Consumer LearningConsumer Learningand Memoryand Memory

Chapter 5

Consumer Learning

and Memory

Why Marketers are Concerned about How Consumers Learn Marketers want to “teach” consumers about

their products product attributes where to buy them how to use and dispose of them

They want to know how effective they have been in communicating with the consumer directly, through advertisements Indirectly, through product appearance,

packaging, price and distribution channels

What is Learning?

Generally, learning is a process by which changes occur in the content or organization of an individual’s long-term memory

From a marketing standpoint, learning can be thought of as the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior

Range of Learning Situations

Learning occurs at various levels of consumer involvement

Low-level involvement: consumers have little or no motivation to process the information

High-involvement learning: consumers are highly motivated to process the information

Learning Theories

There are many theories about how people learn

They fall into two general categories:

1. Behavioral learning theories

2. Cognitive theories

Behavioral Learning Theories Are also referred to as stimulus-response theories

because based on premise that observable responses to specific external stimuli signal learning has taken place

When a person responds in a predictable way to a known stimulus, he or she is said to have learned

There are two behavioral theories with relevance to marketing:

1. Classical conditioning

2. Instrumental/operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning

The theory that conditioned learning results when a stimulus that is paired with a stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the same response when used alone

Classical Conditioning

Schematic Presentation of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Elicits

Comes to Elicit

The use of a well-known, admired individual to advertise a product can condition consumers to have positive feelings about the product

“Cause marketing”

Strategic Applications of Classical Conditioning Three basic concepts derive from classical

conditioning

1. Repetition

2. Stimulus generalization

3. Stimulus discrimination

Increases the strength of the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (learning)

It is used by advertisers when scheduling media exposure for an advertising campaign

Too much repetition can lead to advertising wearout

Consumers may become annoyed with repetitive ads and develop a negative image of the product as a result

1. Repetition

2. Stimulus Generalization

Learning relies not only on repetition, but on peoples’ ability to generalize--that is, respond in the same way to slightly different stimuli

Explains why some manufacturers try to make their generic/store brands similar in appearance to name brands

Marketers use this principle to take advantage of a well-known and trusted brand in a number of ways

1. Product line extensions

2. Product form extension

3. Product category extension Referred to as the halo effect

3. Stimulus Discrimination

Opposite of stimulus generalization Results in the selection of a specific stimulus

from among similar stimuli Forms the basis for marketers’ positioning

strategy Permits marketers to differentiate their

product from competitors’ (through, e.g. different features, colors, ingredients, etc.)

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning B.F. Skinner Learning occurs through trial and error Habits are formed as a result of rewards for

certain behaviors Consumers who try different brands, models,

styles until they find the one that “fits” are engaged in instrumental learning

Operant Conditioning

Specific Behavior

Reinforcementor Punishment

Increased or DecreasedProbability of Response

Schematic Presentation of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement A reward given to acknowledge a desired

behavior and increase the probability it will be repeated

1. Positive reinforcement Events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific

response

2. Negative reinforcement A negative outcome that also serves to

encourage a specific behavior Fear appeals

Punishment

Punishment discourages behavior as opposed to encouraging behavior to avoid a negative result

Extinction

When a learned response is no longer reinforced, it diminishes to the point of extinction—i.e., there is no longer a link between the stimulus and the expected reward

Strategic Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Customer Satisfaction In order to keep its customers, a marketer or

business must maximize positive reinforcement

This can be done through the product itself Can also be done with other elements of the

purchase situation

Reinforcement Schedules The pattern in which reinforcements are

given Marketers have found that while product

quality needs to remain high to satisfy consumers, non-product positive reinforcement does not have to be offered every time

Three types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous/total (every time)

2. Systematic/fixed ratio (every “nth” time)

3. Random/variable ratio

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ceReinforcement Schedules & Forgetting

Forgetting occurs more quicklyForgetting occurs gradually over time

and the residual effects of learning persist

Continuous Reinforcement Intermittent Reinforcement

Cognitive Learning Theory

Learning based on mental activity (i.e. thinking and problem-solving)

Unlike simpler organisms, we learn not only by trial and error, but by searching for information evaluating the information, and making a decision about what is best for us

Marketing Implications of Cognitive Learning Theory Primary implication is to emphasize the

importance of providing information to consumers

Providing information can be a promotional strategy as well

Cognitive Associative Learning Also called Neo-Pavlovian theory Learning involves not only the acquisition of

new reflexes; it is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world

Under this theory, consumers are viewed as information seekers who use logical and perceptual relations among events, along with their own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world

Implications for Marketers

Marketers draw on both cognitive and operant conditioning theories

Providing information about a product (e.g., eggs are OK to eat) draws on cognitive theory

Providing rewards (e.g., frequent flyer miles, coupons, etc.) draws on classical conditioning theory

Vicarious (Observational) Learning The process through which individuals learn

behavior by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of such behavior

Role models tend to be people consumers admire because of traits such as appearance, accomplishment, skill, or social class

Another alternative form of observational learning involves representation of negative consequences of not using the advertised product

Brand Loyalty

A consumer’s consistent preference for and purchase of a specific brand

1. In high-involvement purchases (e.g., a car) it reduces risk and facilitates selection

2. In low-involvement purchases (e.g., tissues) it saves time and effort

Brand loyalty generally results from consistent positive experiences with a company and/or its products

There has been a recent decline in brand loyalty

1. Boredom or dissatisfaction with the products

2. Variety-seeking

3. Increased concern with price To counter these actions, marketers have

adopted a number of programs (e.g., frequent flyer) that reward brand loyalty