$eir /oa%s. Tot$em+ &u%&i%%ment mi/$t mean rea*$in/ t$e to o& t$e *areer %aer+ or /ettin/ t$e kis out o&t$e $ouse an t$rou/$ *o%%e/e.

One resear*$er arri(e at t$e same *on*%usion )y tryin/ to &in out w$at wou% make eo%e

$ay ;Freeman+ "#,3


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su&&i*ient%y meanin/&u% i& /uie )y eit$er e9trinsi* /oa%s or intrinsi* &u%&i%%ment states. 'n+a/ain+ %i&e may )e meanin/&u% e(en i& t$ese /oa%s an &u%&i%%ments are ne(er &u%%y rea%[email protected] may %i(e &or t$e sake o& siritua% &u%&i%%ment t$at a re%i/ion romises wi%% )e rea%i@eon%y a&ter eat$. Su*$ a %i&e oes not %a*k &or meanin/+ e(en i& it is oriente towar a uroset$at is ne(er rea*$e urin/ t$e %i&e. '%% t$at matters ;&or t$e sake o& makin/ %i&e meanin/&u%$en*e meanin/. Bot$ %o*a%i@e atterns an ranom in&%uen*es are to )e &oun. Oneim%i*ation is t$at t$e min *an at )est $oe to unerstan some t$in/s an not ot$ers2 It *an/ras t$e atterns w$ere t$ese e9ist+ )ut it wi%% not )e a)%e to arri(e at a *om%eteunerstanin/ o& t$e wor%. E(en i& *om%ete know%e/e o& t$e resent state o& t$e wor% werea(ai%a)%e+ one *ou% not rei*t t$e &uture wit$ er&e*t a**ura*y.

Peo%e may+ $owe(er+ )e (ery re%u*tant to a**et su*$ %imitations on our otentia% *aa*ity tounerstan an rei*t t$e wor%. Sin*e t$e $uman min e(e%oe an &%ouris$e )yis*ernin/ atterns in t$e en(ironment an takin/ a(anta/e o& t$em+ it may )e re%u*tant toa**et t$at some e(ents may not )e atterne. To a**et t$at is to a**et %imitations on t$e$uman mins *aa*ity to /row+ %earn+ an *ontro%+ an (io%ates our )e%ie& t$at everythingmayin rin*i%e )e unerstoo.

T$is ana%ysis *an )e a%ie to meanin/s o& %i&e. 's re(ious *$aters $a(e a%reay su//este+meanin/s o& %i&e are a*tua%%y )ui%t u in sma%% *$unks. Peo%e make sense o& t$eir %i(es one ayat a time. Ea*$ a*tion+ ea*$ ay+ may )e meanin/&u%+ an as one /ets o%er one t$inks interms o& %on/er an %on/er units ;e./. E%%en)er/er+ "#53


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'n e(en t$ese main stories &ai% to en*omass e(eryt$in/ t$at $aens. Ea*$ ay may $a(emoments t$at $a(e %itt%e to o wit$ any o& t$e main stories o& t$e %i&e. T$e myt$ o& $i/$ermeanin/ romises t$at e(eryt$in/ &its to/et$er some$ow+ )ut ro)a)%y e(eryt$in/ oes not &itto/et$er. =any moments are irre%e(ant an er$as e(en *ontrai*tory to t$e main t$emes o&a ersons %i&e.

' /oo i%%ustration o& se%e*ti(ity is t$e ro)%em o& w$at to in*%ue in someones )io/ra$y.=inor+ irre%e(ant e(ents s$ou% )e %e&t out+ w$ereas imortant an re%e(ant t$in/s s$ou% )ein*%ue )ut t$e (ery *riteria o& imortan*e an re%e(an*e im%y t$at one a%reay $as a *%eariea o& w$at t$e %i&e means an t$at on%y some o& t$e e(ents &it it. For e9am%e+ ?$ar%es E.Os/oo was a sy*$o%o/ist w$o e(ote mu*$ o& $is %i&e to t$e measurement o& su)Ae*ti(emeanin/ an to e(e%oin/ sy*$o%o/i*a% t$eories a)out %an/ua/e an meanin/. His )io/ra$yt$ere&ore in*%ues t$e &a*t t$at as a ten1year1o% )oy $e re*ei(e a *oy o& Ro/ets Thesaurusas a )irt$ay /i&t ;T@en/+ "##0


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*arry $i/$ meanin/s ;e./.+ T$anks/i(in/ inner+ ?ommunion ritua%sa time1out in t$e story o& ones %i&e.?at*$in/ a *o% may o&ten )e meanin/%ess an e(en *ounterrou*ti(e. '&ter a%%+ $ow mu*$sa*e o )io/ra$ies e(ote to t$e minor i%%nesses o& t$e ersons %i&e I& ones %i&e story&eatures ones work+ t$is work may )e susene w$i%e one is i%%+ so t$e i%%ness is a )%anksa*e in ones %i&e story+ an ey.

