BIO 1402_Exam 2_ Key Concepts

8/19/2019 BIO 1402_Exam 2_ Key Concepts

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1. All animals are

multicellular

multicellularity allows for the

division of labor between

different cell types (of which

humans have over 200)

2. all mammals have what

four things

1. mammary glands

2. hair

3. specialized teeth

4. enlarged skull

3. amniotes - living reptile

classes include:

turtles

lizards and snakes

crocodiles

birds

dinosaurs are extinct reptiles

4. amniotes - the amniotic egg

permitted animals to

become fully terrestrial.

other critical innovations

included:

1. desiccation-resistant skin2. thoracic breathing

3. water-conserving kidneys

4. internal fertilization

5. amniotes - the four key

characteristics of birds are:

1. feathers

2. a lightweight skeleton

3. air sacs

4. reduced organs

birds are the most species rich

class of terrestrial vertebrates.

the diversity of bird beaks

reflects the varied methods

they use for feeding

6. amniotes - three species:

Archaeopteryx,

Caudipteryx, and

Confuciusornis - help trace

a lineage from dinosaurs to

birds

these reptiles had scales on

their feet and legs and had

shelled eggs

7. amniotic egg anatomy amnion - protects the

developing embryo in a fluid

filled cavity called the amniotic

cavity

yolk sac - a stockpile of

nutrients for the developing

embryo

allantois - disposal sac for

metabolic wastes of the embryo

chorion - p rovides gas

exchange between the embryo

and the surrounding air

shell - tough, protective

covering that prevents the

embryo from drying out

8. amniotic egg

overview

- amphibians may lay their eggs in water

- amniotic egg = a personal enclosed pond

for each developing individual

- this allowed animals to fully colonize land

9. amphibios =

both ways of

life

amphibians can live on land, but must

return to water to reproduce

- eggs are laid in water

- larval stage are usually aquatic herbivores

- metamorphosis into adults = loss of gills

and tails, gain limbs and lungs

10. anatomy of a

sponge =

porifera =

parazoa

spongocoel - inner cavity

osculum - large opening at top

mesohyl - "tissue" of the sponge

choanocyte, amoebocyte, spicule - flagellum

containing cells, nutrient carrying cells, and

protective/structural cells

BIO 1402 - EXAM 2 - Key Concepts


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11. anchoring

junctions

ADHERINS JUNCTIONS - ceonnect cells to

each other via cadherins (bind to actin

filaments within cytosol)

CADHERINS - type of cell adhesion molecule

(CAM)

DESMOSOMES - connect cells to each other

via cadherins (bind to intermediate filaments

within the cytosol)

HEMIDESMOSOMES - connect cells to the

ECM via integrins (CAM; bind to intermediate

filaments within cytosol)

FOCAL ADHESIONS - connect cells to the

ECM via integrins (bind to actin filaments

within the cytosol)

12. anchoring

junctions

overview

hold adjacent cells together or attach cells to

the ECM

mechanically strong

common in parts of the body where the cells

are tightly connected and form linings

13. animal

adaptations

to living on

land

lungs

bony skeleton

internal fertilization

amniotic egg (reptiles - 300 mya)

mammalian reproduction (after the K/T

event)

14. animal body fluids

all animal bodies are composed

primarily of water

most of this water is contained within

the cells => intracellular

15. animals and animal

diversity - bodyfluids and

compartments

an animals body fluids are distributed

into three compartments:

1. intracellcular - within the cell

2. plasma - fluid portion of blood

3. interstitial fluid - outside the cell


diversity -

connective tissues

CT connect, surround, anchor, and

support the structures of an animals

body


diversity -

epithelial tissues

epithelial tissues are specialized to

protect structures and to secrete and

absorb ions and organic molecules


diversity - history

of animal life

the history of animal life on earth over

540 million years.

530-525 mya - a profusion of animal

phyla appeared in the Cambrian

explosion

520 mya - animals evolved adaptations

to deal with the colonization of land.

65 mya - number and d iversity of

mammals exploded after dinosaurs

died out at the end of the Cretaceous

period.


diversity - muscle

tissues

muscle tissues consist of cells

specialized to contract.

Three types:

1. skeletal

2. smooth

3. cardiac


diversity - nervous

tissues

nervous tissues initiate and conduct

electrical signals from one part of an

animals body to another


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21. animals and

animal diversity

- structure and

function

the structure or an animals tissues and

organs are related to the function of those

structures.

in an organ system, different organs work

together to perform an overall function.

22. animals and

animal diversity

- what makes an

animal an

animal?

animals constitute a very species rich

kingdom with a number of characteristics

that distinguish them from other

organisms:

1. multicellularity

2. an extracellular matrix

3. unique cell junctions

4. heterotrophic feeding

5. internal digestion

6. nervous and muscle tissues

23. apoptosis formation of tissues and organs -

programmed cell death is necessary to

produce certain morphological features of

the body => human fingers and toes24. arthropods are

segmented

- many segments bear jointed

appendages which allows complex

movements including walking, swimming,

sensing, breathing, food handling, and

reproduction

- segments can become fused into

functional units = head, thorax, and

abdomen

25. arthropods have

extensive

cephalization

- well developed sensory organs

- compound eyes (made of many

independent visual units) that render a

mosaic like image of the environment

- brain composed of 2-3 cerebral ganglia

connected to small nerve ganglia

- open circulatory system - hemolymph

pumped from a tubelike heart into open

sinuses

- special organs for gas exchange

- aquatic arthropods - gills- terrestrial arthropods - air tubes and

pores

- complete gut

26. bipedalism is

walking on two

feet

the key characteristic differentiating

hominids from other apes

may have provided an advantage

during the divergence of hominids:

allowed hominids to peer over the tall

grass of african savannas

27. birds overview - major characteristic they all have

feathers and nearly all of them can fly

- feathers are epidermal outgrowths that

allow flight; can be regrown as needed

- bird s trace their lineage to reptiles

28. bivalves

lophotrochozoa - mollusks - clams,

mussels, and oysters

- aquatic, immobile in adult form but

larval forms can swim

- produce shells and are filter feeders

29. bony fish can be

categorized into

ray-finned fishes

and lobe-finned

fishes

lobe-finned fishes

can be further

categorized into

coelacanths and

lungfish

ray finned fishes - fins are supported by

thin, bony, flexible rays and are moved

by muscles on the interior of the body

lobe finned fishes - fins are supported

by skeletal extensions of the pectoral

and pelvic area and are moved by

muscles within the fins


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30. bony fishes

anatomy

- have an end oskeleton made of bone

and scale covered skin

- water is drawn over the gills for

breathing, the gills are protected by a

covering called the operculum

- muscle contractions around the

operculum allow the fish to breathe

without moving

- swim bladder = a gas-filled structure

that allows fish to remain b uoyant even

while stationary

- most bony fish use external fertilization

for reproduction

31. bryozoans and

brachiopods

have a lophophore, a ciliated feedingdevice that can also serve as a

respiratory organ

32. caecilians -

amphibians

- legless, nearly

blind amphibians

- tiny jaws with

teeth - eat worms

and other soil

invertebrates(look like worms)

