By: Ms. Susan M. PojerBy: Ms. Susan M. PojerHorace Greeley HS Chappaqua, Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua,

NYNY

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

An Overview of the 18th Century

► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy Age of Aristocracy

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

What was the What was the Enlightenment?Enlightenment?A revolution in the world of ideas

The belief……that natural science should be used to examine and understand ALL elements of life

Reason over and above faith – everything is critiqued

…that the Scientific method can discover ALL laws of human society AND nature

What is natural law? …in progress: it is POSSIBLE for man to create a better society (hope)

18th Century Politics► BRITAIN – Constitutional Monarchy– Constitutional Monarchy

► FRANCE Royal Absolutism Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA ““Enlightened DespotismEnlightened Despotism””

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditional traditional empire empire

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC:: NewtonNewton’’s system was synonymouss system was synonymous

with the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be expressed Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical as universal mathematical formulas.formulas.

Science allowed alternatives to beScience allowed alternatives to beimagined in everything from imagined in everything from politics to religion.politics to religion.

The knot is tied between…The knot is tied between…

1) The first string: 1687 Newton’s Principia ◦Newton inspired the Enlightenment

Inspired intellectuals that human reason, unaided by faith or ritual, could uncover laws of nature

Emilie de Chatelet & Voltaire Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, 1738 - popularizes Newton and science for educated elite ---

Bernard de Fontenelle, Plurality of Worlds (science as lit.)

Woman and man discussing astronomy under the stars…….and all rejoiced in the incredible capacity of the human

min

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal Academy, A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant Cocoa plant drawing.drawing.

► Sir Hans Sir Hans SloaneSloane(1660-1753).(1660-1753).

► Collected from Collected from Jamaica.Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James PetiverJames Petiver’’s Beetless Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

Women & Science

The German The German astronomer astronomer Hevelius & Hevelius &

his wife his wife examine examine

the the heavens.heavens.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

physico-theologyphysico-theology – – an attempt an attempt (inspired by science) to explain (inspired by science) to explain GodGod’’s Providence by reference to s Providence by reference to his his work in naturework in nature & not primarily & not primarily through his biblical Word.through his biblical Word.

support of a support of a ““rationalrational”” religion, religion, freefreefrom mysteries, miracles, andfrom mysteries, miracles, andsuperstitions.superstitions.

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

DeismDeism The belief in the existence of a God The belief in the existence of a God

or supreme being but aor supreme being but adenial of revealed religion, basingdenial of revealed religion, basingoneone’’s belief on the s belief on the lightlight of natureof natureand reasonand reason..

Deists saw no point in any particularDeists saw no point in any particularreligion; they recognized only a distant,religion; they recognized only a distant,God uninvolved in the daily life of man.God uninvolved in the daily life of man.

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

Gradually, highly educated Gradually, highly educated Protestants & Catholics thought Protestants & Catholics thought more about more about GodGod’’s work as s work as revealed through sciencerevealed through science, than , than through the Scriptures.through the Scriptures.

PantheismPantheismV The belief that God andThe belief that God and

nature are one and the same.nature are one and the same.

Centers of the Enlightenment

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the arbiter reason is the arbiter of all things.of all things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & the man, his existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the universe.place of the earth in the universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the application of the methods of science to religion & methods of science to religion & philosophy. philosophy.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5.5. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism the greatest good the greatest good for the greatest number.for the greatest number.

6.6. Tolerance Tolerance No opinion is worth No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for.burning your neighbor for.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is The belief that man is intrinsically good.intrinsically good.

The belief in social progress.The belief in social progress.

8.8. FreedomFreedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men (modern Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).battle against absolutism).

9.9. Education of the MassesEducation of the Masses

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

10.10.Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11.11.ConstitutionalismConstitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing listing citizens, rights.citizens, rights.

12.12.Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanism.