T$e ast e*ae $as seen t$e emer/en*e o& e*onstru*tionist t$eory in t$e $umanities ;see?u%%er+ "#3-


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Co),leteness2 T"ere Must Be an

Ans&er

?om%eteness is t$e assumtion t$at e(eryt$in/ makes sense2 T$e master %an is resume

to )e su&&i*ient to e9%ain e(eryt$in/. It is t$us a *entra% art o& t$e myt$ o& $i/$er meanin/+an t$e term corollarymay )e inaeCuate. $et$er t$e master %an is natura% %aw or i(inero(ien*e+ t$e assumtion is t$at e(ery e(ent &its into it.

T$e myt$ o& *om%eteness t$us romises t$at e(ery ro)%em $as a so%ution+ e(ery Cuestion$as an answer+ e(ery e*ision $as a )est ;or %east )a< otion+ an e(ery i%emma *an )ereso%(e. Peo%e rea%i@e t$at t$ey may )e una)%e to &in t$ese so%utions an answers ri/$taway+ )ut t$ey )e%ie(e t$at t$ese e9ist an *ou% in rin*i%e )e &oun. E(entua%%y+ e(eryonee9*et t$e $oe%ess%y i/norant an t$e wi%%&u%%y er(erse ou/$t to a/ree on e(eryt$in/. 'so$n Stuart =i%% on*e sai to o$n Ster%in/+ JI& your oinions+ or mine+ are ri/$t+ t$ey wi%% intime )e unanimous%y aote )y t$e instru*te i.e.+ eu*ate *%assesJ ;Hou/$ton+ "#5,+ ."6


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&etus )e*omes a %i(in/ )ein/. T$e assumtion is t$at t$ere is inee a re*ise oint at w$i*$t$is $aens+ an w$en t$is *an )e o)Ae*ti(e%y etermine we wi%% know $ow to reso%(e t$eissue o& a)ortion. It is wron/ to take a %i&e+ )ut it is a**eta)%e &or a re/nant woman to $a(ean oeration t$at oes not en a %i&e.

Un&ortunate%y+ t$e Sureme ?ourt Austi*es were &a*e wit$ *on&%i*tin/ oinions a)out w$atoint urin/ re/nan*y marks t$e )e/innin/ o& a new $uman %i&e. T$e e)ate *ontinue as i&some o& t$e s*ientists must )e mistakin/ or e(en misreresentin/ t$e &a*ts+ er$as )e*auseo& ieo%o/i*a% )ias.

$at no one seems wi%%in/ to a**et is t$e ossi)i%ity t$at t$e e*ision is ar)itrary+ t$at t$ererea%%y is no answer. I& *om%eteness is inee a myt$+ t$en t$ere may )e unso%(a)%e ro)%ems.Per$as t$ere is sim%y a /ray area )etween %i&e an non1%i&e+ an so*iety *an *$oose toimose a e&inition at any oint in t$is /ray area. T$e %awmakers s$ou% t$en sim%ya*know%e/e t$at t$ere is no o)Ae*ti(e answer as to t$e Cuestion o& w$en a &etus )e*omes a$uman )ein/+ an t$en imose t$eir own answer a**orin/ to $ow t$ey see t$e )est interestso& so*iety. But t$is is not an aea%in/ (iew instea+ eo%e want t$ere to )e *%ear ane&inite answers.

=ora% i%emmas are a /oo %a*e to %ook &or t$e myt$ o& *om%eteness. Peo%e %ike to )e%ie(et$at w$ere mora%ity is re%e(ant+ t$ere are ri/$t an wron/ *$oi*es. O(er t$e *enturies+t$inkers $a(e ienti&ie many mora% i%emmas+ su*$ as *on&%i*tin/ %oya%ties. ou% it )e ri/$t+&or e9am%e+ to er&orm torture on a terrorist w$o suose%y knows t$e %o*ation o& a )om)t$at mi/$t ki%% &i&ty eo%e But t$e )e%ie& ersists t$at t$ere are inee *orre*t so%utions toe(en t$ese i%emmas. Peo%e are re%u*tant to a**et t$at t$ere may sim%y )e two mora%rin*i%es t$at make *on&%i*tin/ emans>an t$at neit$er one rea%%y $as re*een*e o(er t$eot$er.