salamanders - amphibians

- have a tail and a more elongated body

than frogs and toads

- thought to resemble early tetrapods

33. cell connections formation of tissues and organs - the

ECM serves to organize cells within

tissues and organs

34. Cell division formation of tissues and organs - cells

within tissues must replicate and divide

to replace dying or damaged tissues

35. cell growth formation of tissues and organs - cells

take up nutrients and expand in volume

- this is the primary mechanism for

increasing the size of tissues, organs, andorganisms

36. Cellular junctions

allow cells to link

together and

work together

anchoring junctions, tight junctions, gap

junctions

37. cephalization in

flatworms

cephalization - nerve cells,

chemoreceptors, and sensory apparatus

are localized at one side of the flat worm

- cerebral ganglia - clusters of nerv e cells

- ocelli - eye spots that sense light

- can reproduce sexually or asexually

38. cephalopods lophotrochozoa - mollusks - octopuses,squids, and nautiluses

- marine, most complex invertebrates

- most are fast-swimming marine

predators

- have a beaked jaw that allows biting

and chewing

39. cephalopods are

the most complex

of all

invertebrates

lophotrochozoa - mollusks - octopuses,

squid, and nautiluses

- foot has been modified into a muscularsiphon that can rapidly expel water to

facilitate movement

- have a closed circulatory system

- well developed nervous system

including sensory organs

40. a change in a

variable brings

about responses

that move the

variable in thesame direction in

what type of

homeostasis?

positive feedback

classic example of positive feedback is

childbirth in humans

uterine contractions =>

brain is triggered by stretching cervix =>

pituitary gland is stimulated by brain

which strengthens contractions


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41. characteristic

features of

vertebrates:

cranium

vertebrate - deuterostome - chordate

-anterior end of the nerve cord

elaborates to form a developed brain

-this brain is encased in a protective

bony or cartilaginous housing called

the cranium which represents

advanced cephalization

42. characteristic

features of

vertebrates:

diversity of internal

organs

- the liver is unique to vertebrates

- vertebrate kidneys, endocrine

system, and heart are more complex

than those of invertebrates

43. characteristic

features of

vertebrates:

endoskeleton

- living skeleton that forms within the

animals body

- spinal column and cranium are part

of the endoskeleton - includes

appendages

- made of bone or cartilage which are

strong yet flexilble, unlike chitin

- contains living cells that secrete the

skeleton, unlike the n onliving

exoskeleton or arthropods

44. characteristic

features of

vertebrates: neural

crest

- a group of embryonic cells found on

either side of the neural tube as it

develops

- neural tube = the hollow structure

from which the brain and spinal cordform during development

- these cells disperse throughout the

embryo, contributing to development

of different tissues and structures

45. characteristic

features of

vertebrates:

vertebral column

vertebrate deuterostomes - chordates

- dur ing development the notochord is

replaced by a bony or cartilaginous

column of interlocking vertebrae

- provides support and protects thenerve cord that lies within its tube like

structure

46. characteristics of

flight:

1. air sacs

2. lightweight

bones

3. large

breastbone

4. endothermic

5. reduction of organs

2. lightweight bones - thin hollow bones

have a honeycomb structure - the skull is

lightweight

3. large breastbone - provides an anchor

to which flight muscles may attach

4. endothermic (40-42C)

rapid metabolism and quick productionof ATP to support flight

5. reduction of organs - fewer and or

smaller organs means less weight - only

one ovary, reduced gonads, no teeth or

bladder

47. common

examples of

lophotrochozoa

- flatworms

- rotifers

- bry ozoans and brachiopods

- mollusks

- annelids

48. common

physiological

variables:

- minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium,

iron)

- energy sources (glucose, fat, ATP)

- body temperature

- pH of body fluids

- Oxygen and CO2

- amount of water

49. complete

metamorphosis

ecdysozoa - arthropods - insects

- 85% of insects have complete meta

- four stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult

- larval stage might exist in a totally

different environment than the adult

which means the larva and the adult

dont compete for resources

- feeding stage (sac-like caterpillar) and a

dispersive stage (winged adult)

50. conforming as a

feature of

homeostasis -

mostlyinvertebrates

conforming is a cheap strategy in that it

takes less energy to achieve

tradeoff, restricts conformers to living inan environment that is relatively

unchanging


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51. connective tissue provides support to the body and

helps to connect different tissues

1. cartilage

2. tendons

3. bone

4. fat

5. blood

ECM (not cells), FEW CELLS

52. control of blood

glucose - plasma glucose

concentration (mg/dL)

normal blood glucose is restored

after meals and fasts by the

endocrine and n ervous systems

diabetes - compensatory

mechanisms are absent and

blood glucose stays elevated

53. crocodiles and

alligators overview

- have four chambered hearts like

mammals

- have eye sockets

- care for their young

54. crustaceans ecdysozoa - arthropods

- multiple sensory and feeding

appendages

- walking legs and swimmeretes

- powerful tail

55. ctenophores have a

complete gut; the first

in the animal kingdom

- ctenophores = comb jellies

- have eight rows of cilia on their

surface that resemble combs =>

used for locomotion

- ingest water through their

mouth => waste and water are

eliminated through two anal

pores

56. cuticle on

ecdysozoans

- the cuticle is a nonliving cover that serves

to protect and support the animal

- if the cuticle is thick, it can impede the

diffusion of oxygen across the skin, which

led to the development of lungs, gills, or

tracheae

- ecdysozoans have strong appendagesthat can be used for walking, swimming, or

flying

- ability to shed cuticle allows

metamorphosis (wormlike larva becomes

winged adult) because the skeleton can

be completely changed

57. describe what

kind of cells

make up muscle

tissues

cells specialized to shorten, or contract,

generating the mechanical forces needed

to:

produce body movement

decrease the diameter of a tube

exert pressure on a fluid filled cavity

58. deuterostomes -

chordates -

dorsal hollow

nerve cord

(non-chordate invertebrates can have

long nerve cords, but it is usually ventral

to the gut)

