Chapter Ten Linguistics and Language Teaching

Chapter TenChapter Ten Linguistics and Language Linguistics and Language

TeachingTeaching

Research scopeResearch scope

• Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics

• Schools of linguistics and their Schools of linguistics and their influence on SLAinfluence on SLA

• Learning strategy e.g. ( process, Learning strategy e.g. ( process, style, brain-related issues left-and style, brain-related issues left-and right-brain functioning)right-brain functioning)

• Personality (affective factors such asPersonality (affective factors such as


• Self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, Self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, motivation)motivation)

• Social cultural factors( culture in Social cultural factors( culture in classroom, language, thought and classroom, language, thought and culture)culture)

• Contrastive analysisContrastive analysis• InterlanguageInterlanguage• Error analysisError analysis


• Syllabus designSyllabus design

• Communicative competenceCommunicative competence

• Language testing (practicality, Language testing (practicality, reliability, validity, kinds of test)reliability, validity, kinds of test)

• Theories of SLATheories of SLA

• Comparing and contrasting FLA and Comparing and contrasting FLA and SLASLA

Applied linguistics Relation between linguistics and

language teaching

Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.

Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.

LINGUISTICS 523/4/20

1. Linguistics and language learning

Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories.

In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.


As Ellis (1994) points out, “whereas much of the earlier [second language acquisition] work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.


Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself.


1.1 Grammar Do we teach grammar? How do we teach grammar? As a compromise between the “purely

form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called FOCUS ON FORM seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.


Focus on Form Although language learning should

generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.

Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features—by the teacher and/or one or more students—triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production.


discrete- point grammar instruction

Conducted on the assumption that language can be broken down into its component parts and these parts are tested separately.

Four skills( listening, speaking, reading and writing) Hierarchical units (phonology,morphology,lexicon,syntax)

Integrative testing

Cloze test and dictations The ability to supply appropriate words

requires a number of abilities (knowledge of vocabulary, grammatical structure, discourse structure, reading skills and strategy)

immersion

Language immersion is a method of teaching a second language (also called L2, or the target language) in which the target language is used for instruction. Unlike a more traditional language course, where the target language is simply the subject material, language immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool, surrounding or "immersing" students in the second language. In-class activities, such as math, science, social studies, and history, and those outside of the class, such as meals or everyday tasks, are conducted in the target language.

. Today's immersion programs are based on those founded in the 1960s in Canada when middle-income English-speaking parents convinced educators to establish an experimental French immersion program enabling their children 'to appreciate the traditions and culture of French-speaking Canadians as well as English-speaking Canadians'.

naturalistic acquisition

learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.

Everyday language situation (shopping, listening to radio) constitute the initial input.

Universal Grammar

Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures.

According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low.


The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play.

The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.


The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways.

For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer.


Language transfer

(also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.

Structural complexity It can be assumed that less complex

structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define.

Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex.

Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.


grammar translation

In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.

Grammar-translation method Audiolingual method Situational language teaching


Audiolingual method

The audio-lingual method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

audio-lingual method

This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar

Situational language teaching

Introduction Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact on language courses which survive in some still being used today.

Theory of learning

The theory of learning underlying Situation Language Teaching is behaviorism, addressing more the processes, than the conditions of learning. It includes the following principles:

language learning is habit-formation mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented

orally first, then in written form analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and

cultural context

1.2 Input

Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.

This input may come in written or spoken form.

In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse .


Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners.

Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to do

a better job


1.3 Interlanguage—output

The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as INTERLANGUAGE.

It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.


Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.

Can be done in two ways: (1) investigating the psychological,

biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage;

(2) investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.


Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked:

(1) Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language?

(2) In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage?

(3) How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?


Constructivism

Language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed.

Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks.

In other words, they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts.


2. Linguistics and Language Teaching

Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching.

Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach.


2.1 Discourse-based view

Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text.

These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching.


Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates.

Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence.


Communicative competence Dell Hymes What a learners knows about how a

language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication.

Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.


It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts).


In the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the target language.

The COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) and TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT) are the best known examples of such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks.


Task-based

Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks.

A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work.

Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life.


Drawbacks Overemphasizes the role of external factors in

the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes.

Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process.

Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition.