T"e *ait" in Consistency

In t$e stuy o& ure %o/i*+ *onsisten*y an *om%eteness *an )e *are&u%%y istin/uis$e+ )ut in

sy*$o%o/y t$ey o(er%a. T$e myt$ o& $i/$er meanin/ entai%s )ot$ *onsisten*y an*om%eteness. It says t$ere is a%ways an answer+ an a%% o& t$ese answers o not *ontrai*tea*$ ot$er.

's eo%e interret t$eir %i(es an make meanin/&u% e*isions+ t$ey ten to seek *onsisten*y.It is+ a&ter a%%+ imra*ti*a% to %i(e )y rai*a%%y in*omati)%e rin*i%es or to &o%%ow *on&%i*tin/ru%es. $en in*onsisten*ies o *ro u+ eo%e try to reso%(e or minimi@e t$em.

T$e esire &or *onsisten*y $as )een we%% o*umente )y so*ia% sy*$o%o/ists. Peo%e stru//%ewit$ in*omati)%e *$oi*es or *ommitments+ *on&%i*tin/ &ee%in/s+ or is*rean*ies )etween t$eirattitues or (a%ues an t$eir a*tions ;Festin/er M ?ar%smit$+ "#5#


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"#,5 Swann+ "#3,


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eitin/. T$is may o**ur a%% t$e time+ )ut it is er$as most aarent w$en eo%eretrose*ti(e%y eit t$eir asts to &it new meanin/s. For e9am%e+ stuies $a(e s$own t$atw$en eo%e *$an/e t$eir oinions+ t$ey *on(enient%y mana/e to &or/et t$eir initia% oinion+t$ere)y a%%owin/ t$em to t$ink t$at t$ey $a(e $e% t$e &ina% oinion a%% a%on/ ;Bem M=*?onne%%+ "#,0 see a%so 'erman M Bre$m+ "#,4 Baumeister M ?o(in/ton+ "#35


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T$e e9tent to w$i*$ %i&e in(o%(es *$an/e *an )e reai%y seen )y *omarin/ t$e JsameJor/anism at two i&&erent oints in time. ?onsier+ &or e9am%e+ a /ir% at a/e # an t$e sameerson -5 years %ater. T$e atoms an mo%e*u%es t$at make u t$e )oy $a(e *$an/e+ro)a)%y a%most entire%y. Her si@e an s$ae are Cuite i&&erent. =any o& $er $ysi*a%*aa)i%ities an nees are i&&erent. Her so*ia% re%ations$is are a%most *om%ete%y i&&erent.=any o& t$e eo%e in $er so*ia% wor% at a/e # ;su*$ as $er s*$oo%tea*$ers< are %on/ /one )ya/e 76+ w$i%e t$ose w$o are t$ere w$en s$e is 76 ;su*$ as $us)an+ o&&srin/+ *o%%ea/uesto makeit sta)%e an rei*ta)%e )y &inin/ t$e atterns t$at ont *$an/e.

It s$ou% not surrise us+ t$ere&ore+ t$at meanin/ is stron/%y /eare towar sta)i%ity+ an t$atits usa/es ten to imose sta)i%ity on t$e &%u9 an &%ow o& nature. Fa%se ermanen*e may )e asystemati* istortion+ )ut it is an unerstana)%e istortion.

In t$e su)seCuent *$aters+ t$ere wi%% )e many e9am%es o& &a%se ermanen*e. Inee+w$ene(er meanin/ is a%ie to %i&e+ t$ere may )e a tenen*y towar &a%se ermanen*e. It iswort$ ain/+ $owe(er+ t$at &a%se ermanen*e may )e im%i*it in t$e (ery notion t$at %i&e $as

a meanin/.

In t$eory+ a meanin/ o& %i&e is an interreti(e *onstru*t t$at u%%s to/et$er a%% t$e a*tions o&someones %i&e an t$eir *onseCuen*es. In ra*ti*e+ %i&e is o&ten a $o/eo/e o& in*onsisten*y+&a%se starts+ *$an/e %ans+ %oose ens+ an mutua%%y irre%e(ant roAe*ts. It may )e unrea%isti*to e9e*t a sin/%e meanin/ to raw to/et$er a%% t$e i(erse stri(in/s an ai%y e(ents o& asin/%e %i&e. Yet t$e notion o& a meanin/ o& %i&e im%ies re*ise%y t$at. To t$e e9tent t$at su*$notions are unrea%isti* an inaeCuate+ t$e (ery notion o& a meanin/ &or a /i(en %i&e re&%e*ts&a%se ermanen*e.