- in chordates, the nerve cord is dorsal to

the gut

- in vertebrates, this cord develops into

the brain and spinal cord

59. deuterostomes -

chordates -

humans:

notochord

dorsal hollow

nerve cord

pharyngeal slits

postanal tail

in humans:

notochord - spinal column

dorsal hollow nerve cord - central nervous

system

pharyngeal slits - eustachian tubes but

most lost during embry onic development

postanal tail - coccyx


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60. deuterostomes -

chordates - pharyngeal

slits

- chordates have a complete gut

with a mouth and anus

- near the mouth, chordates have

slits that open to the outside

- this allows water to enter the

mouth and exit through the slits,

without entering the gut

- pharyngeal slits function for filter

feeding or can develop into gills

for gas exchange

61. deuterostomes -

chordates - postanal tail

- chordates have a tail that

extends posterior to the anal

opening

- in aquatic chordates, it can be

used for locomotion

- in terrestrial chordates, can be

used for a variety of functions

62. deuterostomes -

chordates - the

notochord

- single flexible rod that lies

between the digestive tract and

the nerve cord

- made of fibrous tissue encasing

fluid-filled cells

- stiff but flexible, provides flexible

support

- replaced by a complex jointed

backbone in vertebrates

63. deuterostomes include

invertebrate

echinoderms and

vertebrate chordates

chordates and echinoderms

share:

- during embryonic development,

the b lastopore becomes the anus

- endoskeleton

unique to chordates are:

- notochord

- dorsal hollow nerve cord

- pharyngeal slits

- postanal tail

64. deuterostomia

grouping

- grouped together due to

similarities in patterns of

development in which the

blastopore becomes the anus

- deuterostomes include

vertebrate chordates and

invertebrate echinoderms

65. differentiation formation of tissues and organs -

tissues must differentiate to have

specialized form and function

66. different types of

insects

- beetles and weevils

- ants, bees, wasps

- flies, mosquitoes

- butterflies, moths

- bedb ugs, cicadas

- crickets, grasshoppers

- dragonflies

- fleas and lice

- termites

67. digestion of sponges =

porifera = parazoa

sponge draws water through its

pores into the spongocoel

=> water enters the pores by the

beating action of the flagella of the

choanocytes that line the

spongocoel

=> particulate matter and protists

in the water are eaten bychoanocytes (filter feeding)

68. dinosaurs overview - were the dominant tetrapods on

earth 215 mya

- two distinct kinds of dinosaurs:

- bird hipped h erbivores -

Ornithischian

- lizard hipped carnivores -

Saurischian

- dinosaurs died during the K/T

event 65 mya69. early evolutionary

division of fish: sharks,

skates, and rays

bony fish

sharks, skates, and rays have a

skeleton composed of flexible

cartilage and powerful

appendages called fins.

they are active predators with

acute sense and were among the

earliest fishes to develop teeth.


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70. earth worms

lophotrochozoa - annelids

- ingest soil and leaf tissue to extract

nutrients, creating bu rrows in the earth

- enrich and aerate the soil

- have a highly developed closed circulatory

system with multiple hearts

71. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

- arthropod

the arthropod body is covered by a cuticle

made of layers of chitin and protein, and it is

segmented.

72. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

- arthropod

types

arthropods include:

1. extinct trilobites

2. spiders and scorpions

3. millipedes and centipedes

4. insects

5. crustaceans73. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

- crustaceans

most crustaceans are small and feature

prominently in marine food chains.

they include crabs, lobsters, and shrimp.

74. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

-

deuterostomia

the deuterostomia include echinoderms

and chordates

75. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

- echinoderms

echinoderms include:

1. sea stars

2. brittle stars3. sea urchins

4. sand dollars

5. sea lilies

6. feather stars

7. sea cucumbers

76. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma

- insect

changes

insects undergo a change in b ody form

dur ing development: either complete or

incomplete metamorphosis, and have

developed complex social behaviors

77. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma -

insects

more insect species are known than all

other animal species.

the development of a variety of wing

structures and mouthparts was a key to

the success of insects.

78. ecdysozoa and

deuterostoma -

nematodes

nematodes, which exist in nearly all

habitats, have a cuticle made of collagen,

a structural protein.

the small, free-living nematode C.elegans

is a model organism.

Many nematodes are parasitic in

humans.

79. ecdysozoa

include what two

significant phyla?

1. nematodes

2. arthropods

80. echinoderm

overview

deuterostomes

include: sea stars, brittle stars, sea

urchins and sand dollars, sea lilies and

feather stars, and sea cucumbers.

- echio (spiny) derm (skin)

- radial symmetry, no cephalization, no

brain and very simple nervous system

- internal hard skeleton

- water vascular system that functions inmovement (hydraulic power), gas

exchange, feeding, and excretion

81. ECM proteins and polysaccharides

strength, structural support, organization


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82. ECM -

collagen and

elastin

collagen - forms large fibers and

interconnected fibrous networks in the ECM

=> provides tensile strength (strength and

structural support)

elastin - forms elastic fibers in the ECM that can

stretch and recoil (strength and structural

support)

83. ECM -

fibronectin

and laminin

fibronectin - connects cells to the ECM and

helps to organize components (organization

and structural support)

laminin - connects cells to the ECM andorganizes components in the basal lamina

(organization and structural support)

84. ECM -

organization

the attachment of cells to the ECM plays a role

in the proper arrangement of cells in tissues.

binds body parts together (tend ons attach

muscles to bones)

85. ECM -

strength

ECM protects soft parts of an animal's body

(organs)

prevents tearing of skin

cartilage prevents compression of the joints

and protects them

86. ECM -

structural

support

bones are primarily composed of ECM

Organ system (skeleton) provides structural

support and allows movement in conjunction

with muscles

87. environmental

conditions -

theses conditions

are rarely, if ever,

constant

changes can be harmful or fatal

- air and water temperatures

- nutrient and water supplies

- pH (concentration of hydrogen ions)

- oxygen availability

animals can adjust as needed

88. epithelial cells are

polarized

-one side is anchored to the basal lamina

(ECM)

-the other side is considered the apical

side and faces the environment

89. epithelial tissue covers or forms the lining of all internal

and extern al body surfaces => all have

an apical surface (towards air/lumen)

and a basal surface (attached to ECM)

basal side/basal lamina/basement

membrane

LAYERS OF CELLS

90. example of

feedforward

regulation

anticipatory changes in the digestive

system that occur when a hungry dog

smells or sees food => salivation =>

stomach churning

91. extracellular

fluids

plasma (fluid portion of blood) and

interstitial (fluid filled spaces that

surround cells)

in vertebrates and some invertebrates >

closed circulatory system means the

plasma and interstitial fluid are kept

separate on account of blood vessels


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92. feathers are

modified scales

that keep birds

warm and enable

flight

-soft-downy

feathers are close

to the body andmaintain heat

-stiffer contoured

feathers are

similar to airfoils

that support

flight

characteristics of flight:

air sacs - nine large hollow air sacs that

can extend into the bone expand and

contract with breathing to constantly

supply oxygen to the bird

- flight requires a lot of energy which

requires a lot of oxygen

- efficient breathing makes birdssusceptible to airborne toxins

93. features of

flatworms

- true muscle tissues

- lack respiratory and circulatory organs -

why all cells must be close to surface ergo

animals are flat

- have an incomplete gut

- excretory system to maintain osmoticbalance

- organ system level of organization

94. features of the

radiata - cnidaria

and ctenophora

- composed of two layers => epidermis(outside) and gastrodermis (inside)