2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)

Noam Chomsky A native speaker possesses a kind of

linguistic competence. The child is born with knowledge of some

linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he

compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.


Input is poor and deficient in two ways. (1) It is “degenerate” because it is

damaged by performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learning.

(2) It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language.


Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching.

Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory.


Drawbacks UG’s primary aim is to account for how

language works, not acquisition. UG is only concerned with the core

grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is

discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with

‘competence’, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.


3. Syllabus Design

A bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice.

Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching.

The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items.


3.1 Types of syllabus

Structural Situational Functional/notional Communicative Task-based Content-based


Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI) focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words the appropriate completion of tasks) rather than on accuracy of language forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence.

The core of the lesson is, as the name suggests, the task. All parts of the language used are deemphasized during the activity itself, in order to get students to focus on the task. Although there may be several effective frameworks for creating a task-based learning lesson, here is a rather comprehensive one suggested by Jane Willis.

Pre-task

In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected of the students in the task phase. Additionally, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or grammatical constructs, although, in "pure" task-based learning lessons, these will be presented as suggestions and the students would be encouraged to use what they are comfortable with in order to complete the task. The instructor may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task.[1]

Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition. It happens, for example, that if a person reads a list of words including the word table, and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab, the probability that they will answer table is greater than if not so primed.

Task

During the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in small groups, although this is dependent on the type of activity. And unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, then the teacher's role is typically limited to one of an observer or counselor—thus the reason for it being a more student-centered methodology.

Planning

Having completed the task, the students prepare either a written or oral report to present to the class. The instructor takes questions and otherwise simply monitors the students.

Report

The students then present this information to the rest of the class. Here the teacher may provide written or oral feedback, as appropriate, and the students observing may do the same.

Analysis

Here the focus returns to the teacher who reviews what happened in the task, in regards to language. It may include language forms that the students were using, problems that students had, and perhaps forms that need to be covered more or were not used enough.

Advantages

Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building. Although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the 'target language' of the lesson.[2] Furthermore, as the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (eg: visiting the doctor), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning.

Disadvantages

Disadvantages There have been criticisms that task-based learning is

not appropriate as the foundation of a class for beginning students. The major disadvantage for beginning students is that the focus of task-based language learning is on output, when beginning language learners often go through a silent period requiring massive amounts of comprehensible input. Others claim that students are only exposed to certain forms of language, and are being neglected of others, such as discussion or debate. Teachers may want to keep these in mind when designing a task-based learning lesson plan.

Task-based

作为一种教学法，具有结构性，它由教学目标 (goals) 、信息输入 (input) 、活动方式 (activity) 、师生角色(teacher/student role) 、教学环境 (setting) 等要素组成。任务型教学法与传统教学法之间的差异在于前者注意信息沟通，活动具有真实性而且活动量大。英语课堂教学应具有“变化性互动”的各项活动，即任务。学生在完成任务过程中进行对话性互动，进而产生语言习得。正由于任务型教学模式具有上述性质和特点，在英语课程改革不断深化的背景下，倡导选择和运用任务型教学以期更好地完成课程目标就成为一种历史的必然。

任务型教学认为，以功能为基础的教学活动中有许多活动并不是来自真实生活，因此最多只能称其为“准交际（ quasi-communication ）”活动（ D. Nunan ， 1989 ），而要培养学生在真实生活中参与和完成真实的生活任务（ real-life tasks ）（ D. Nunan ， 1989 ）。真实生活任务教学强调直接通过课堂教学让学生用英语完成各种真实的生活、学习、工作等任务（即做各种事情），从而培养学生运用英语的能力（用英语做事的能力）。显然，真实生活任务的关键在于任务要有真实生活的特征。

意义优先，任务完成为主，评估基于任务完成与否。也就是说，任务应重视学生如何沟通信息，而不强调学生使用何种形式；任务具有在现实生活中产生的可能性，而不是“假交际”；学生应把学习的重点放在如何完成任务上；对任务进行评估的标准是任务是否成功完成。因此，《英语课程标准》指出“活动要以学生的生活经验和兴趣为出发点，内容和方式要尽量真实，要有利于学生学习英语知识、发展语言技能，从而提高交际的语言应用能力”。