T"e Myt" of *ulfill)ent

T$e &ina% ase*t o& t$e myt$ o& $i/$er meanin/ in(o%(es &u%&i%%ment. In t$e re(ious *$ater+&u%&i%%ment was es*ri)e as a ositi(e+ esira)%e state+ )ase on a *on*et o& a su)stantia%imro(ement o(er resent *ir*umstan*es. Fu%&i%%ment in(o%(es &ee%in/ (ery /oo on a re/u%ar)asis.

?on*ets o& &u%&i%%ment may )e ese*ia%%y+ notorious%y rone to s$ow &a%se ermanen*e. Inra*ti*e+ eo%e &ee% /oo sometimes an )a sometimes. But w$en t$ey &orm *on*ets toima/ine &u%&i%%ment+ t$ey ten to &o*us on &ee%in/ /oo a%% t$e time an not &ee%in/ )a at a%%.Fu%%&i%%ment seems to mean ermanent ositi(e a&&e*t.

It is *%ear t$at &a%se ermanen*e is *entra% to our *u%tures &eature iea%s o& &u%&i%%ment. Lo(e+&or e9am%e+ is iea%i@e as a ermanent an un*$an/in/ state+ an t$at is $ow it is resentein ou%ar mo(ies an son/s an ot$er meia o&

1,01


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t$e ou%ar *u%ture. T$e romise o& eterna%+ unyin/ %o(e is a *%i*$K o& ou%ar roman*e anmusi*. Peo%e ima/ine t$at t$ey wi%% &in t$e roer mate an %i(e $ai%y e(er a&ter. Inra*ti*e+ t$e assionate attra*tion o& romanti* %o(e is o& %imite uration+ an no one %i(es$ai%y e(er a&ter+ a%t$ou/$ eo%e o mana/e to )e &air%y *ontent an satis&ie mu*$ o& t$etime ;*&. Stern)er/+ "#34


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time+ an eo%e w$o use t$em sometimes %ose interest in ot$er a*ti(ities. =any o& t$eo)Ae*tions to ru/ use are )ase on t$e ar/ument t$at t$e %oss o& interest in ot$er t$in/s;su*$ as work< wi%% )e $arm&u% in t$e %on/ run. But i& ru/ use rea%%y i ro(ie a means o&&ee%in/ /oo ermanent%y+ wit$out *ausin/ any noti*ea)%e $arm+ t$e *$a%%en/e to oura*$ie(ement1)ase way o& %i&e wou% )e su)stantia% an (ia)%e.

' se*on /reat &u%&i%%ment myt$ is t$e story o& t$e Ho%y Grai%+ &rom t$e in/ 'rt$ur %e/ens.'**orin/ to t$is story+ many set out on t$e Cuest &or t$e Grai% ;t$e *u t$at esus use at t$eLast Suer


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satis&a*tions. In arti*u%ar+ to seek &u%&i%%ment )y seekin/ to ro%on/ %easure is &uti%e anamnin/. T$e myt$ o& Faust says t$at $uman e9erien*e is unenin/ *$an/e. To try to sto*$an/e+ in orer to ro%on/ a &u%&i%%in/ e9erien*e+ is to %ose ones $umanity.

T$us+ a (ariety o& erse*ti(es on &u%&i%%ment $a(e re*o/ni@e t$e ro)%em o& &a%se ermanen*e

an /ra%e wit$ it. T$e answer may we%% )e t$at t$e re(ai%in/ *on*ets o& &u%&i%%ment sim%y$a(e t$is myt$i*a% or istorte ase*t. Ieas o& &u%&i%%ment may eri(e &rom a*tua% e9erien*eso& ositi(e a&&e*t t$ey a intensity an ermanen*e in orer to make u an iea% *on*et. Int$e *o%%e*ti(e ima/ination+ to )e &u%&i%%e is to &ee% /oo a%% t$e time. Pro)a)%y t$is *on*et isunrea%isti*. Emotion+ )y nature+ is temorary an resons to immeiate or re*ent e(ents.'atation1%e(e% e&&e*ts *annot )e e%iminate+ so one /rows a**ustome to /oo t$in/s an)e/ins to esire new+ )etter ones. T$e t$ou/$t t$at some e(ent *ou% rou*e ositi(e a&&e*t&ore(er a&terwar is im%ausi)%e+ Aust %ike t$e notion t$at one *ou% eat enou/$ at one mea% sot$at one wou% ne(er )e $un/ry a/ain.

#u))ary and Conclusion

Human )ein/s use t$eir inte%%i/en*e to make sense o& t$eir wor% )it )y )it. Graua%%y t$ey see)roaer+ inte/rati(e atterns+ an t$e meanin/s t$ey *onstru*t are %inke to/et$er. T$e myt$o& $i/$er meanin/ is t$e /enera% )e%ie& t$at e(eryt$in/ makes sense an so *an )eunerstoo. '%ie to meanin/s o& %i&e+ it is t$e $oe or &ait$ or e9e*tation t$at ones %i&e isinee meanin/&u%. E(en a erson w$o *ou% not arti*u%ate w$at $is or $er %i&e a*tua%%y meansmay trust t$at it oes $a(e a suita)%y imortant meanin/.