- gelatinous substance (mesoglea)

connects the two layers

- gastrovascular cavity

- body cavity with a single opening to the

outside, where extracellular digestion

takes place

95. feedforward

regulation

animal bodies can prepare for a change in

some variable before it occurs

- common in animals with well developed

nervous systems

- learning is an example

- helps to minimize large swings in

physiological variables

96. feedforward

regulation

example

increased heart rate and breathing rate

before an athletic competition, as in horses

and athletes

97. the first

animals were

invertebrates

-multicellular animals emerged at the end of

the Preterozoic eon (590 mya) and d iversified

rapidly during the Cambrian explosion (533-

525 mya)

--> before the Carboniferous age (354-290

mya)

98. flukes platyhelminthes aka flatworms

- can have very complex lifecycles in multiple

hosts

- many infect humans and spread through

infected fish or sewage

common example: blood flukes (schistosoma)

cause schistosomiasis, which impacts 200

million people worldwide which causes

chronic inflammation and organ blockage

99. gap

junctions

small gaps between plasma membranes of

connected cells

common in tissues and organs in which thecells need to communicate

formed by membrane protein connexin,

which forms a channel b etween cells


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100. gastropods

lophotrochozoa - mollusks - snails and

slugs

- most are aquatic, some are terrestrial

- slow moving and p roduce mucus

101. genetic analysis

of human

evolution - 1987

mitochondrialDNA was used to

create

evolutionary

tree. mtDNA was

collected from

147 people from

different

continents, all

could be traced

to eve

found that all modern humans can trace

their ancestry back to a single woman

who lived in eastern africa approx.

150,000-200,000 years ago

102. gnathostomes

and tetrapods - a

critical

innovation in

vertebrae

evolution is the

hinged jaw.

the hinged jaw first developed in fishes.

gnathostomes are vertebrate species

that possess a hinged jaw.

103. gnathostomes

and tetrapods -

amphibians

include: frogs

and toads,

caecilians, and

salamanders.

the mid-Permian period (260 mya) is

considered the age of the amphibians

- many amphibians were as large as

small horses

- ended with a mass extinction

modern amphibians are the ancestors of

the surviving amphibians which tended

to be smaller

104. gnathostomes

and tetrapods -

bony fishes

include the ray-

finned fishes,

coelacanths, and

lungfishes.

ray-finned fishes have fins supported by

thin, flexible rays and moved by muscles

inside the body.

105. gnathostomes and tetrapods -

fossils record the evolution of

lobe-finned fishes to fishes with

four limbs.

recent research has

shown that relatively

simple mutations control

large changes in limb

development.

106. gnathostomes and tetrapods -

lobe finned fishes precede the

tetrapods.

they have fins

supported by

extensions of the

pectoral and pelvic

areas and are moved by

their own muscles

107. gnathostoms and tetrapods -

amphibians live on land but

return to the water to

reproduce.

the larval stage

undergoes

metamorphosis, losing

gills and tails for lungs

and limbs

108. hemolymph in many invertebrates,

plasma and interstitial

fluid are intermingled -

this is called hemolymphand they are

considered open

circulatory systems

109. the hinged jaw developed from

the gill arches

gill arches are cartilaginous or

bony rods that help support gills

- pr imitive jawless fish

had nine gill arches

- two were lost, then the

remaining first two

became jaws

- modern fish have five

gill arches

110. the hinged jaw enables animals

to grip prey more firmly which:

increases rate of capture

allows for attach of larger prey

species

increases food supply

along with the jaw, more

sophisticated head and

body structures

developed such as fins

all vertebrates with

hinged jaws are

gnathostomes

111. homeostasis - ________ feedback

loops accelerate a process andmay not contribute to

homeostasis. feedforward

regulation prepares the body for

an upcoming challenge to

homeostasis.

positive

112. homeostasis - homeostasis is the

process of maintaining a

relatively stable internal

environment despite changes in

the external environment.

some an imals conform

to their environment,

and others regulate

internal processes in

response to their

environment.


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113. homeostasis - homeostatic control

systems regulate the activities of

cells, tissues, and organs. _________

feedback loops minimize changes

in a variable and prevent

homeostatic responses from

overcompensating.

negative

114. homeostasis is the process of

maintaining a relatively stable

internal environment despite

changes in the external

environment

failure to maintain

homeostasis leads to

disease which leads

to a cyclical failure to

maintain homeostasis

115. homeostasis - vertebrates maintain

most physiological variables

within a certain range despite

variations in ________

environmental conditions.

external

116. how are homeostatic mechanisms

communicated?

chemical

communication

between cells isessential to

homeostasis. local

and long d istance

chemical signals

coordinate

homeostatic

processes.

117. how do sponges avoid predation? amoebocytes form

tough skeletal fibers

that support and

protect

skeletal fibers can

form spicules which

are sharp spikes

made of protein,

calcium carbonate, or

silica that prevent

predation

118. how do sponges reproduce? - sexual and asexual means

of reproduction

- sponges are

hermaphrodites - can

produce sperm and eggs -

sperm travels to other

sponges and the eggs

remain in the sponge

- zygotes develop into

flagellated swimming larvae

that eventually settle on a

suitable substrate to

become sessile adu lts

- can also reproduce

asexually - small fragment of

a sponge can become a new

sponge

119. how is homeostatic control

achieved?

1. negative feedback

2. positive feedback

3. feedforward regulation

120. the Hox gene complex

allowed development of

sturdy limbs, a strong

backbone, hip and shoulder

bones braced against the

backbone

a change in expression of a

few hox genes led to all

these anatomic changes

with allowed fish to

terrestrialize into tetrapods

121. humans evolved from

ancestral primates - human

evolution is not a neat,

stepwise progression fromone species to another

like that of most species,

human evolution can be

visualized like a tree, with

one or more hominidspecies coexisting at the

same time

- some branches end

- some branches give rise to

other branches

122. incomplete metamorphosis - three stages: egg, nymph,

adult

- nymphs are young insects

that resemble tiny adults

123. insect wings - unique feature among

arthropods (only birds,

bats, and insects have

wings)

- outgrowths of the body

wall cuticle and are not true

segmental appendages

which makes them agile on

the ground as well as in the

air


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124. introduction to

vertebrates -

deuterostomes -

chordates have four

critical innovations

1. notochord

2. dorsal hollow nerve chord

3. pharyngeal slits

4. postanal tail

- few chordates (except fish)

have all of these as adults but all

chordates have these at some

point during development


vertebrates - early-

diverging vertebrates

lacked jaws

the only lawless vertebrates

today are hagfish and lampreys


vertebrates -

invertebrate chordates

1. lancelets

2. tunicates


vertebrates - vertebrates

have several

characteristic features:

1. vertebral column

2. cranium

3. endoskeleton of cartilage or

bone4. neural crest

5. internal organs

128. jawless vertebrate

hagfish

- round mouth without jaw, lack

eyes, fins, and vertebra

(considered vertebrate due to

genetic analysis)

- skeleton is a notochord and a

cartilaginous skull

- eat dead and dying fish - attach

via toothed p lates and rasp

"bites"

- avoid predation by producing

huge amounts of slime

129. jawless vertebrate

lampreys

- have a notochord surrounded

by a cartilaginous rod - aquatic

- parasitic adults - latch onto fish

and rasp a hole in the side then

proceed to suck innards

130.

the K/T event happenedwhen?

