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Biology EOI
Review
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Biological Diversity
C3.1, C3.2, P2.1, P2.2
Classification
•Developed by Carolus Linneaus in 1730s•Based on physical & structural similarities•Today, includes evolutionary relationships
Divisions
Three Domains:• Archaea• Bacteria• Eukarya
Four Eukarya Kingdoms:• Protist• Fungi• Plant • Animal
Domain: Archaea
• Characteristics– Prokaryotic– Unicellular– Live in extreme
environments
Domain: Bacteria
• Characteristics– Prokaryotic– Unicellular– Most habitats
Eukarya Kingdom: Protists
• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Unicellular and
multicellular– Can be autotrophic or
heterotrophic
Eukarya Kingdom: Fungi
• Characteristics– Eukaryote– Unicellular or
multicellular– Absorbs nutrients from
environment
Eukarya Kingdom: Plants
• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Autotrophic– Multicellular– Contains chloroplast
and cell walls
Eukarya Kingdom: Animals
• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Multicellular– Heterotrophs
Classification Rankings
*Domain
Kingdom* Phylum
Class
* Order» Family
» Genus
» Species
*Daring
Kings * Play
Chess
* On» Fiber
» Glass
» Stools
Genus and Species
• Genus is the first name of an organism. The genus is always capitalized such as
• Killer whale : Orca orca
• Species is the 2nd name of an organism. The species is always all lower case such as for human: Homo sapien
Review Question
• Which of the three taxons below contains the other three?– A. Phylum– B. Species– C. Genus– D. Order
Review Question
• The system of assigning two names to identify an organism is called bionomial nomenclature. The first name corresponds to an organism’s– A. Family– B. Kingdom– C. Species– D. Genus
Review Question
• Upon examining samples of water and mud from a nearby river, you come across an unidentified organism. Closer observation indicates that the organism is unicellular and autotrophic. In addition, you can identify a membrane-bound nucleus within the cell. To what kingdom dose this organism most likely belong?– A. Archaea– B. Fungi– C. Protist– D. Bacteria
Measurements and Graphs
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Science Processes & Inquiry
P3.5
Measurements
• Mass
• Volume
• Length
• Temperature
Mass: amount of matter in an object
• Units – grams (g)• Tool – Balance
• Tool -Digital Balance
Tool -Triple Beam Balance
How to read a Triple Beam Balance• Add the numbers from each mass located on
each beam to find the total mass in grams.
Length: measurement of distance between two points
• Units – Meter (m)• Unit - Centimeter (cm)• Unit - Millimeter (mm)
• Tool – Ruler• Tool - Tape measure• Tool – Meter stick
Volume: amount of space an object occupies
• Unit – Liters (L)• Unit – Milliliters (mL)
– Used for liquids
• Unit – cubic centimeter– Used for solids with the
formula (L x W x H)
• Tools– Graduated Cylinder– Pipette (for small liquids)– Tool for solid object is
based type of solid
How to Read a Graduated Cylinder
• Look at the bottom of the curve, called the meniscus, on a flat surface to obtain a proper measurement.
Temperature: amount of kinetic energy of an object
• Units – degrees Celsius
– °C
• Tool – Thermometer
• Kinetic energy is energy in motion. As the temperature increase, the kinetic energy of an object increases.