?om%eteness an *onsisten*y are imortant ase*ts o& t$e myt$ o& $i/$er meanin/.?om%eteness is t$e )e%ie& t$at a%% Cuestions *an )e answere. It &osters &ait$ t$at a%% ro)%ems$a(e so%utions+ t$at a%% i%emmas *an )e reso%(e+ t$at answers e9ist to a%% meanin/&u%Cuestions. T$e &ait$ in *onsisten*y is t$e )e%ie& t$at t$e wor% oes not *ontrai*t itse%&+ w$i*$a/ain im%ies t$at t$in/s an eo%e *an )e unerstoo in a sta)%e+ rei*ta)%e &as$ion. Peo%eare moti(ate to sustain t$eir &ait$ in *om%eteness an *onsisten*y. T$ey are re%u*tant toa**et t$at some i%emmas may $a(e no answer or t$at %i&e may *ontain some unreso%(a)%e

*ontrai*tions.

Fa%se ermanen*e re&ers to t$e tenen*y &or ieas to o(erestimate t$e sta)i%ity o& e(ents. Innature+ t$in/s *$an/e+ )ut ieas an meanin/s remain t$e same. Li&e is essentia%%y a *$an/in/ro*ess+ )ut %i(in/ )ein/s esire sta)i%ity an eo%e use meanin/ as one o& t$eir too%s toa*$ie(e it. 's a resu%t+ w$ene(er meanin/ is a%ie to %i&e+ its e&&e*ts wi%% ten to in*reasesta)i%ity.

Human *on*ets o& &u%&i%%ment re&%e*t t$e myt$ o& $i/$er meanin/ as we%% as &a%se ermanen*e.In e(eryay %i&e+ eo%e $a(e )ot$ /oo an )a &ee%in/s+ an )ot$ o& t$em are temorary. Buteo%e )e%ie(e t$at %i&e *an mo(e towar

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a sta)%e+ %astin/ e9erien*e o& /oo &ee%in/s+ as we%% as t$e ermanent &reeom &rom )a&ee%in/s. Peo%e o e9erien*e temorary satis&a*tions+ )ut t$ey ima/ine an esirepermanent satis&a*tions. $et$er t$e romise is eterna% sa%(ation in $ea(en+ %o(e t$at is&ore(er+ or sim%y t$e &ina%ity o& $a(in/ Jmae it+J our *u%tures romises o& &u%&i%%ment in*%ueermanen*e. T$ese romises are not to )e truste.

ote". See ?$ater -.

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PART I I

Loo(ing

for Ans&ers


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CHAPTER *IE

#elf-Identity

and t"e alue 3a,

In t$e "#30s+ sin/er $itney Houston won &ame an ri*$es wit$ a $it son/ *a%%e J The&reatest Love of 'll.J Persona%%y+ I $ar%y e(er %ike t$ose s%ow+ w$iny son/s+ an so I a%ways*$an/e t$e station as soon as it *ame on t$e raio as a resu%t+ I ne(er a*tua%%y $ear t$e%yri*s. $en I saw t$e retentious tit%e+ I wonere (a/ue%y w$at inee t$e /reatest %o(e wassuose to )e. I assume it was ro)a)%y Aust t$e same o% $eterose9ua% %o(e t$at mostson/s are a)out+ an t$e J/reatestJ art was Aust anot$er se%&1inu%/ent e9*ess o& $ye. Orer$as+ I t$ou/$t+ t$e son/ was a)out esus+ &or $ere an t$ere ro*k son/s wit$ ?$ristiant$emes o aear. Yet I &oun out years %ater t$at a**orin/ to =s. Houstons wors+ t$esureme an u%timate %o(e was a*tua%%y %o(e o& se%& Her own su**ess at %earnin/ to %o(e$erse%&+ s$e *roone+ was t$e /reatest %o(e o& a%%.

Su*$ a u)%i* sentiment wou% $a(e )een unt$inka)%e in ast eras. $at is it a)out t$emoem era t$at makes se%&1%o(e a**eta)%e $at is )e$in a%% t$e moem &as*ination wit$

se%&+ a%so known as ientity Some years a/o I was stru*k )y t$is t$eme t$at $as *ome to )esu*$ a re&rain in moem estern *u%ture+ as we%% as a *entra% interest o& so*ia% s*ientists. I setout to try to unerstan w$y our so*iety $a )e*ome so o)sesse wit$ i%emmas o& se%&$oo. Ie(ote se(era% years to tryin/ to unerstan $ow t$e se%& was ut to/et$er in our so*iety anw$at mae t$e se%& more o& a ro)%em toay t$an it $a )een in t$e ast.