任务型教学的基本模式作为课堂教学的一种活动，任务型教学至少具备以下两个特点：

（ l ）以任务为中心．而不是以操练某种意义不大．甚至无意义的语言形式为目的；（ 2 ）任务的焦点是解决某一交际问题，这一交际问题必须与现实世界有着某种联系，这种联系应该是具体的，贴近学生生活、学习经历和社会文际，能引起学生的共鸣和兴趣，激发学生积极参与的欲望。在任务型语言教学中，教师要从学生“学”的角度来设计教学活动，使学生的学习活动具有明确的目标，并构成一个有梯度的连续活动。在教师所设计的各种“任务”中：学生能够不断地获得知识或得出结论，从注重语言本身转变为注重语言习得．从而获得语言运用的能力而不是仅仅掌握现成的语言知识点、随着“任务”的不断深化．整个语言学习的过程会越来越自动化和自主化。

任务型课堂教学的基本步骤任务由以下三个部分组成：　　 1 、任务的目标 (Goals) 。指通过让学生完成某一项任务而希望达到的目的。任务的目标可以是培养学生说英语的自信心，解决某项交际问题，也可以是训练某一项基本技能等。

　　 2 、构成任务内容的输入材料 (Input) 。输入材料必须具有知识性，应以现实生活中的交际为目的，是学生在一种自然、真实、或模拟真实的情景中体会语言，从而学习语言而不是局限与教材。

　　 3 、基于这些材料而设计的各项活动 (Activities) 。任务的设计由简到繁，由易到难，前后想连，层层深入，并由数个微任务 (mint-task) 构成一串“任务链”。在语言技能方面，遵循先输入后输出原则，使教学阶梯式层层推进。

3.2 a Components of syllabus Aims/goals Objectives/targets/requirements Non-language outcomes: affect

cultivation (confidence, motivation, interest, etc.)

Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.

Implementation: approaches, methods, principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.

Assessment/evaluationLINGUISTICS 6223/4/20

3.3 Current trends

Co-existence of the old and the new Emphasis on the learning process Inclusion of non-linguistic objectives Emergence of the multi-syllabus


4. Contrastive Analysis

A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not.

Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult.

Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.


4.1 Main assumptions

Language is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits.

L1 interferes with L2. Errors in L2 can be accounted for by

differences between L1 and L2. Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so

similarities can be ignored.


Therefore, Need for careful analysis of similarities

and differences between L1 and L2. Teachers should focus on areas of

negative transfer.


4.2 Drawbacks

Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of psychological considerations.

Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not occur.


5. Error Analysis

Many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference.

Errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated.


5.1 Error and mistake

Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competence

Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence


5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual

Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence.

Intralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization)


5.3 Procedure of error analysis

Recognition Description Explanation


5.4 Problems

Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned – inadequate.

Difficult to determine what an error is: There are so many people live around here.

Over-stresses production error but fails to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or structure.


6. Corpus

Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language.

The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected.

Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus.


6.1 Types

General Specialized Sample Monitor


6.2 Uses Frequency Context and co-text Grammatical Collocation and

phraseology pragmatics


Sample copora

Most existing corpora are sample corpora, which try to sample language data in a balanced way and remain static once they are created.


Monitor copora

a monitor corpus is constantly (e.g. annually, monthly or even daily) supplemented with fresh material and keeps increasing in size, though the proportion of text types included in the corpus remains constant. Corpora of this type are typically much larger than sample corpora.

The Bank of English (BoE) is widely acknowledged to be an example of a monitor corpus. It has increased in size progressively since its inception in the 1980s (Hunston 2002: 15) and is around 524 million words at present

机译系统可划分为基于规则（ Rule-Based ）和基于语料库（ Corpus-Based ）两大类。前者由词典和规则库构成知识源；后者由经过划分并具有标注的语料库构成知识源，既不需要词典也不需要规则，以统计规律为主。

目前， Google 的在线翻译已为人熟知，其背后的技术即为基于统计的机器翻译方法，基本运行原理是通过搜索大量的双语网页内容，将其作为语料库，然后由计算机自动选取最为常见的词与词的对应关系，最后给出翻译结果。

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Chapter Ten Linguistics and Language Teaching

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