By: Ms. Susan M. Pojer & Miss By: Ms. Susan M. Pojer & Miss RaiaRaia

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

How?

• How did the Sci Rev. come about?

• What role did Medieval Universties play?

• How did the Renaissance help to cause the Rev?

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

The Scientific Method

• Inductive method (of Bacon) +the deductive method (of Descartes)

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

Impact on Society• Led directly to the Enlightenment• Improvements in exploration• Spirit of experimentation perhaps

helped accelerate the Agricultural Revolution

• Improvements in medical knowledge helped improve the quality of life later

• Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th centuries– No attempt in the 17th and 18th

centuries to secularize science– After Catholic counterreformation the

church became more hostile to science and science declined in Italy

– Protestant countries became the leaders of the Scientific Revolution, Especially England

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment

Section 1: The Age of Reason

• What is the Enlightenment?

• What caused the Enlightenment?

English Thinkers

• Thomas Hobbes: – Wrote Leviathan– People are naturally cruel, greedy, and

selfish– If not strictly controlled, they would

rob and oppress one another– Life in the “State of Nature” would be

“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short

– To escape – people enter into a Social Contract: an agreement by which they give up the state of nature for an organized society

– Only a powerful government could ensure an orderly society

English Thinkers

• John Locke– People were moral and reasonable – Natural Rights – rights that belong to all

humans from birth – life liberty and property– Two Treatises on Government – people

formed governments to protect their natural rights

– Best government had limited power and was accepted by all citizens

– A government has an obligation to those it governs / if a government fails its people have a right to overthrow it

– Influenced the Glorious Revolution of 1688– Education is key to society’s advancement

» Each person is born a “Tabula Rasa” or blank slate

English Thinkers

• Baron de Montesquieu– The Spirit of Laws– Admired limited monarchy– Dividing the functions and

powers of government among 3 branches: Legislative, Executive, Judicial

– He thought that each branch could serve the other

French Thinkers

• Paris is home to the Enlightenment & French Revolution….

coincidence?

• Philosophes – applied scientific methods to better understand and improve society – lovers of wisdom

French Thinkers

• Francis Marie Arouet – Voltaire – Candide– “My trade is to say what I think”– Exposed abuses of his day

» Targeted corrupt officials» Wrote about inequality, injustice, and religious

prejustice» Outspoken attacks offended government and

Catholic Church

– Voltaire imprisoned and forced into exile– His books were censored and burned– But he continued to protect freedom of

speech– Advocated Enlightened Despotism– He was a Deist – religion that saw God as the

“clockmaker” he made the world but does not intervene in it.

French Thinkers• Denis Diderot

– Purpose was to change the general way of thinking

– 25 years to produce 28 volume encyclopedia – purpose was to change the general way of

thinking – by explaining the new thinking on government, philosophy, and religion

– Included Montesquieu and Voltaire articles– Denounced slavery– Praised freedom of expression and education

for all– French government said the Encyclopedia

was an attack on public morals– 20,000 copies printed– Helped shaped French public opinion in the

mid 1700’s– Translated into other languages – helped

spread Enlightenment ideas

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

French Thinkers

• Rousseau– People in their rural state were good

but corrupted by evils of society, especially unequal distribution of property

– Some control was necessary but should be minimal, but by a freely elected government

– “general will” best conscience of the people

– Individual subordinate the community– “The Social Contract”– “Man born free, everywhere he is in

chains.” The chains of society

French Thinkers

• Marquis de Beccaria– “On Crimes and Punishment”

– Reason and equality before the law

– Punishment should be based on harm done to society

– Opposed to torture

– Influenced the Despots:» Fredrick the Great abolished torture

» Catherine the great restricted the use of torture

» Joseph II abolished the use of torture and capital punishment

Women During the Enlightenment

• Women did not have the natural rights of men

• Rights limited to the home and family

• By mid 1700’s women protesting this view

• Mary Wollstonecraft (British Female Critic) – argued that women had been excluded from the social contract – Woman’s first duty is to be a good

mother– 1792 – “A Vindication of the Rights

of Women” – called for same sex education

Economics

• Physiocrats – economic reforms– Looked for natural laws to define a

rational economic system– Laissez faire – allowing business to

operate with little or no government interference

– Real wealth came from making land more productive

– Agriculture, mining and logging produced new wealth

– Supported free trade and opposed mercantilism

• Francis Quesnay – leader of the Physiocrats

Economics

• Adam Smith – “The Wealth of Nations”– Argued free market, the

natural forces of supply and demand should be allowed to operate and regulate business

– Showed how manufacturing, trade, wages and profits were all linked to supply and demand. (The invisible hand)

– Market place better without government regulation

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)► Progress of the Human MindProgress of the Human Mind, ,

17941794 An expectation of universal An expectation of universal

happiness.happiness. Every individual guided by Every individual guided by

reason could enjoy true reason could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a free and equal He advocated a free and equal education, constitutionalism, education, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women.and equal rights for women.

Identified 9 stages of human Identified 9 stages of human progress that had already progress that had already occurred and predicted that occurred and predicted that the 10the 10thth stage would bring stage would bring perfection.perfection.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?”, Enlightenment?”, 17841784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy

► Separated science and morality into separate branches of Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledgeknowledge

► Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality.morality.

► He introduced the concept ofHe introduced the concept of transcendentalismtranscendentalism some things some things are known by methods other than empirically.are known by methods other than empirically.

The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things.understand things.

The existence of neither time nor space is determined by The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding.empirical understanding.

