Chapter 6: Basic Motivation ConceptsChapter 6: Basic Motivation Concepts

Motivation = “The processes that account for an individual’s direction, intensity and persistence of effort toward achieving a goal”

Direction = should benefit the organization (i.e. quality of effort counts!)

Intensity = how hard an employee tries Persistence = how long can an employee maintain

his/her effort?

Note: the goal is an “organizational” goal

Early Theories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily

needs Safety

includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm

Social includes affection, belongingness acceptance, and friendship

Esteem includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention

Self-actualization the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Two-Factor TheoryTwo-Factor Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.

Hygiene factors = when these are adequate, workers “feel OK” (i.e. they are NOT dissatisfied). Examples include quality of supervision, company policies and administration.

Motivators = examines factors contributing to job satisfaction. Thus, there are factors which lead to job satisfaction and things that don’t (i.e. notice there is a difference between “non-satisfying” and “dissatisfying factors”)

Contemporary TheoriesContemporary Theories

Alderfer's “ERG” Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

This theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy like Maslow's. For example, all 3 of these could be operating at the same time.

McClelland's Theory of Needs McClelland's Theory of Needs

The Need for Achievement: the drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, strive to succeed.

The Need for Power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

The Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Q: So, what can we “do” with such information about our employees???

Answer: Match People and Jobs (an example…)Answer: Match People and Jobs (an example…)

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Goal -Setting TheoryGoal -Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.

Specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of "do your best." – The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal

stimulus. Be sure to note the importance of goal commitment, self-

efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture on goal-setting theory.

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

A counterpoint to the goal-setting theory. In reinforcement theory, a “behavioristic”

approach, which argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.

Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being behaviorally caused.

Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation TheoryFlow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Ken Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic MotivationKen Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation

Employees are intrinsically motivated when rewards an employee gets from work result from:– Choice– the ability to freely self-select and

perform task activities.– Competence– the sense of accomplishment

from skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities.

– Meaningfulness– pursuing a task that matters in the larger scheme of things.

– Progress– the feeling of significant advancement in achieving the task’s purpose.

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities (this is the “motivation” component)

Equity theory recognizes that…– individuals are concerned not only with the absolute

amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.

Historically, equity theory focused on:

Distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. However, equity should also consider procedural justice or the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships:

Effort-performance relationship or the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

Performance-reward relationship or the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards-personal goals relationship or the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Performance DimensionsPerformance Dimensions

Summary and Implications for ManagersSummary and Implications for Managers

Need TheoriesMaslow’s hierarchy, Two factor, ERG, & McClelland’s

Goal Setting TheoryClear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.

Reinforcement TheoryGood predictor of quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

Equity TheoryStrongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviors.Weakest when predicting differences in employee productivity.

Expectancy TheoryFocus on performance variablesIt is a “rational” model so be careful when using itThis theory may be better applied to employees with greater discretion in their jobs (i.e., as opposed to semi-skilled positions)