Density: amount of matter in a given volume
• Density = mass/volume– g/mL or grams per milliliter– Very important measurement for identifing
different objects in the biosphere and beyond
• Population density = the number of organisms in an area– Pop. Density = # of organisms/ area of land
Measurement Prefixes: words in place of numerical values
|_micro-__|_______|_______|__milli-__|_centi-__|_deci-__|__Base__|__Deka- |_Hecto-_|_Kilo-_| 1/1000000 1/1000 1/100 1/10 Unit (1) 10X 100X 1000X 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 10 0 101 102 103 (0.000001) (0.001) (0.01)
P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3
Conversion of measurements
1. Change 1 meter into centimeters:
1 m X 100 cm = 100 cm 1 m
2. Change 5 cm to microns (micrometers):
5 cm X 1 m X 1 x 106 µm = 5 x 104 µm 100 cm 1 m
P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Science Processes & Inquiry
P3.1, P3.2, P3.4, P4.4, P4.5, P6.1, P6.2
Steps to the Scientific Method
• State a Problem (in the form of a question)• Research background information• State a testable hypothesis (an educated
guess)• Set-up a controlled experiment• Collect and analyze data• Conclusion (either null or accepted)• Re-work hypothesis, if null conclusion
Experiment Set-Up
• Independent Variable – what causes a change; the one item different in experimental set ups.
• Dependent Variable – what changes or the results of the change if any; what is measured.
• Constant – factors that are kept the same in both groups.
• Control – the experimental set up that is not receiving the Independent Variable; what might be considered “normal” conditions.
Example of the Scientific Method
• Problem: Does Raid or Black Flag kill ants better?• Read the can labels & look for chemical differences.• If Raid contains chemical “X” then it will kill more ants
than Black Flag (BF).• 3 sets of ten black ants, all under the same
environmental conditions: 1 is given a 1 second blast of Raid; 1 is given a 1 second blast of BF; and the 3rd is left alone (control)
• In the Raid container, 8 of 10 ants died; In the BF container, 7 of 10 ants died; In the control, 2 of 10 ants died
• Conclusion: Both products seem to work about the same on black ants.
Experiment Set-Up: Types of Experimental Data
• Qualitative data: data that does NOT require a numerical value such as color, smell, texture.
• PASS Objectives: P4.2, P4.6, P4.7
• Quantitative data: data does require a numerical value and an unit usually a measurement. Examples include the number of organisms, length of object, or temperature of the ecosystem.
Review Question
• A sound experiment will test a hypothesis by the process of– A. collecting information under varied
conditions.– B. collecting information under controlled
conditions.– C. observing phenomena under varied
conditions.– D. asking questions under varied conditions.
Review Question
• Information gathered from an investigation is called data and can be expressed– A. as verbal, written or numerical information.– B. only in a graph or table.– C. as a hypothesis or a theory.– D. as a peer-reviewed journal article.
Graphs: PASS P4.3 & P4.8
Making a graph
• 1. Write a title.
• Independent v. Dependent
• 2. Create X & Y axis
• 3. Label the axis
• 4. Determine the
units for each axis
• 5. Graph the data
Graph Set-Up
• Independent Variable on the x-axis– Label (should include units)
• Dependent Variable on the y-axis– Label (should include units)
• Title– Y vs. X
• Key – optional to the presenter
Line Graphs
• Shows a relationship between the two variables
• Positive Relationship:When one variable increases, as does the other
• Negative RelationshipWhen one variable increases, the other decreases
Line Graphs
• Single line graph shows change over time.
• Multiple line graphs can also show comparisons.
Bar Graph or Histograms• Shows comparisons.
Circle or Pie Chart
• Graph that shows the percentage of each variable
THE CELLOrganelles, DNA, and Genetics
P.A.S.S. Objectives
The Cell
C1.1
Unless indicated otherwise
Cell Organelles
Nucleus• Function:
– Cell’s Control Center
– Eukaryotic Cells
– Plant and Animal Cells
– Not found in Prokaryotic Cells
– Location of DNA and RNA
Nucleolus
Cell Membrane• Function
– Major part of controlling homeostasis
• Lets material in and out to maintain balance
• Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Cell Membrane• Homeostasis is the
maintaining of a constant internal environment
• Phospholipids are fatty molecules which consist of two layers.
• Proteins are used for ACTIVE and PASSIVE transport.