- 65 mya- end of the cretaceous,

beginning of the tertiary period

- resultant ash cloud blocked out

the sun

- killed many of the worlds plants

and dinosaurs

131. the K/T event led to the

proliferation of what

plants and what

animals?

-angiosperms replaced vascular

seedless and gymnosperms

-birds and mammals replaced

dinosaurs

132. a large number

of nematodes

are parasitic in

humans

A.lumbricoides - large roundworm that

lives in the small intestine of 1billion

people

hookworms - have hook to affix to small

intestine, enter bloodstream through soles

of feet

pinworms - benign but disgustingparasites that lay eggs in anus - 30% of

american children, 16% adults

W.bancrofti - large roundworm that lives

in the lymphatic system and can block

lymph flow, resulting in extreme tissue

swelling (elephantiasis)

133. layers of the

parazoa

-outer layer is made of epithelial cells

-in between choanocytes and outer layer

is gelatinous protein rich matrix called the

mesohyl

=> within the mesohyl are amoebocytes

which absorb food from choanocytes,

digest it, and deliver nutrients to other

cells

-this demonstrates multicellularity, division

of labor and specialized functions of

different cells

134. leeches lophotrochozoa - annelids

- aquatic blood sucking parasites

- powerful suckers at both ends of the

body that include razor sharp jaws that

can bore or slice into host tissues

- salivary secretions act as anti coagulants


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135. lizards and snakes

overview

- major characteristic is their

kinetic skull which the joints

between various parts of the skill

are mobile (unhingeable)

- lizards have limbs, snakes do

not

- lizards have moveable eyelidsand external ears while snakes

do not

136. lobe-finned fish

developed into

tetrapods during the

Devonian period (417-

354 mya, this is the

period in which plants

and animals colonized

land)

note: this was before the

carboniferous period

and long before the K/T

event

factors that facilitated this

terrestrialization:

1. shallow waters with an

abundance of plant life and

invertebrates

2. lungfish were able to colonize

these shallow waters because

they could breathe air

3. slow movement was more

favored than fast ocean

swimming which led to the

development of sturdy limbs, a

strong backbone, hip and

shoulder bones which were

braced against the backbone

137. localized

communication

between cells in

homeostasis

- some homeostatic responses

may be highly localized,

occurring only in the area of a

disturbance

= example cut your thumb, that

skins cells perform homeostasis

138. long distance

communication in

homeostatic

coordination

to make a whole body response,

cells can release signals into the

bloodstream via hormonal

signals.

example - a decrease in blood

pressure results in the release of

hormones that influence the

activities of many different cells,

tissues, and organs

simultaneously to address the

change

139. lophotrochozoa 1. flatworms - trocophore-like

larvae

2. rotifers - lophophore-like

feeding device

3. bryozoans and brachiopods -

lophophore

4. mollusks - trochophore larvae

5. annelids - trochophore larvae

140. lophotrochozoa

- annelids

annelids are divided into two groups:

marine worms and the group that

includes tubeworms, leeches, and

earthworms.

141. lophotrochozoa

- bryozoans and

brachiopods

the bryozoans and brachiopods both

possess a lophophore, a ciliary feeding

structure

142. lophotrochozoa- cephalopods

cephalopods are the most complex of allinvertebrates.

they are the only mollusks with a closed

circulatory system.

they also have a well-developed nervous

system and brain and are believed to

exhibit learning by observation.

143. lophotrochozoa

examples -

lopho or trocho

- flatworms - trochophore like larvae

- rotifers - lophophore like feeding dev ice

- bryozoans and brachiopods -

lophophore

- mollusks - trochophore larvae

- annelids - trochophore larvae

144. lophotrochozoa

- flatworms

flatworms are regarded as the first

animals to have the organ system level of

organization.

145. lophotrochozoa

- flatworm types

two kinds of flatworms are flukes and

tapeworms, which are internally parasitic,

with complex lifecycles.

146. lophotrochozoa

- mollusks

mollusks include the gastropods (slugs

and snails), bivalves (clams and mussels),

and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and

nautiluses).

147. lophotrochozoa

- mollusk traits

mollusks have a basic body plan with

three parts: a foot, a visceral mass, and a

mantle.

they have an open circulatory system.

148. lophotrochozoa

- rotifers

rotifers are microscopic animals that have

a complete digestive tract with separate

mouth and anus

149. lophotrochozoa

- segmentation

segmentation in which the body is

divided into compartments, is a critical

evolutionary innovation in the annelids.


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150. mammals - about 6 mya in

Africa, a lineage that led to

humans began to separate

from other primate

lineages. a key

characteristic of hominids

is bipedalism.

human evolution can be

visualized like a tree, with a

few hominid species

coexisting at the same point

in time, some went extinct,

and some gave rise to

descendant species.

151. mammals and enlarged

skull

- enlarged brain = enlarged

cranium

- single lower jawbone

- three bones in middle ear

and most have an external

ear

152. mammals and hair - mammals are endothermic

and hair serves as an

efficient insulator

- hair can also be sensory, or

serve as camouflage or

defense- walrus, bobcat, porcupine

153. mammals and specialized

teeth

- only vertebrates with highly

differentiated teeth (incisors,

canines, premolars, molars)

that are adapted for

different diets

- carnivores = piercing canine

teeth

- herbivores = chisel-like

incisions to snip off plants,

molars to chew and grind

- heterodonts have different

kinds of teeth

- homodonts have uniformly

shaped teeth - dolphins

154. mammals - data from

human mitochondrial DNA

suggest that all humans

derive from a

"mitochondrial Eve" that

originated in east africa.

from there homo sapiens

spread to the middle east,

asia, then the rest of the

globe.