The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking were great publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & PROGRESS!CHANGE & PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The “Great Debate”

Reason& LogicReason& Logic

Traditionsand

Superstitions

Traditionsand

Superstitions

rationalismrationalism empiricismempiricism tolerancetolerance skepticismskepticism DeismDeism

nostalgia for nostalgia for the pastthe past

organized organized religionsreligions

irrationalismirrationalism emotionalismemotionalism

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)► Progress of the Human Progress of the Human

MindMind, 1794, 1794 An expectation of An expectation of

universal happiness.universal happiness. Every individual Every individual

guided by reason guided by reason could enjoy true could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a free He advocated a free and equal education, and equal education, constitutionalism, constitutionalism, and equal rights for and equal rights for women.women.

The second String… (Locke vs. Hobbes)

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on TolerationLetter on Toleration, , 1689 1689

► Two Treatises ofTwo Treatises ofGovernmentGovernment, 1690, 1690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, 1693, 1693

► The ReasonablenessThe Reasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, 1695, 1695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a The individual must become a ““rationalrationalcreature.creature.””

► Virtue can be learned and practiced.Virtue can be learned and practiced.► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will.

they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of obedience should be out of

conviction,conviction,not out of fear.not out of fear.

► Legislators owe their power to a Legislators owe their power to a contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..

► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural rights that There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human are endowed by God to all human beings.beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine Right of The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense.Kings was nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the best He favored a republic as the best form of government.form of government.

Philosophy (III)Philosophy (III) John Locke 1632-1704: (critique of absolutist

regime!!! – justifies constitutionalism)a) Two Treatises of Gov’t. (1680): translates natural law assumption into a concept of gov’t.! (written during Glorious Revolution!!!)

- in “state of nature” – humans lack protection – so gov’t. Instituted “with the consent of the governed”

- rational, conscious agreement of mutual obligation btw. state and people

- IF gov’t oversteps its role – the people can abolish it!b) Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690):

- all ideas / human understanding derived from experience

- tabula rasa: blank slate of the mind at birth - environment writes individual’s understanding / belief

- SO: education / society determine human development

The third String…The third String…3) Uncertainty of religion---skepticism--- WHY???◦Destruction of wars of religion – culminating in Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

◦Catholics – Protestants: religion worth dying for! ---

◦BUT… Some skeptically ask “Is religious truth absolute?” “Is there such a thing as God?”

Increase in atheism = more reliance on reason and science for the “answers”

The Fourth string…The Fourth string…4) Travel literature --- Opening W. Europe to the

rest of the world!◦ Europe exposed to foreign cultures and

different beliefs Europeans shave their faces – and let their

hair grow Turks shave their heads – and let their beards grow

Europeans bow to a woman to show respect Siamese don’t face a woman – to look directly at her is disrespectful

So if culture is relative maybe morality is relative, too? Who (what culture) determines what is right or wrong?

◦ Noble savage “The life of savages is so simple, and our societies are such complicated machines!”

◦ “the Grand Tour” – elite tourism to Italy, Greece, etc.

Cultural

Relativism

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?Enlightenment?””, , 17841784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► He introduced the concept of He introduced the concept of

transcendentalismtranscendentalism some things are known some things are known by methods other than empirically.by methods other than empirically.

The belief in the existence of a non-The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things.rational way to understand things.

The existence of neither time nor space is The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding.determined by empirical understanding.

These type of things are These type of things are a prioria priori..V They transcend sensory They transcend sensory

experience.experience.V They are pure, not empirical They are pure, not empirical

[[concepts like faith, pre-existence, [[concepts like faith, pre-existence, life after death].life after death].

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...happiness…………...

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustomsand Spirit of Nationsand Spirit of Nations, ,

17561756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he didngood he didn’’t do.t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh.audience too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.necessary to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.when the government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions rather Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers.than by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without judgment.Prejudice is opinion without judgment.► The way to become boring is to say The way to become boring is to say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you have to I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.right to say it.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws, 1758, 1758

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► Three types of government:Three types of government: Monarchy.Monarchy. Republic.Republic. Despotism.Despotism.