Cell Wall• Function
– Supports and protects the cell which contains cellulose
• Located in– Eukaryotic Cells and
some Prokaryotic Cells
– Plants ONLY in Eukaryotic Cells
– Bacterium have cell walls
Cytoplasm• Function
– Provides internal structure for the cell
– Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
– Cytosol is the solution that fills the cytoplasm
• Function– Site where proteins
are produced
• Located– Both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells– Plant and animal cells
AKA rRNA
Mitochondria
• Function– “Powerhouse of the
cell”
– Location of cellular respiration that produces energy (ATP)
– Found in eukaryotic cells
– Found in plants and animals
Chemical Reactions:Composed to three parts
• 1. Reactants:
• The ingredients that make a reaction possible.
• 2. Yield arrow or sign
• always points AWAY from reactants.
• 3. Products:
• The products are the results of a reaction
• 2. Yield arrow or sign
• always points TOWARD products.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Glucose + oxygen → water +
carbon dioxid
e + energy
Cellular Respiration Facts• Requires food (glucose) and oxygen
(ingredients)
• Produces carbon dioxide and water (results)
• Releases energy in the form of ATP (result)
• Reaction is completed in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of the cell
Chloroplast
• Function– Produces food in the
form of glucose
– Site of photosynthesis
– Eukaryotic Cells
– Plant Cells ONLY
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
water + carbon dioxid
e + energy → G
lucose + oxygen
T
he opposite of C
ellular R
espira
tion!
Photosynthesis Facts
• Requires light (energy), water, carbon dioxide (ingredients)
• Produces oxygen and food (glucose) (results)
• Processed in the chloroplast in the components called the thylakoid and stroma.
Photosynthesis FactsTwo Reactions
• Light-dependent reaction occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
• Light-independent reaction occurs in the solution filled area called the stroma
Review Question
• Chromosomes are produced in what part of the eukaryotic cell?– A. Cell wall– B. Nucleus– C. Ribosome– D. Vacuole
Diffusion• Movement of particles across a membrane
• Movement from high concentration to low concentration makes a concentration gradient.
• Osmosis – diffusion of water by way of the plasma membrane due to a concentration gradient.
Osmotic Solutions
Solution Inside the
Cell
Outside the Cell
Net Flow
Hypotonic Low Water
High Molecules
High Water
Low Molecules
INTO THE CELL
Hypertonic High Water
Low Molecules
Low Water
High Molecules
OUT OF THE CELL
Isotonic Equal Concentration of
water and molecules
Equal Concentration of
water and molecules
INTO AND OUT AT THE SAME RATE
SWELLINGNO CHANGESHRINKING
Active Transport
• Active Transport: movement of molecules or compounds across a barrier against the concentration gradient with the use of energy such as ATP
http://image.tutorvista.com/content/biomembranes/active-transport-stages.jpeg
Active Transport
Review Question
• If a cell contains a ten percent concentration of salt and is surrounded by water that also contains a ten percent concentration of salt, which of the following will occur?– A. Water will leave the cell only.– B. Water will enter the cell only.– C. Water will enter and leave the cell at same
rate– D. The cell will die.
Review Question
• Active transport of materials through a membrane against a concentration gradient requires– A. a carrier protein and energy.– B. energy only.– C. an isotonic solution.– D. a carrier protein only.