These type of things areThese type of things are a prioria priori..V They transcend sensory experience.They transcend sensory experience.V They are pure, not empirical [[concepts like They are pure, not empirical [[concepts like

faith, pre-existence, life after death].faith, pre-existence, life after death].

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...happiness…………...

David Hume (1711-1776)

► The Natural The Natural History of History of Religion Religion (1755).(1755).

► Belief in God Belief in God rested on rested on superstition superstition and fear and fear rather than on rather than on reason.reason.

Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Achieving a Just Society– People began to challenge the old

ways– People saw the need for reform to

achieve a just society– During the Middle Ages, people

accepted a society based on Divine Right and a heavenly reward for life’s suffering

– In the Age of Reason, such ideas seemed unscientific and unnatural

– A just society should ensure material, well-being, social justice, and happiness in this world

Centers of the Enlightenment

Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Censorship– Government and church

authorities felt they had a sacred duty to defend the old order.

– The old order has been set up by God

– They banned books, burned books, and imprisoned some writers

– Some publishers had their work published under fake name

– Some published their ideas in fiction

Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Salons– The new literature, arts, science and

philosophy were regular topics of discussion in the salons

– Informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophers, and other exchanged ideas

– Originated in the 1600’s when a group of noblewomen in Paris began inviting a few friends to their homes for poetry readings

– Only the most witty, intelligent and well read people were invited to the salons

– By 1700’s some middle class women began holding salons

– “Women Ruled Then”

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Other Female Salons

► Wealthy Jewish women created Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin.Berlin.

► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania.Poland-Lithuania.

► Middle-class women in London Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.to publish women’s writings.

Female Philosophes

► Emilie du Chatalet, Emilie du Chatalet, a French noblewomana French noblewoman(1706-1749).(1706-1749).

► Wrote extensively aboutWrote extensively aboutthe mathematics andthe mathematics andphysics of Gottfriedphysics of GottfriedWilhelm von Lebnitz andWilhelm von Lebnitz andIsaac Newton.Isaac Newton.

► Her lover, Voltaire, learned much Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.of his science from her.

Enlightened Despotism

• Enlightened Despots – a ruler who used their power to bring about political and social change– Philosophes tried to convince

European rulers to adopt their ideas– If they could enlighten ruling

classes. They thought they could bring about reform

– Some monarchs did accept enlightenment ideas

– They became enlightened despots – Absolute rulers who used their power to bring about political and social change

Enlightened Despotism

• Frederick the Great– Exerted tight control over his subjects,

BUT saw himself as the first “servant of the state,” with a duty to work for the common good.

– Frederick lured Voltaire to come to Berlin and help develop a Prussian academy of science

– Not fighting wars – had swamps drain and forced peasants to grow new crops such as the potato

– Had seeds and tools distributed to peasants who had suffered on Prussia’s wars

– He tolerated religious differences, welcoming victims of religious persecution

– Fredericks’s reforms directed mainly at making the Prussian government more efficient

– Recognized the civil service and simplified laws

– Rationalized bureaucracy also meant a stronger monarchy

Enlightened Despotism

• Catherine the Great– Exchanged letters with Voltaire and

Diderot– “Voltaire – someone who fought the

united enemies of humankind, superstition, fanaticism, ignorance, trickery.”

– Made limited reforms in law and govt’– Granted nobles a charter of rights– Spoke out against serfdom– Restricted the use of torture– Education for boys and girls– Limited religious toleration

» Jews were given civil equality– Catherine intended to give up NO

power– Catherine’s contribution to Russia was

not reform, but an expanded empire

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c

Enlightened Despotism

• Joseph II– Most radical enlightened despot– Son of Maria Theresa– Joseph traveled in disguise to learn the

problems of his subjects– Because of these efforts, nicknamed

“peasant emperor”– Joseph continued Maria Theresa’s reforms– Chose talented middle class officials rather

than nobles to head depts.– Imposed a range of political and legal

reforms– Granted toleration to protestants and Jews

in Catholic Empire– Ended censorship and attempted to bring

the catholic church under royal control– Sold the property of many monasteries and

convents which he saw as unproductive and used the proceeds to build hospitals

– Abolished serfdom

Effects of the Enlightenment

• Constitutional Government & Enlightened Despotism

• New economics• Will cause the American,

French and Latin American Revolutions

• New Ideas– Relationship between

government and society– Women’s rights– Social justice– Violence and torture– Basic liberties

Growth of Constitutional Government

• Growth of Constitutional Government– New Political institutions: political parties,

the cabinet, and the office of the prime minister

• Political Parties– Tories – landed aristocrats sought to

preserve older traditions, dominant Anglican church

– Whigs – backed the policies of the Glorious Revolution, backed urban business interests, supported religious toleration and favored parliament

• PP represented exclusive social circles• After the last Stuart king died – nearest

relative German George Hanover– Spoke no English, him and George II had a

handful of parliamentary advisors that we will call a cabinet

• Prime Minister – First Robert Walpole

Growth of Constitutional Government

• Politics and Society– Peace and Prosperity– Gov’t was an oligarchy – a

government in which the ruling power belongs to a few people. Right to vote limited to a few male property owners and votes were bought

• George III Reasserts Power– Set out to make the crown powerful

again– Started to give seats in parliament to

his friends– Passed legislation that American

colonists would pay for the Seven Years war

– Triggered American Revolution and French Revolution

The American Revolution

• What were the causes to the American Revolution?

• How did the Enlightenment influence the Revolution?– Thomas Paine

• What were the effects of the American Revolution?

• What thinkers and their ideas are present in the Declaration of Independence and later, the US Constitution?

Effects?

• Revolutions – where? Why?

• Classical Liberalism – what is it? Influence?