Graua%%y+ I mana/e to &i/ure out $ow estern *u%ture $a re&as$ione t$e /roun ru%es &orse%&$oo+ wit$ t$e resu%t t$at t$e moern se%& is mu*$ more i&&i*u%t an ro)%emati* t$an t$ese%& o& ast *enturies. T$at work $a $e%e me /ain some unerstanin/ o& t$e se%& ;seeBaumeister+ "#34+ "#3,


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in/+ an so eo%e instea $rase t$is nee in terms o& &inin/ onese%&+ w$i*$ is suita)%y(a/ue+ yet so*ia%%y a**eta)%e.

T$is *$ater is in some ways t$e *om%etion o& my attemt to unerstan t$e moemi%emma o& ientity. It is not sim%y t$at t$e se%& $as )e*ome more o(er/rown+ un*ertain+ an

*om%i*ate t$an it use to )e. Rat$er+ our moem so*iety uses t$e se%& to su%y meanin/ to%i&e in a way t$at re(ious eras i not. T$ese new emans on t$e se%& are a maAor reason &ort$e moem &as*ination wit$ se%& an t$e stru//%es wit$ ientity.

In t$is *$ater+ t$e &irst task is to e9amine $ow our moem so*iety stans wit$ rese*t to t$e&our nees &or meanin/. It wi%% )e aarent t$at t$e sin/%e )i//est ro)%em area *on*erns(a%ue. T$at is+ our so*iety %a*ks &irm (a%ue )ases t$at *an ro(ie so%i *riteria &or knowin/ri/$t an wron/ an &or Austi&yin/ a*tions. Ne9t+ t$is *$ater wi%% e9amine t$e *auses o& t$ismoem J(a%ue /aJ> t$is s$orta/e o& (a%ue )ases. T$is wi%% %ea to t$e Cuestion o& $ow eo%etoay are resonin/ to t$e %a*k o& &irm (a%ues. ' s$orta/e o& (a%ue )ases wi%% make eo%ere*eti(e to &inin/ new ones or e%a)oratin/ o% ones.

'n t$at is w$ere t$e se%& *omes in. =oem estern *u%ture $as stru//%e to esta)%is$ t$e se%&as a maAor (a%ue )ase. Peo%e $a(e a%ways $a se%(es+ )ut se%(es $a(e not a%ways $a to *arry

t$e )uren o& su%yin/ meanin/ to %i&e in su*$ a &ar1rea*$in/ &as$ion. T$e reason &or t$emoem &as*ination wit$ se%&+ t$en+ is t$at t$e se%& $as )een mae into a &unamenta% anower&u% sour*e o& (a%ue in moem %i&e. T$is new )uren o& se%&$oo is not an easy one+ anientity *rises an ot$er ro)%ems o& se%&$oo eri(e in art &rom t$e new emans eo%etoay %a*e on t$e se%&.

=oern auien*es are t$ere&ore not astonis$e to $ear a sin/er )oast t$at s$e $as is*o(eret$e u%timate %o(e not in %o(e o& anot$er erson+ o& Go+ or o& $umanity+ )ut sim%y in %o(e o&$erse%&. Se%&1%o(e $as s$e mu*$ o& its unsa(ory *onnotation o& *on*eit an $eresy ;*&. wei/+"#30< to )e*ome a**eta)%e+ esira)%e+ an e(en er$as o)%i/atory. T$e sentiment t$atHoustons son/ e9resse e*$oes t$rou/$out t$e *u%ture+ &rom mo(ies to s*$o%ar%y works tot$e ?a%i&ornia State ?ommission on Se%&1Esteem. ?omeian Roney Dan/er&ie% $as aroiet$is sentiment in $is story a)out $a(in/ se9 wit$ a artner w$o+ at t$e moment o& *%ima9+

wou% *a%% out $er own name rat$er t$an $is. E(en toay+ t$at wou% )e e9*essi(e. But one*an s*ar*e%y isute t$at a new+ ositi(e (iew o& se%&$oo $as emer/e to %ay a *entra% ro%e int$e meanin/s o& moern %i(es.