Classification of Cells
• Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
– Eukaryotes – has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, complex
– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple
Classification of Cells– Eukaryotes – – 1. Contains a
nucleus– 2. Contains
membrane- bound
organelles– 3. Complex in
design
Classification of Cells
– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple in design
• Unicellular vs. Multicellular
– Unicellular – one cell
– Multicellular – multiple cells
Amoeba
Worm
• Animal Cell
• 1. Contains lysosomes
• 2. Does not contain cell wall & chloroplast
• Plant
cell
• 1. Contains a cell wall for support and protection
• 2. Contains chloroplasts for autotrophic activity
Organization Levels
• Organism– Organ systems
• Organs– Tissue
» Cell» The basic unit of life –
• Cell (can be broken down further)– Organelles
• Molecules– Atoms
Organization Levels:smallest to largest level
A
M
O
C
T
O
S
O
ATOMS
MOLECULES
ORGANELLES
CELLS
TISSUES
ORGAN
ORGAN SYSTEMS
ORGANISMS
Review Question
• Which of the following is the correct order, from simplest to most complex?– A. cells, tissues, organs, organ system– B. tissues, cells, organs, organ system– C. cells, organ system, organs, tissues– D. molecules, cells, compounds, organs
DNA and Genetics
DNA
• Double Helix• Complementary base
Pairs– A T– C G
• Found only in the nucleus
• Composed of phosphate, sugar, & nitrogenous base
RNA
• Single strand
• Found in nucleus and ribosomes
• Three types– mRNA– rRNA– tRNA
Heredity Material
DNA RNA
Nucleic Acid
Name
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Ribonucleic Acid
Base A, T, C, G A, U, C, G
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Location Only in nucleus Nucleus & Cytoplasm
Shape Double Helix Single Strand
Includes prophase, anaphase, metaphase, & telophase
Cell Cycle
Replication
• DNA DNA
– Base Pairings• A T• T A• C G• G C
– Making an exact copy or identical copy or the original strands
Transcription
• DNA RNA
– Base Pairings• A U• T A• C G• G C
– Type of RNA• mRNA
Mitosis• The division of the nucleus in nonsex cells• 1 diploid cell 2 diploid cells
– diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes
Meiosis
• Division of the nucleus in sex cells– Spermogeneis – making of sperm– Oogenesis – making of eggs
• 1 diploid cell 4 haploid cells (gametes)
Meiosis Phases
Review Question
• The DNA message depends on the order of the – A. nitrogen bases.– B. acids.– C. sugars.– D. genes.
Review Question
• When DNA replicates, each replicated DNA molecule has– A. two new strands.– B. one original stand and one identical strand.– C. two original strands.– D. one new strand.
Genetics
Alleles – different forms of the same gene
Example: Some alleles for the eye color gene are
• B – Brown eyes• b – blue eyes
Traits
• Dominant Trait– Written as a capital
letter to show that it is overpowering
• Recessive Trait– Written as a lowercase
letter to show that it can be covered up
• Genotype– The actual allele
combination– Example:
• AA, Aa, or aa
• Phenotype– The physical
appearance which expresses the genetic trait.
– Example: – brown eyes or blue
eyes
• Homozygous– When the two alleles
are the same– BB or bb
• Heterozygous– When the two alleles
are different– Bb
Punnett Square
Review question
• Brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes. If a homozygous brown-eyed individual is mated with a blue-eyed individual, what percent of their offspring will have blue eyes?– A. 0%– B. 25%– C. 50%– D. 75%
Biological Diversity
Evolution
• Defined as changes that occur in a population of organisms over time;
• Changes occur as organisms better suited to a particular environment survive and produce more offspring than those organisms less fit.
• Example: A polar bear with its white fur is better suited to Arctic conditions than a brown furred grizzly bear. Does that mean brown furred polar bears are never born? No, it means they do not survive in the Arctic to reproduce.
Evidence to Support Evolution:
• Homologous structures
• Analogous structures
• Vestigial structures
• Embryonic development comparisons
• Fossils
• DNA comparisons
• Selective breeding
Homologous Structures
• Definition– Structures that came
from a common ancestor
• Example– Limbs in tetrapods
Analogous Structures
• Definition – structures that are similar, but do not have a common
ancestor
• Example– Wings in different species
Vestigial Structures
• Definition – a structure that is now no longer used as its original purpose– Hip bones in whale– Appendix
Cladograms
• A model of evolutionary history of organisms– Primitive traits evolve
first– Derived traits are
shown later in the cladogram
• Part of phylogeny
Dichotomous Key
• Tool used for identification of an organism by asking two questions at a time.