155. mammals - mammals can

be ________ or live bearing

mammals, including

marsupials and placental

mammals.

monotremes

156. mammals - many defining

characteristics of primates

relate to their tree dwelling

nature and include ________,

________, ________, and

________.

1. grasping hands

2. large brain

3. nails instead of claws

4. binocular vision

157. mammals - the distinguishing

characteristics of mammals are: ________,

________, ________, and an ________. other

unique characteristics of some mammals

are the ability to digest plants and

having horns or antlers. mammal tooth

shape varies according to diet.

1. mammary

glands

2. hair

3. specialized

teeth

4. enlarged

skull

158. mammary glands - mammals are named

after the mammary glands which secrete

milk

- milk is rich in

fat, sugar,

protein, and

minerals,

namely,

calcium

- helps

promote rapid

growth of

newborn

animals

159.

marine worms lophotrochozoa- annelids

- large bristles

on their body

and are

brightly

colored

- foot-like

appendages to

move around

- most are free-

ranging

predators with

well developed

eyes and

powerful jaws

160. marsupials, unlike the monotremes give

birth to live young

- newborns are

extremely small

and live in a

ventral pouch

called a

marsupium for

further

development

- opossum


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161. migration formation of tissues and organs -

during embryonic development,

cells migrate to their appropriate

positions within the body.

Adults also have cells that can

move into regions that have

become damaged.

162. milli- and centipedes

overview

ecdysozoa - arthropods

- segmented with four legs per

(milli) or two legs per (centi)

segment

- millipedes are slow moving plant

eaters

- centimeters are fast moving

predators

163.

mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) - contains 37

genes (smaller, simpler

than nuclear DNA)

- only inherited from the motherbecause sperm do not contribute

mitochondria to the newly formed

zygote

- mtDNA has a higher mutation

rate than nuclear DNA

- mtDNA does not change as it

passes from mother o child

- nuclear DNA does change

through recombination and

assortment

164. mitochondrial eve wasnt the only female living at the

time, but she is the only female

whose mitochondrial DNA is still

carried by humans today

only eves descendants populate

the earth today

165. - modern day

africans had

twice as many

mtDNA

mutations as

people from the

other four

geographic

locations

- most likely

interpretation:

the african

mtDNA had

more time to

acculmulate

mutations and

was older,

evolutionary

speaking

- founder effect -groups that split

off from main

population can

have less genetic

diversity

- this means that humans likely

originated in africa, where they formed

ancestral population

- after a period of time, one group left the

continent and their descendants

continued to migrate to other continents

166. mollusk body

plan

1. foot - used for movement

2. visceral mass - contains the internal

organs

3. mantle - layer of skin draped over the

visceral mass; secretes the shell in species

with shells

- extension of the mantle creates the

mantle cavity, which houses gills =

filamentous organs that are specialized

for gas exchange


17/25

167. mollusk body

plan function

- organs are supplied with oxygen and

nutrients via an open circulatory system

- the heart pumps hemolymph through

vessels into sinuses, the open fluid filled

cavities between organs

- excretory organs remove waste

- sexual reproduction with internal and

external fertilization; trochophore larvaeare produced

168. monotremes are

early diverging

mammals that

lay eggs rather

than bear live

young

- they do not have a placenta and have

poorly developed nipp les for feeding

169. multicellularity -

connective

tissue provides

structural

support

primary function of CT cells is to make

ECM.

ECM - extracellular matrix


constituents of

ECM

Proteins and polysaccharides are the

major constituents of the ECM in animals.

These materials are involved in strength,

structural support, and organization.


ECM

the extracellular matrix is a network of

material that forms a complex meshwork

outside of animal cells.


epithelial tissues

form layers

epithelial tissues form layers of cells that

are highly interconnected.

layers can be one cell thick, or several

cells thick, and they serve as protective

coverings for various parts of animal

bodies.


four general

kinds of tissues

1. epithelial

2. connective

3. nervous

4. muscle


production of

tissues and organs

six processes:

1. cell division

2. cell growth

3. differentiation

4. migration

5. apoptosis

6. formation of cell connections -

produce tissues and organs


three common

types of cell

junctions

1. anchoring cell junctions

2. tight cell junctions

3. gap junctions

176. Multicellularity -

tissue

organization

cells are organized into tissues, and

tissues are organized into organs.

a tissue is a group of cells that have

similar structure and function.

an organ is composed of two or moretissues that carry out a particular

function or set of functions.

177. muscle tissue generates the force that facilitates

movement:

1. bodily movement

2. contraction of the heart

3. movement of blood through the

circulatory system

4. movement of food through the

digestive system

178. negative feedback a change in a variable brings about

responses that move the variable in the

opposite direction

ex: a decrease in body temp (variable)

leads to responses that increase body

temperature (opposite the change)

179. negative feedback

continued

a change in a variable brings about

responses that move the variable in the

opposite direction.

multiple cells, tissues, and organs are

involved in the loop

180. nervous tissue receives, generates, and conducts

electrical signals throughout the body

NEURONS

181. nervous tissue

function

complex networks of cells specialized to

initiate and conduct electrical signals

from one part of an animals body to

another


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182. nervous

tissue of

radiata

-true nerve cells arranged as a nerve net -

interconnected neurons with no CNS

-nerve impulses can pass in either direction

183. other

terrestrial

adaptations

of amniotes

include:

desiccation

resistant

skin

thoracic

breathing

desiccation resistant skin

- amphibians have thin moist skin that

participates in gas exchange

- amniotes have thick, water-resistant skin that

contains keratin, a tough protein; most gas

exchange occurs in the lungs

thoracic breathing

- amphibians breathe with buccal pumping -

contraction of the mouth to force air into the

lungs

- amniotes breathe with thoracic breathing -

coordinated contraction of muscles to expand

the rib cage

184. other

terrestrialadaptations

of amniotes

include:

water

conserving

kidneys

internal

fertilization

water conserving kidneys

- amniotes can concentrate wastes prior toelimination in order to save water

internal fertilization

- most amphibians have external fertilization

in water

- amniotes have intern al fertilization prior to

production of a shelled egg - males usually

have a copulatory organ to transfer sperm

into the female reproductive tract (birds can

transfer from cloaca to cloaca)

185. overview of

arthropods

- 75% of all living species are arthropods

(10^18 individual organisms)

- great success due to: 1) exoskeleton 2)

segmentation 3) jointed appendages

- hard cuticle made of layers of chitin (animal

equivalent of cellulose) and p rotein

- cuticle is normally very hard but can be soft

and flexible between body segments and

appendages

- impermeable to water which is an adaptation

to living on land

186. overview of

ecdysozoa

- sister group of lophotrochozoa

- characterized by the process of ecdysis

- periodic molting of the exoskelton

- all ecdysozoans possess a cuticle = a

nonliving cover that serves to protect

and support the animal

- once formed, the cuticle cannotincrease in size, restricting the growth of

the animal inside

- solution - form a new, soft cuticle

und erneath and shed the old cuticle

187. overview of

insects, the most

populous class

- six legged arthropods (versus six

paired arachnids)

