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Carrell, L. & Grabe, W. (2010). Reading. In Norbert Schmitt (ed.), An Introduction to Applied Linguistics (2nd ed.), Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education.

Grabe, W. (2010). Reading in a second language. In R. Kaplan (ed.). Handbook of Applied Linguistics (2nd ed.), pp.88-99. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Reading

Introduction What is Reading? Reading in a Second Language L2 Reading versus L1 Reading Key Linguistic and Processing Differences Key Individual and Experiential Differences Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional Factors Reading Chapter Outline 1 Issues in L2 Reading Automaticity and Word Recognition L2 Word Recognition across L1s Vocabulary Reading Rate Language Threshold Role of Background Knowledge in Reading Knowledge of Text Structure & Discourse Cues Meta-cognition and Reading Strategies Extensive Reading / Impact of Exposure to Print Further Issues Implications of L2 Research for InstructionReading Chapter Outline 2What is Reading?1. Scanning2. Skimming3. Reading for general understanding4. Reading to learn5. Reading to integrate information 6. Reading to evaluate critically7. Reading for pleasure Types of Reading Purposes for Reading Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 215.1. Scanning 600 wpm2. Reading for understanding 250-300 wpm3. Reading to learn 200 wpmType of Reading and SpeedCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 216.Different reading purposes require different underlying cognitive processes and resources.Academic setting: reading for comprehension vs. reading for learnExtract and integrate various information from texts combined it with what is already known (Koda, 2005)Involve many components of cognitive processing (e.g., morphological, syntactic, and discourse level) and meta-cognitive processing

What is Reading? Training Age Schooling Motivation Socio-economic level Individual cognition L1 Reader VariationCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 216.1. They do not have the same language resources as L1 readers2. They do not share all the social andcultural assumptions and knowledge bases3. They do not share the background knowledge 4. They have different reasons for studying L25. They are working with 2 languages L1 and L2 Reader DifferencesCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 216.1. Key Linguistic and Processing Differences 2. Key Individual and Experiential Differences 3. Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional Factors Major Differences inL1 vs. L2 ReadingCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, pp. 217-218.Differing amounts of lexical, grammatical, and discourse knowledge at the beginning stage of L1 and L2Linguistic differences and L1 transferInteracting influences of working with two languages: bilingual mental lexicon, bilingual processing of language structures, semantic interpretationsVarying L2 proficiency as a founder for L2 readingKey Linguistic and Processing Differences

Level of L1 reading abilityExposure to L2 printDifferent motivation for L2 reading

Key Individual and Experiential Differences

Socio-cultural background of L2 readersDifferent discourse organization between L1 and L2Expectations of educational institutionsKey Socio-Cultural and Institutional Factors

1. Automaticity and Word Recognition 2. L2 Word Recognition Differences across L1s (orthographic depth and orthographic distance) 3. Vocabulary: vocabulary size http://www.wordengine.jp4. Reading Rate 5. Language Threshold Ten Issues in L2 Reading 1Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.6. Role of Background Knowledge in Reading 7. Knowledge of Text Structure andDiscourse Cues 8. Meta-Cognition and Reading Strategies Ten Issues in L2 Reading 2Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.9. Extensive Reading / Impact of Exposure to Print 10. Further Issues Ten Issues in L2 Reading 3Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.Word recognition exercises are probably useful for both older and younger L2 readers, enhancing fluency and raising student awareness of the processing demands of extended independent reading. Implication 1: Automaticity and Word RecognitionCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 219.Teachers need to be aware that L2 learners coming from an L1 with a different orthographic system may be disadvantagedparticularly at beginning reading levelsnot only because they have to learn a new orthographic system, but because they may also need to develop new processing mechanisms more suitable to the L2. Implication 2: L2 Word Recognition Differences across L1sCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 220.A. Issues in Vocabulary and L2 Reading Development B. How Much L2 Lexis is Needed? C. The Role of Context in Guessing / Guessability of Word Meaning in L2 Reading D. Dictionary Use and L2 Reading Vocabulary IssuesCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, pp. 220-222. Number of words needed Role of context and guessing Role of dictionaries and cognates Strategies Role of extensive or pleasure reading Impact of vocabulary instruction Issues in Vocabulary and L2 Reading DevelopmentCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 220.In order for L2 learners to read well, they must have an adequately sized vocabulary and must be able to recognize the words in that vocabulary quickly and accurately. Guessing from context and dictionary use can help in acquiring this vocabulary over time, but these skills are not automatic. Rather, they need to be developed and practiced in order to be used effectively in conjunction with reading. Implication 3: VocabularyCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 222.Exercises aimed at improving reading rate seem to help L2 learners, in particular those who have already developed their word recognition skills.Implication 4: Reading RateCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 223.1. Language Threshold Hypothesis 2. Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis Two Hypotheses about L2 ReadingCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 223.some minimal threshold of proficiency in the L2 must be attained in order for the reader's first language reading skills to transfer to reading in the second language. Language Threshold HypothesisCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 223.reading or learning to read is accomplished only once, and that once learners have matured in their ability to read in the first language, the awareness of the reading process transfers to the second language and does not need to be relearned. Thus, reading performance in the second language was claimed to share a common underlying proficiency with reading ability in the first language (Cummins, 1979). Linguistic Interdependence HypothesisCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 223.It seems that a certain level of L2 proficiency is necessary before L1 reading strategies and skills can be utilized effectively in L2 reading. Therefore, L2 reading development must take place in a learning context that also promotes overall L2 language proficiency, at least for lower-level students.Implication 5: Language ThresholdCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 224.Appropriate background knowledge about the topic being read helps learners understand the reading better. It is an important element in reading comprehension, but only one of many. Implication 6: Role of Background Knowledge in ReadingCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 225.L2 readers can benefit from an understanding of the text structures which organize L2 texts, and can profit from making those structures explicit. Training in awareness of text structure, and specifically how it organizes information in texts, will improve students[] reading comprehension over time. Implication 7: Knowledge of Text Structure and Discourse CuesCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 226.Better learners actively control their reading and strategy use. Fortunately, it seems that these meta-cognitive skills can be taught, with lower proficiency students gaining the most. Therefore, reading instruction should include some training in these management skills.Implication 8: Meta-Cognition and Reading StrategiesCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 227.Extensive reading provides many benefits for fluency, comprehension and vocabulary learning. It should be a component of almost any reading programme. Implication 9: Extensive ReadingCarrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London: Hodder Education, p. 228. Interplay between higher and lower level processes Promoting automaticity in word recognition Motivation in L2 reading Reading and Writing relations Social context factors influencing L2 reading Assessment practices in L2 reading Increasing role of fluency in reading instruction Increasing reading speed Neurolinguistics and reading Reading with new multimedia and computer technologies Teacher training for reading instruction Increasing similarities of L2 reading processes across language as students reach advance levels POSSIBLE RESEARCH AREAS