T"e Modern Outloo( for Life4s Meanings

=oem %i(es may )e &u%% o& meanin/+ )ut t$at oes not mean t$at a%% t$e nees &or meanin/are &u%%y an easi%y satis&ie+ or t$at t$ere are no ro)%em areas wit$ rese*t to %i&es meanin/.To are*iate $ow eo%e toay &in meanin/ in t$eir %i(es+ it is ne*essary to *onsier t$e &ournees &or meanin/ an e9amine w$at

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moem so*iety o&&ers ini(iua%s as ways o& satis&yin/ t$ese nees. O)(ious%y+ t$ere is wie(ariation+ an so t$e /enera%i@ations are ne*essari%y (ery )roa an *rue. But it is sti%%imortant to unerstan w$i*$ nees are easi%y satis&ie an w$i*$ ones may )e i&&i*u%t orro)%emati*.

's &ar as satis&yin/ t$e nee &or urose in %i&e+ moern estern so*iety o&&ers an a)unan*eo& /oa%s. =u%ti%e /oa%s an $ierar*$ies o& /oa%s are reai%y a(ai%a)%e. Bureau*rati* *areers$a(e many %e(e%s o& romotion an a*$ie(ement. Possessions *an )e a**umu%ate ine&inite%y.T$e eu*ationa% system o&&ers many %e(e%s o& attainment. Genera%%y+ t$e materia% ane*onomi* system o&&ers eo%e many /oa%s to s$oot &or.

Fu%&i%%ment+ on t$e ot$er $an+ *ontinues to )e a ro)%em. ?$ristianity tau/$t our *u%ture to$o% $i/$ e9e*tations &or &u%&i%%ment. T$e ?$ristian notion o& &u%&i%%ment ;i.e.+ sa%(ation in$ea(en< *onsiste o& ermanent+ uninterrute+ unseaka)%e )%iss. $en our so*iety *easeto %i(e rimari%y )y t$ese ?$ristian /uie%ines+ eo%e sou/$t ot$er moe%s an means o&&u%&i%%ment. But t$e se*u%ar notions o& &u%&i%%ment $a(e ne(er %i(e u to t$e siritua% ones t$at/a(e urose to our an*estors %i(es. Per$as t$is is an ine(ita)%e *onseCuen*e o& t$e myt$ o&&u%&i%%ment+ &or t$e siritua% moe%s were ne(er ut to t$e test+ w$ereas se*u%ar &u%&i%%ment is*onstant%y teste. No one e(er *ame )a*k to reort w$et$er %i&e in $ea(en was as /oo as $a

)een romise.

To summari@e t$e re*ent $istory o& &u%&i%%ment )rie&%y ;see Baumeister+ "#34+ "#3, &or &u%%eris*ussion


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moem so*iety+ it is t$e nee &or (a%ue>t$at is+ t$e nee &or &irm+ *onsensua% *riteria o& ri/$tan wron/. ;T$e ne9t se*tion o& t$is *$ater wi%% e9amine t$is (a%ue /a in etai%.t$e essen*e o& a (a%ue )ase. In t$at way+ too+ traition $e%s make%i&e seem meanin/&u% an wort$w$i%e ;S$i%s+ "#3"


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a/an re%i/ion o& t$e an*ient Roman Emire o(er t$e ustart ?$ristianity+ t$ere is %itt%e reasonto )e%ie(e t$at simi%ar attemts to resume interrute traitions wi%% )e a)%e to su**ee in t$emore i&&i*u%t moem wor%. On*e a traition $as )een )roken+ rea%%y )roken+ it *annot as a/enera% ru%e )e su**ess&u%%y re(i(e ;S$i%s+ "#3"a rea*tionary o)sta*%e to ro/ress ;*&. S$i%s+ "#3"


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It $as to Austi&y t$em on a ra*ti*a%+ rationa% )asis+ su*$ as )y s$owin/ t$at t$ey are e&&e*ti(e+e&&i*ient+ an so &ort$. But )ein/ ra*ti*a% an e&&e*ti(e is not t$e same as )ein/ ri/$t an/oo. =oem so*iety t$us $as to /et )y wit$ &ewer ways o& Austi&yin/ t$in/s as ri/$t an /oo.

Conclusion2 T"e #"ortage of alues

T$e emer/en*e o& moem so*iety $as )een %inke to t$e isrution+ erosion+ an o**asiona%estru*tion o& se(era% o& t$e maAor (a%ue )ases. Re%i/ion+ mora%ity+ an traition $e%e &i%%eo%es %i(es wit$ meanin/ an /a(e t$em a )asis &or knowin/ w$i*$ a*ts were ri/$t anesira)%e. But re%i/ion+ mora%ity+ an traition no %on/er $a(e t$e so*ia% ower or emotiona%&or*e t$at t$ey on*e enAoye. T$ere are se(era% ot$er (a%ue )ases t$at $a(e met t$e same&ate+ su*$ as t$e aristo*rati* *on*etion o& $onor+ t$e work et$i*+ an some &orms o&nationa%ism an imeria%ism.