- one million species, 25% global crops

lost annually, pests or parasites

- vital pollinators, produce honey and

silk, and important in decomposition

- complete or incomplete

metamorphosis

188. overview of

lancelets

invertebrate deuterostomes - chordates

- live in sand, with the anterior end

protruding into water

- filter feeders

- demonstrate all four chordate

characteristics

- have muscle segments that look like

chevrons and permit fish like swimming

189. overview of

nematodes

ecdysozoa - nematoda

- small and thin, exist in nearly all

habitats and significantly as parasites,

20,000 + species

- nematode cuticle is soft collagen which

allows diffusion of gases across it

- have nerve and muscle tissues

- complete gut and und ergo sexual

reproduction

190. overview of

tunicates

invertebrate deuterostomes - chordates

- adult tunicates are sessile, only have

pharyngeal slits, filter feed

- superficially resemble sponges or

cnidarians


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191. parazoa & radiata -

Cnidarians

Cnidarians exist in two forms:

polyp and medusa.

a characteristic feature of

cnidarians is their stinging cells

(cnidocytes) which function in

defense or prey capture.

ctenophores possess the firstcomplete gut, and nearly all

exhibit bioluminescence.


invertebrates

invertebrates, or animals without

a backbone, make up more than

95% of all animal species.

an early lineage - the Parazoa -

consists of one phylum, the

Porifera, or sponges.

although sponges lack true

tissues, they are multicellular

animals possessing several types

of cells.


radiata

the radiata consists of two phyla -

the Cnidaria:

hydra/jellyfish/box jellies/sea

anemones/corals

the Ctenophora:

comb jellies

194.

placental mammalsrepresent all mammals

but the monotremes

and marsupials

- placental mammals give livebirth

- gestation is very lengthy ,

involves a placenta which

nourishes and houses the

gestating embryo

195. plant adaptations to

land

vascular tissues

sporic life cycle

seeds, protection of the plant

embryo

196. plants move to land

required:

- vascular tissues

- water-saving

adaptations

- internal fertilization

- seeds

animals move to land required:

- ability to prevent desiccation

and develop adaptations for

reproduction

- ability to move on land

197. platyhelminthes flatworms

- p lanarians

- fish flukes

- flukes

- tapeworms

198. positive feedback a change in a variable brings

about responses that move the

variable in the same direction.

- snowball effect

- far less common in regulating

homeostasis than negative

feedback

- vital for certain animal processes

199. primate

characteristics:

binocular vision,

complex social

behavior and parental

care

binocular v ision means forward

facing eyes that allow for an

overlapping image, and makes for

accurate distance perception

200. primate

characteristics:

grasping hands, nails

instead of claws, large

brain

grasping hands allow branch

holding, many species have

opposable thumbs

nails instead of claws is thought to

allow for better object

manipulation

large brains allow for arboreal

movement, lots of processing

power

201. primates are primarily

tree dwelling

believed to have evolved from a

group of small, arboreal insect

eating mammals 85 mya (before

K/T event - 65 mya)

202. radiata avoid

predation

cnidocytes within the epidermis

common example: portuguese

man of war

cnidarians specifically can change

shape due to contractile fibers

common example: anemones that

can expel water very qu ickly to

shrink

203. regulating as a feature

of homeostasis

animals regulate their internal

environment

requires more energy but allows

life in environments that fluctuate


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204. rotifers

lophotrochozoa

- mostly bottom feeders that live in

fresh water

- have a distinctive corona - a ciliated

crown that looks similar to a rotating

crown

- have a digestive tract with a

separate mouth and anus -

suspension feeders

- partenogenesis - reproduction -

unfertilized diploid eggs can develop

into zygotes

205. segmentation -

critical

evolutionary

element in annelids

annelids - annulus (little ring)

- each ring is a distinct segment,

separated from the others

- advantages:

- repeated components of body allow

functioning even if one segment fails

- motility from contraction of segments

- some segments may b e specialized

206. shark overview sensory

organs

- water is drawn in through the

mouth and forced over the gills

to extract oxygen

- two-chambered heart

-sense organs in the nose to

facilitate smelling

-can see well but cannot

distinguish colors

-all jawed fishes have a row of microscopic organ s = the lateral

line = senses pressure waves in

the water

207. sharks overview skeleton - skeleton is cartilaginous

- fins that allow strong,

controlled swimming

- caudal fin (tail) sweeps side to

side for forward thrust

- pelvic and pectoral fins act like

flags on airp lane wings,

allowing shark to dive or rise;

aid in steering

- dorsal fin acts as a stabilizer to

prevent rolling

208. sharks teeth and eggs -sharks are the first fish to have

teeth which are sharp and

hard. they are not set into the

jaw so break off frequently and

are replaced.

-some sharks lay eggs, which

can be inside the protective

pouch known as a mermaid's

purse

-some sharks give birth to live

young.

-ALL CARTILAGINOUS FISH

HAVE INTERNAL

FERTILIZATION

-male sharks transfer sperm to

the female via the claspers -

which are modified pelvic fins

(genitalia)

209. _______ signals are released

- molecules are released

into the local interstitial

fluid and act on nearby

cells only

paracrine - localized

communication

example - signaling between

neurons through

neurotransmitters

- NTMS are small signaling

molecules produced and

stored within neurons

- diffuse only onto one or a few

other neurons causing a rapid

response to a homeostatic

change (like a reflex)


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210. since 1987 additional

evidence has

supported this theory

- fossil discoveries in

ethiopia in 2003

represent the oldest

known fossils of

modern humans anddate precisely from the

time of mitochondrial

eve

- in 2008 a study of nuclear DNA

condu cted at Stanford found the

same genetic pattern as seen in

mtDNA, with modern african DNA

having greater genetic diversity

than DNA from people originating

in other regions

211. skeletal muscle

functions

-linked to the bones of

vertebrates via bundles of

collagen fibers called tendons,

and to the exoskeleton of

invertebrates

-are stimulated b y signals from

the nervous system, then

generate force that leads to

muscle contraction

-contraction can be under

voluntary control

-can also be attached to skin (facial

expressions)

212. smooth muscle

functions

-surround hollow tubes (blood

vessels and airways)

-surround cavities inside the

body's organs (stomach wall)

-involuntary contraction (occurs

automatically without conscious

control)