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts, 1750, 1750

► Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

Virtue exists in the Virtue exists in the ””state of state of nature,nature,”” but lost in but lost in ““society.society.””

Government must preserve Government must preserve ““virtuevirtue”” and and ””liberty.liberty.””

Man is born free, yet everywhere Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.he is in chains.

The concept of the The concept of the ””Noble Noble Savage.Savage.””

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL invest ALL

rights and liberties into a rights and liberties into a society.society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

► QuestionQuestion Does progress Does progress in the arts and sciences in the arts and sciences correspond with progress correspond with progress in morality? in morality?

As civilizations progress, they As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.move away from morality.

Civilization itself leads away Civilization itself leads away from true fundamentals.from true fundamentals.

Technology and art create false Technology and art create false desires.desires.

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)

► Concept of the Concept of the ““General Will.General Will.””

Only those who make their Only those who make their own laws are free.own laws are free.

Virtuous citizens will agree, Virtuous citizens will agree, become one.become one.

V Not merely a consensus or Not merely a consensus or the majority.the majority.

A discussion among the A discussion among the virtuous will yield unity.virtuous will yield unity.

V Dissenters are Dissenters are ““forced to be forced to be free.free.””

V General WillGeneral Will = = law law ++ freedom!freedom!

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

He pointed out He pointed out problems with problems with contemporary contemporary England and tried to England and tried to urge reform.urge reform.

► The Decline andThe Decline andFall of the Fall of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire, , 1787.1787.

PopularizingPopularizing

thethe

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

PopularizingPopularizing

thethe

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-referenced,Alphabetical, cross-referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters”

► URBAN – – gathering of elites in the gathering of elites in the cities. cities. (salons)(salons)

► URBANE – – cosmopolitancosmopolitan, worldly, worldly

music, art, literature, politicsmusic, art, literature, politics

read newspapers & the latest read newspapers & the latest books.books.

► POLITENESS – – proper behavior proper behavior [self-governed] [self-governed]

Reading During the Enlightenment

► Literacy:

80% for men; 60 % women.80% for men; 60 % women.

► Books were expensive (one dayBooks were expensive (one day’’s s wages).wages).

► Many readers for each book (20 : 1)Many readers for each book (20 : 1)

novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, journals, memoirs, ““private lives.private lives.””

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphlets.newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

An Increase in Reading

“Must Read” Books of the Time

““EnlightenedEnlightened

DespotismDespotism””

““EnlightenedEnlightened

DespotismDespotism””

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 – 1786.1712 – 1786.

► Succeeded his Succeeded his father,father, Frederick William I Frederick William I (the (the ““Soldier Soldier KingKing””).).

► He saw himselfHe saw himself as the as the ““FirstFirst Servant of the Servant of the State.State.””

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German German PrincessPrincess Sophie Sophie FriederikeFriederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst. Anhalt-Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1796.1729 -– 1796.

1767: Catherine summons the 1767: Catherine summons the Legislative CommissionLegislative Commission..

1768-1774: 1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War..

1771-1775: 1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion is is suppressed.suppressed.

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1785: 1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility..

1793: Second partition of 1793: Second partition of Poland.Poland.

1795: Third partition of Poland. 1795: Third partition of Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18th Century

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands.Austrian lands.

1781: Declared the 1781: Declared the Toleration PatentToleration Patent..

1781: 1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues.dues.

1785: He failed to exchange the 1785: He failed to exchange the AustriaAustria Netherlands for Bavaria. Netherlands for Bavaria.

1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the 1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-Turkish War, but little was gained.Russo-Turkish War, but little was gained.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

Joseph II of Austria

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on every Western government on the defensive.the defensive.2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.Western agenda.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.

4.4.19c conservatives blamed it 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern for the modern ““egalitarian egalitarian diseasedisease”” (once reformers (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didninstitutions, they didn’’t know t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (the human condition (the ““Religion of NatureReligion of Nature””).).6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the civil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.