Adaptations
• Adaptation – any behavior, structure that will allow a species to survive better
Variation with a species• Niche – a role a species plays in an area
– What type of food the organism eats, where it lives, how it interacts with other species.
Ecology
ABIOTIC vs. BIOTIC
• ABIOTIC
• Factors in the environment considered nonliving matter.
• Such as rocks, water, air, soil, temperature, weather.
• BIOTIC
• Factors in the environment considered to be organisms or living matter.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle Processes
• Photosynthesis– Takes in carbon as carbon dioxide– Releases carbon as glucose
• Cellular Respiration– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
• Burning of Fossil Fuels– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
• Decomposition– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
Water Cycle
Water Cycle Processes• Evaporation
– Water entering into the atmosphere• Precipitation
– Water falling from the atmosphere• Condensation
– Change from water vapor to liquid which usually forms clouds or fog
• Transpiration– Change from liquid to water vapor usually in
plants for movement of water from roots to leaves.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle Processes
• Ammonification – decomposers releasing nitrogen to the soil
• Nitrification – changing ammonia into nitrates
• Denitrification – releasing nitrogen to the atmosphere from nitrates in the soil
• Nitrogen-fixation – plants taking nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and making ammonia
Ecological Relationships
• Symbiosis – close relationship between two different species3 Types
Parasitism
Mutualism
Commensalism
Type of symbiosis: Parasitism
• Relationship where one species benefits at the expense of the other species
Type of symbiosis: Commensalism
• Relationship where one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefits.
Type of symbiosis: Mutualism
• Relationship where both species benefits
Limiting Factors: Competition• When two or more species compete for the same resource
– Examples:• Mates• Food• Habitat• Water• Space
Limiting Factor: Predator - Prey• Predator – Prey
– Predator – the “hunter”– Prey – the “hunted”
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
• AUTOTROPHS
• Two types:
• 1. Photoautotrophs use sunlight to convert energy into glucose
• 2.Chemoautotrophs use the compounds around them to survive.
• AKA producers
• HETEROTROPHS• AKA consumers• Organisms that eat
other consumers.
Food Chain• Simple passage way of energy and nutrients in
an ecosystem
Food Web
• Food web - interconnected food chain to show how species are related in an ecosystem
Ecology Terms
• Carrying Capacity– The maximum number
of species in an area
• Limiting Factors – The factor that
restricts the growth of an organism
• Ex: water, food, space
• Natality – Birth rate of organisms in an area
• Mortality – Death rate of organisms in an area
• Immigration – movement of individuals into an area
• Emigration – movement of individuals out of an area
• Biotic Potential – the fastest rate on population increase for a species
• Colonization – the start of a population in a new area– Pioneer species
• Biomass – the amount of living matter in an area
• Population Density – the number of individuals in an area
Population Graphs
J-Shaped Curve
• Shows exponential growth
• Typical of smaller organisms– Insects– Flies
S-Shaped Curve
• Graphs shows carrying capacity
• Shows how limiting factors will affect a population
Density Dependent vs. Independent
• Density Dependent Factors
• 1. Illness & disease• 2. Competition • 3. Predators• 4. Parasites• 5. Food
• Density Independent Factors
1.Most are abiotic
2.Temperature
3.Weather
4.Drought
5.Chemical agents
6.Major habitat disruption
Food Chains
Diet Types• Herbivores – organisms
that only eat producers, plants or autotrophs.
• Carnivores – organisms that eat other consumers
• Omnivores – organisms that eat both plants and animals
• Decomposers
– Eat on every level of a food chain
Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of Energy• Energy decreases at each level
– 90% of energy is lost at each level due to activity and heat
• Rule of 10%– 10% of energy transfers to the next level
Pyramid of Numbers
• Population decreases at each level
Pyramid of Biomass• Biomass – amount of living matter