213. social behaviors of

insects

- bees, wasps, ants, and termites

- live cooperatively with a division

of labor

- food foraging

- caring for young

- protection of the nest

- reproduction

214. some mammals have the

ability to digest cellulose in

plants and some mammals

have epidermal outgrowths

that grow into horns or

bones into antlers

plant digestion

- four stomached animals

are the only mammals that

can digest cellulose

horns and antlers

- mammals are the only

living class of vertebrates to

have horns or antlers whichcan be permanent

outgrowths of the

skull/epidermis or be a

separate bone

215. spider overview ecdysozoa - arthropod -

arachnid

- can produce venom in

fangs - black widow = fatal

neurotoxin - brown recluse

= hemolytic venom

- spiders spin webs from

abdominal glands that

produce strings of proteins

that stiffen after extrusion

from the body

- use to wrap up prey and

construct egg sacs

216. spiders, scorpions, mites,

ticks, horseshoe crabs, and

sea spiders

ecdysozoa - arthropods -

arachnida

have six pairs of

appendages

- four pairs are for walking

- two pairs are fangs

- two pairs are pedipalps =

sensory or p redatory

function

217. sponges evolved from

protists

the sponge cell (choanocyte)

likely evolved from the

protist cell (choanoflagellate)


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218. tapeworms platyhelminthes aka flatworms

- have a scolex - organ at the head end

that attaches to their host

- lack a mouth or gastrovascular cavity -

absorb nutrients across the body

surface - diffusion

- have ribbons of sex organs on their

body that shed thousands of eggs

- live in pigs or cattle and humans -

infect humans who consume

undercooked, infected meat

219. tight junctions

forms a tight seal between adjacent

cells preventing material from leaking

between them

formed by membrane proteins called

occludin and claudin

220. toads -

amphibious

- adults are

carnivores that

catch prey with a

long, sticky

tongue

- dry bumpy skin,

shorter legs = less

impressive

jumpers

frogs - amphibious

- adults are carnivores that catch prey

with a long sticky tongue

- long legs that aid in jumping, skin

secretes mucus, some frogs secrete

toxins

221. - to maintain

homeostasis

animals may

conform or

regulate

conformity means that an imals match

some feature of their internal body to

the external surrounding.

- marine crabs have the same solute

concentration in their body as that

found in seawater

222. trilobites extinct arthropods that died

out 250 mya

223. tube worms lophotrochozoa - annelids

- marine env ironments in

tubes embedded in sand or

mud

- have a tentacle crown that

extends from the tube in

which they live => use it for

suspension feeding

224. turtles overview - major characteristic is their

hard protective shell. in

most species the vertebrae

and r ibs are fused to the

shell

- slow movers due to heavy

shell and low metabolic rate

- do not show sensecence or

aging

225. types of animal nutrition

feeding

1. suspension feeding -

filtering food out of the

surrounding water - sperm

whales

2. bulk feeding - eating large

food pieces - most animals

3. fluid feeding - sucking

plant sap or animal body

fluids

226. vertebrate homeostasis

- common physiological

variable must be maintained

within a certain RANGE

despite fluctuating

environment

vertebrate body is always

adjusting to environmental

changes, homeostasis is a

dynamic process


23/25

227. what and when

did the first

vertebrates

develop?

the first vertebrates were fish, which

appeared at the same time plants movedto land (520 mya)

228. what are

lophotrochozoa?

- a diverse group that includes animals

that have either a lophophore or a

distinct larval stage called a trochophore

- lophophore - a crown of ciliated

tentacles

- trochophore - a d istinct larval stage (a

juvenile stage before metamorphosis

into an adult form)

229. what are some

common

examples of

cnidaria?

-hydra

-jellyfish

-box jellies

-sea anemones

-corals

230. what are the two

phyla of radiata?

1. Cnidarians

2. Ctenophores

Domain - Eukarya

Kingdom - Animalia

Phyla - Cnidaria/Ctenophora

231. what aspects of cell

structure are specific

to animals?

-multicellular - division of labor and

specialization

-absent cell walls, cells are flexible

which facilitates movement

-structural support comes from

ECM secreted by connective tissues

-cell junctions are important for

holding cells in place and

facilitating communication

232. what aspects of

movement are specific

to animals?

-most animals have muscle cells

and nerve cells organized into

tissues

-muscle tissue is unique to animals

-some animals are sessile, but if

they are, have larvae that can swim


24/25

233. what aspects of nutrition

are specific to animals?

mode of nutrition:

-unlike plants, animals cannot

synthesize their own organic

molecules > heterotrophic

-animals must ingest other

organisms or their products to

sustain life

-food is ingested into an

internal gut and broken down

with enzymes

234. what aspects of

reproduction and

development are unique

to animals?

-nearly all animals reproduce

sexually

-certain insects, fish, and

lizards can reproduce

asexually

-fertilization can occur

internally (terrestrial) or

externally (aquatic)

-embryos can develop within

maternal tissues or externally

235. what external factors

would influence

homeostasis of these

variables?

1. minerals - eating food and

excreting waste

2. energy sources - eating food,

expending energy

3. body temperature - rate of

energy expenditure; environmental

temperature; behavioral

mechanisms

4. pH of body fluids - hydrogen ionpumps in cells; buffers in body

fluids; rates of energy expenditure,

breathing rate

5. oxygen and carbon dioxide -

movement of air/water across

respiratory surfaces; rate of energy

expenditure

6. water - drinking, eating, excreting

waste, perspiration, osmosis across

body surface

236. what is the common

example of

ctenophore?

-comb jellies which biolluminesce

and have nerve nets

237. what makes humans

vertebrates?

1. notochord, dorsal hollow nerve

cord, p haryngeal slits, and postanal

tail

2. hinged jaw (gnathostome)

3. four limbs (tetrapod)

4. internal fertilization

5. amniotic embryos (amniote)

6. placental mammals

7. grasping hands, binocular vision,

nails, social behaviors, parental care

(primates)

238. what makes

lophotrochozoa

animals?

1. heterotrophic suspension feeders

to predatory bulk feeders

2. have true nervous and muscle

tissues

3. have true organ systems

4. cephalopods can learn

5. sexual reproduction

6. motility


25/25

239. what makes radiata animals? 1. heterotrophic suspension feeders

2. have true n ervous tissues

3. have muscle-like tissues

4. ctenophores have a complete gut

5. have defense mechanisms to avoid predation

6. motility

7. sexual reproduction

240. what makes sponges animals? 1. heterotrophic suspension feeders

2. lack muscle and nervous tissue but have specialized cell types

3. have adaptations to prevent predation

4. adults are sessile but larvae have motility

5. sexual reproduction (in addition to asexual reproduction)

241. why did all these animals (invertebrates) emerge during the

Cambrian explosion (533-525 mya)?

1. favorable environment - warm, wet, no evidence of ice at poles

high atmospheric oxygen, new ozone layer

2. evolution of the Hox gene complex, which allows variation in bod

morphology

3. new types of predators necessitated an evolutionary arms race

that encouraged variations

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BIO 1402_Exam 2_ Key Concepts

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