's a resu%t+ t$e moem ini(iua% &a*es %i&e wit$ &ewer &irm *riteria o& %e/itima*y an &ewerre%ia)%e ways to te%% ri/$t &rom wron/. =oem ini(iua%s &in t$eir sour*es o& Austi&i*ation to)e &ewer+ to )e &u@@ier+ an to )e more &u%% o& /as an am)i/uities+ in *omarison wit$ eo%ew$o %i(e in re(ious eras.

=oern so*ieties+ t$ere&ore+ may *ommon%y &a*e t$e ro)%em o& a *$roni* s$orta/e o& (a%ue)ases. Finan*ia% (a%ue+ rat$er t$an mora% (a%ue+ )e*omes a ominant t$eme in moern %i&e+)ut %i(in/ &or t$e sake o& &inan*ia% (a%ues a%one is /enera%%y er*ei(e as inaeCuate anunsatis&yin/+ e(en )y t$ose most enamore o& &inan*ia% su**ess ;see Hu)er+ "#3,


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's ear%ier *$aters ini*ate+ t$ere is a &air%y stanar resonse to a s$orta/e o& meanin/. T$eresonse is to e%a)orate t$e remainin/ sour*es o& meanin/ to make u t$e e&i*it. T$is s$ou%o**ur at t$e *o%%e*ti(e %e(e% as we%% as at t$e ini(iua% %e(e%. In ot$er wors+ w$o%e so*ietiess$ou% s$ow t$e same attern t$at we $a(e seen amon/ ini(iua%s. ?on&ronte wit$ a %oss o&se(era% (a%ue )ases+ t$en+ moern so*iety wou% )e e9e*te to turn to its remainin/ sour*eso& meanin/ an try to e9ten t$em to ser(e as (a%ue )ases.

One sour*e o& meanin/ t$at is ower&u% an a)unant in moem so*iety is t$e se%&. Notions o&se%& an ientity+ e&initions o& se%&+ ways o& %earnin/ a)out an e9tenin/ t$e se%& are wie%ya(ai%a)%e. T$e attemt to e%a)orate se%&ientity into a (a%ue )ase ;an+ not in*ienta%%y+ intoa moe% o& &u%&i%%ment< is one o& t$e /reat t$emes o& t$e moern era. To unerstan t$isro*ess+ it is ne*essary to *onsier some o& t$e )a*k/roun in two rese*ts2 &irst+ t$e natureo& t$e se%& an $ow t$is $as *$an/e in moern %i&e+ an se*on+ $ow t$e moerni@ationro*esses t$at eroe t$e o% (a%ue )ases a(e t$e way &or re%a*in/ t$em wit$ t$e se%&. T$ene9t se*tion wi%% ro(ie an o(er(iew o& t$ese e(e%oments.

T$e se%& is *ertain%y not t$e on%y t$in/ t$at $as )een trie out as a (a%ue )ase to re%a*e t$e%ost ones. T$e (a%ue /a is a er(asi(e ro)%em o& moern so*iety+ an it s$aes $ow so*ietyuses se(era% meanin/s. Inee+ t$e ne9t *$ater wi%% *onsier t$e attemt to e%e(ate work into

a (a%ue )ase ;i.e.+ t$e work et$i*


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se%&. For e9am%e+ ientity means t$at you $a(e to kee t$e romises you mae %ast week or%ast year+ e(en i& you no %on/er &ee% in*%ine to o so. 's note ear%ier+ one o& t$e &un*tions o&meanin/ is to $e% imose sta)i%ity on t$e wor%+ an ientity is an imortant ase*t o& t$is.Ientity $e%s kee eo%e in sta)%e re%ations$is+ mo(in/ towar t$e same /oa%s+ an makin/*$oi*es an e*isions in a steay+ *onsistent &as$ion. Peo%e w$o %a*k a &irm ientity+ su*$ aseo%e w$o are $a(in/ ientity *rises+ ten to %a*k su*$ &orms o& sta)i%ity. T$eir intera*tionswit$ ot$ers are more unsta)%e+ t$eir )e$a(ior s$ows a *on&usin/ mi9ture o& *$an/in/ /oa%s+an t$eir e*isions o&ten seem *ari*ious+ ar)itrary+ or in*onsistent ;see Baumeister+ S$airo+M Ti*e+ "#35 Baumeister+ "#34


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&ra/ments in orer to &in a e*ent $ikin/ sta&&. None was Cuite ri/$t+ so I &ina%%

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BAUMEISTER, Roy F. - Meanings of Life

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